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Personal pronouns and pronominal suffixes in old Javanese
Lingua :~1 (1968) 466-482, © North-Holland Pugtishing Co., Amst~rdam Not to be reproduced by photoprint or microfilm without ~-rttte~ pertr, issiot) from the publitlher
PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES IN OLD JAVANESE E. M. U H I . E N B E C K
1. The description of the system of Old Javanese personal pro. nouns, and related ~uffixes presented here, is based mainly on an analysis of the Adiparwa and Wirat.aparwa, two Old Javanese versior~s in prose of parts of the Sanskrit Mah~bh~r, tta epicA) It: is commonly assumed that both texts date It ~m the e,ld of the 10th century. They ~orm a fairly homogeneous whole anti may be considered ,:o offer an acceptable starting point for the lirgaistic study of the javanese language of that period. The many conversatiops found in them lead to an abundant use of persona] pronouns, which makes them l)a, ticO~,rly suitable for our purpose. The Ackiparwa was edited og Juynboll in 1906, but the quality of t h s edition is such that it is constantly necessary to return t~ the man ascripts. As to the Wirataparwa, a much more reliable editior of the first part was provided by Fokker in 1938. For the second part, t he Wirat.aparwa edition of Juynboll of 1912 had to be used. Old Javanese grammar is still a largely unexpmred fielcl. H. Kern provided the first grammatical description based on the few editions existing around 1900.2) Some aspects of Ohl Javanese igrammar were treated by Gonda,S) while Zoetmulder provided a grammatical 1) I gratefully acknowledge the help of my Ja,,auese assistant Mr. J. Soegiarto in preparing this article. In particular his expert k lowledge of Javanese script h,~5 been extremely useful. I am indebted to Mr. f. O. Robson for correcting my English. 2) H. Kern, 1918-1920. Spraakkunst van het Oud Javaan,,, Ferspreide Geschri/te,, vol. 8 and 9, see for his discussion of pronoum vol. 8, p. 138--183. ~) J. G o n d a 1949. Opmerkingen over Gad Javaanse zinsleer, Bijdrag~n tot de TAM-, Land- en Volkenkunde 105, p. 25-57; 1959. On Old Jav~mese sentence structure, Orie ~s Extremus 6; 1958. Some notes on the rel~tion bet~veen syntactic and met:ical units in a Javanese tddung, Bijdrage~ tot de Taai-, Le~nden Volkenkund,; 114, p. 98-116.
4.66
P R O N O U N S AND S U F i ; I X E S IN OLD J A V A N E S E
467
analysis of the Adiparwa in 1950.41 A short grammar of Old Javanose again based on parwa-texts was published in 1954 by Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatna. a) For further information on Old Javanose linguistics I refer to my survey of studies on the languages of Java and Madura of 1964. 6) The Javanese forms cited in this article are given in the spelling customary in Old Javanese linguistics, with a few exceptions. As the ~, s. and s do not reflect a phonemic difference, only s is used for indicating the dental spirant. For the same rea,;c~n vowel length is not indicated, nor aspirated stops. 2. Apart from some nouns used as pronominal substitutes which will not be discussed in this paper, there are in Old Javanese eight personal proncuns ~,,~! .~evcn pronominal suffixes. They form a three pc rson ~ystem and may be arranged in the Iollowing way: T~,BLE 1
Personal pronouns aku
It
kaml
-ku/-flku/-u
kamu
-.IllU/-U --nyu/-yu
ko I[
:II:
Pronominal s~,ffixes -mami
kanyu kita
-ta/-nta/-~,
ya
-nya/-y~.
sira
-nira/-ira
The main oppositions which govern the system are: (1) the opposition between words (p,ersonal pro~ J,ms) and suffixes (possessive pronominal suffixes) ; (211 the opposition bet~,een first, second and third person; and 4) p. j . Zoetmulder, 1950. De tam van het Adiparwa, Ee• grammati,:ale studio v a n het Oud -Javaans, Verhandehvgen Kon. Bataviaasct~ Genootschap yaP,. Kun~ten en Wrtenschappen 79.
:) P. J. Zoe'tmalder and I. R. Poed~awijatna, 1954 Bahasa Parwa, D lakarta, 2nd impression 1961. 8) E. M. Uhlenbeck, 1964. A critical survey of studies on the languages of Java, a n d Madura, Bibliographical Series 7 of the Koninkiijk /nstituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde see especially the chapter on ()la Javm~ese and Javanese literature, sections I and 7.
468
E. M, U H L E F B E C K
(3) the opposition as to the status of the person addressed to or referred to in relation to the speaker. As this formulation already implies, this third opposition is only Fresent within the pronouns and pronominal suffixes of the second and third person. Within the form of the first and second persons there are other oppositions of a more limited scope. They are (I) the opposition between aku and kami, (2) the opposition between kamu and kanyu on the one hand and ko and kita on the other, and (3) the opposition between -ku/-i~ku/-u and -mami. Before discussing these six dimensions of the system, first the rules which govern the occurrence of the alternants o:f the pronominal suffixes will be given. 3.
For the description (,f the alternant rules the suffixes can best
be rcarranged in the following way" 1
-ku -ta
2 3 4
5 6 I i
TABLE 2 -nku -nta
-u -a
- I 1 1 Li
- tl
-nyu -nya -nira
-yu -ya -ira
The occurrence of the second series of alternants is determint'd by the fact that Old Javanese (like Modern Javanese) does not allow a sequence of two identical consonants. Thus the suffix al,:ernant -u of the first row is folind only if the word to which the suffix is attached has final k, tile suffix alternant -a of the second row only if attached to a word w:~th final t, the suffix alternant -u of the third row only if attached to a word with final m, etc. Some examples: (l) Anak-u 7) maharaja Yayati (#.dip. 80: 28), my' child, king Yayati A nak-u koh puyuh (Adip. 214: 1), my children, you puyuh-birds.
(2) Atyanta sampaynikan Yayati ri ~inik~t-a s) nuni tan pastriya si 7) Both the spelling anakhu and the syelling anaku are found in the texts. s) Examples of the a l t e r n a n t -a are very xare. This p r o b a b l y explains w h y t h e y are n o t m e n t i o n e d in the existing linguistic descriptions. A second example is found in Uttarakan~la, an Old J a v a n e s e version in prose of a p a r t of the R a m a y a n a epic, Cod. Or. L B 4027, 87: 15-17. B o t h the spelling pindhdtta and pindhdta are found in the Adiparwa-manuscxip~s.
?RONOUNS
AND
SUFFIXES
IN O L D J A X ' A N E S E
4,59
Sarmis.ta (Adip. 82: 18), extreme has been the disreg;:rd of Yayati for your warning not to take S. as his wife. (4? I~ahyun-y,._......._.__~malakya manusya (Adip. 143: I0), .eour desire is *o m a l t y a human ~o~Llt~, "-( 5 Hana ta si Gurnika i~aran-ya (Adip. 79:2), there was (a girl) Gurnika was her name. (6, KunJi~ sai~ dewata kaheh tin ikunih naga hahanan-ira (Adip. 32:10-11), and the gods, their position was at the tail of the serpent. No examples can be given for the :bird row. This is not surprising, in view of the very small number of words ending in -m. In addition to the general rule which determines the occurrence of the alternants ot column II throe is a subsidiary, much more re~ , , , . ~ u rule wmcn governs only the occurrence of the alternants of the two first rows within column I. The alternants of c(~Iumn Ia TABLE 3 -ku
- - p . . . . . . hid.-ip-ku !~__
-ta
Adip. 263'11 . . . . . . . . . my opinion ,
m
i ~
i
[.
---n---- - - ~ a n - k u :~-~. . . .
..... Ad~p] 2 6 i i 6 . . . . . . . my name ~ ~£~---:=:-- .......
Ii
ininum-ta
.
.
.
.
.
.
L~ 2 ~ .
I !
] - - 7 - - - --h~--ia-r-~:a ...... Adip~-44-27 m y wings wuwus-ku
R a m . VI 12d my werds
kadan-ta
Z
"2
L
..
_
L.
"
y°e_ .wr_e_th Adip. 5 6 : 8 v o u r relatives
[
nheLta
V¢ir. -15-i-i y o u r tiredness
[ I
ujar-ta
Adip. 4 4 : 1 7 your words
I
\awas-ta
Adip, 7 6 : 2 8 y o u r duration, (the duration t h a t y o u .,.)
' , ulih-ku
Adip. 5 1 ' 8 is d r u n k by you
kai~vun-ta-~x-dip.-30-33 ~,.mr desire gaiak'ta " A-ctip[ 1 4 : 2 1 ............
[ n [ lifl-ku Adip. 3 8 : 2 2 ] mv words I--i---- .....................................
s
hurip-ta Adip. 22i 21 . . . . . . . . . . y o u r life
Adip. 15: 30 asih-ta m y obtai_ni .ng_!it)_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adip. 17" 12 y o u r lov e . . . . . . . .
I
470
E. M. U H L E N B E C K
occur only when the suffix is attached to a word ending in a consonant, the alternants of column i~b only when the suffix is attached to a word ending in a vo;vel. Su,: h a rule does not exist for the other four rows.
A full set of words which woul.t illustrate the alternants of column ia woula contain 20 items; as there are 11 final consonants: p m t n k n l r s h and y. They are given in table 3. It is very unlikely that the existing lacunae imply tlm existence of sec,mdary, as yet unknown rules. I expect t h a t by enlarging the material the who!, table will be filled in. Examples of Ib: TABLE 4
-nt, a [
lJlit~ a - n K u
[ I ibu-riku ari--~ku de-nku
~talp.
lt~'] : gO
m y friend Adip. 116:30 m y mother Adip. 178 : 18 m y younger l:rother Adip. 75 : 15 m y deed, actioi~
bapa-nta taku-uta ari-nta de-nta
Adip. 93: 14 your father Adip. 170: 25 your course Adip, 99:22 your younger brother Adip. 78 : 2 y o u r deed, ac,:ion
A set of words which fully illustrate the alternants -mu, -~yu, -nya and -nira would contain 16 × 4 = 64 items, as in addition to the eleven final consonants six vowels m a y occur in final position. At the moment such a complete set is not yet availabie. W h a t I have been able to collect is presented in table 5. It is again v cry unlikely t h a t the existing lacunae are caused b y secondary, as yet unknown rules. However, there is one special case, namely when the suffix of the first row is added to a word with final -n. In such cases final -n is replaced by ¢~: ~aran, name - i, ara~ku (Adip. 210: 10), m y name; w~gil~n, take refuge with - w~gil~ku (Adip. 101 : 25), m y possible refuge; flatapan, hermitage - patapa~,ku (Adip. 101: 12), m y hermitage. This rule is not always reflected in the spelling. Next to ~ara~ku (Adip. 27:1 and 210: 10) one finds for instance ~aranku (Adip. 26: 16), mid there ar~ ether cases in which -n is retained in the spelling. It seems likely t h a t the actual pronunciation was with the velar nasal.9) 9) There is a general preference f~r consonant clusters of stop p r e c e d e d b y homorganic nasal. I n modern Javar, e s e - a k u a n d - a m u a r e a l t e r n a n t s of - k u a n d -mu before consonants.
PRONOUNS
AND
SUFFIXES TABLE
-nyu
kahari!.p-mu Adip. 84: 20 y o u r desire
P
: : ~ 2 2 7 Z _'2- 7- 2 Z ~ :
=~
JAVANESE
~--~2 ?
takut-nyu V~ir. 57:35 y o u r fear
471
5
-nya
t6kap-nyu Adip. 52: 14 by you
.....
IN OLD
-nira
hi d 6 p - n y a Adip. 15" 8 his opinion
kahar~p-nira Adip. 8" 15 w h a t is desired by him
rum-nya R a m . X V I 30d their fragrance
ininum-nira Adip. 13"8 = wtaat is d l u n k
t
takut-mu Ram. V32d y o u r fear
n
. .u. . . . . . . . . . . :7:>:5==:. .... I ........... l d. o. n.- m
yo u r a i m
t buntut:n~:a--i Adip, 3 5 : 1 7 [ its tail
paw\vat:nira , Adip. 9 : 2 0 i I w h a t was h a n d e d
~ i : - ~ - ~ ======================= :::-:--7:.~i!7_.~:~7:7--
:~_=~-:~!/_7__~_-=:= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..:_-~-:: . . . . . . . . . .---::==~f:!_---2 ... ~ :_. _~/_~:~i~-:C~:::-::.: :::-:
w~nafl-nyu Adip. 2 8 : 2 y o u r selfw;lled-
awak-nya Adip. 7 8 its b o d y
anak-nira Adip. 7" 2 her child
indufl-nva Adip. 9 : 3 0 its mot:her
lifi-r ira Adip. 9:17 his words
~
- ! =<-7
hess
1
w,d n-n va Adip. 114:23 his being born from
r
u;ar-mu R a m . V 33a your words
"s-: h
iaras-nyu- . . . . Wir. 59 : 9 y o u r bow
manah-mu R a m . V 32b your heart
y
a'
upaya-nyu Adip. 47" 15 y o u r ruse
s~fik-~r-i~y a Adip. 15' 16 1 its spoke , ui~slnya Adip. 35' 17 its color
flhel-ni ra Adip. 37:24 its tiredness, ujar-tara Adip. 25: 2(1 his w o r d s lawas-nira Adip. 4" 14 his t e r m
kweh-nya Adip. 3 19 t h e i r nt, m b e r
alah-nira Adip. 5 3 7 his d e f e a t
wafikav-nva Adip. 34 : l 7 their dead bodies
panamuy-mra Adip. 159 : 25 his welcome, reception
padarta-nya Adip. 5"26 its c o n t e n t s
ahara-nira , Adip. 1 0 i his food
"
472
E.M. UHLENBECK TABL~ S (co~ainued) -mu
-nyu
t~nm-nyu Adip. 19:31 what will be your exper~ience rabi-nyu A~tip. ~2:14 your wife
U
bltdi-nlu Ram. V 35b your intention .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Ram. II 73e by your action by you
.
.
.
.
.
.
-nya
-nira
hetu-nya Adip. 10: 5 the cause of it
pupu-nira Adip. 4: 20 his thigh
bakti-nya Adip. 17:10 its obeisance, homage
pal i-nir~ Adip. 5: 32 h~s dea,th
.
Adip. 29:1 Adip. 47:6 3,our disregard, his task _ .contemPt ..............................................
we~nlra Adip. 51 : 8 his water
amb6-nya Adip. 55:27 its ;smell
No single case was di3covered in which the converse occurred. Nowhere was final velar nasal -n replaced by n after -ta had been added. The rules presented here account fo:: many hundreds of cases throughout the parwa-texts. In the Adiparwa only 37 exce ~tions were found, namely 23 single occurrences of the following :;tems: t~kapira (Adip. 39:14), inalapira (Adip. 197:2), analffra (Adip. 53:29), wa~sanakira (Adip. 64: 16), sanakira (Adip. 92:6), sihira (Adip. 77: 3), kasihira {Adip. 42: 6), patihira (Adip. 53: 19), manahira (Adip. 121 : 20), wayahifa (Adip. 162: 5), u]arim (Adip. 4.5:30), lwirira (Adip. 78:21), linu~surira (Adirp. 117:11), ira~ira (Adip. 69:32), sinyacdra (Adip. 61 : 26), g~l~,Mra (Adip0 135: 24), walaka,~ira (Adip. 150: 6), saSat~#,ira (Adip. 152: 17), pt;.~aira (Adip. 80: 27), lawasira (Adip. 85: 20), la,rasira (Adip. 101 : 26), huwusira (Adip. 103:7), sawuwusira (Adip. 28:24), fo~, ~ occurrences of s~(l~,¢dra (Adip. 49: 1, 121 : 10, 182: 28, 211 : 14-15), three occurrences of li~ira (Adip. 8:3, 83:14, 181:20), three occurrences of t~lasira (Adip. 68:22, 134: 18, 152: 18-19) and two occurr,mces of hi.d~pira (Adip. 53: 15, 121 : 13) and w~t~idra (Adip. 77: 6, l 13: 2). These are the
PRONOUNS
AND
SUFFIXES
IN OLD JAVANESE
473
exceptions found in the JuynboU-edition of the Adiparwa. Howew~r, if one turns to the eight Adiparwa man~scripts available one notices that some of the m~nuscripts have the regular forms. For instance: of the eight Adiparwa manuscripts four have the regular im~nira, while one has the regular inalapnira. Moreover, m other places the regular forms occurred many times. For instance the regular forms li~nira and lawasnira were found throughout the text. The few irregular formations can best be explained as scribal inaccuracies induced by the suffixation-mechanism of Modern Javanese. 4. The rules of suffixation as found in Old Javanese are no longer operative in present-day Javanese, although .~o.m..eelements of the present system are identical with some of the Old Javanese pronominal suffixes. Although not occurring in modern standard Javanese, -niraf-ira are still in regular use in historical writings such as the Babad Giyanti, which probably dates from the early 19th century, bat the rule for the occurrence of these t~o alternants has been changed: -nira is now found only after vc,wels, while -ira occurs not only after final -n, but after all final consonants. Although it seems very speculative to connect the pronominal system of Old Javanese as found in Old Javanese text.,~ of the tenth century, a language spoken in the eastern part of J a v a with the pronominal system of Javanese texts of around !800, ~, language spoken in central Java, a certain link might be sug~;ested. The rulc~ given in the, preceding paragraph have be, n firmlv es:ablished on the basis of an extensive amount of Old Javanese prose. However, if one looks ~nto the Old Javanese kakawin literature, 1hat is literary works composed according to metrical schemes imForted from India, one notices an interesting deviation~ In the Bharata-yuddha kakawin which dates from the middle of the 1 !th century, as well as for instance in the Nagarak.rtagama frc,m the middle of the 14th century, the v - ~ frequent alternants -nira and -ira are used to comply to certain metrical requirements, Every line of one and the same canto of a kakawin is thought to display a certain succession of long and short syllables characteristic for ~:he metre used. As the convention exists that syllables containing a. sequence of vowel + two consonants are considered to be long, the alternants -nira and -ira 10) are to) O t h e r pairs of a l t e r n a n t s are used in t h e s a m e w a y .
474
E.M. UHLENBECK
used to make a syllable long or short, whenever this is required by the metrical scheme. Some lines taken from th ~ Nagarak.rtagama kakawin will illustrate how the poet handles his .-,~ra/-ira alternants: In canto 5, second stanza, line 4 one finds" an saksat a nuja t~kapnirai, narendra, because the metrical scheme reqaires chat the a of t~kap be l,:mg. In canto 33, first stanza, line 1-2 however one finds" sin~g~h-s~gi~]~an !!~kapira saCt maharsi, because here the metrical scheme requires that the a-vowel of t~kap is short. Canto 35, fourth stanza, line 1 has: i huwusnira mpu pas~g~h, because the second u of huwus has to be long, but canto 33, third stanza, lir.e 1 has" ri huwusira, because the u had to be short. This free use of alternants which are subject to strict rules elsewhere in t he language, is a phenomenon in common use in kakawins. It i:; not ~ phenomenon restricted to -nira and -ira. The same m a y be Ol.. ..... -t.~ ~,,~.veu~1 for ,L,,c use of the alternants -nii~ and -ia, for nika and -ik~. The relevance of this metrical technique for the change in the ma:mer of suffixation is clear. By this technique exactly those suffixed ~orm:; are introduced which in later Javanese have become the regular ones. In modern Javanese where sequence of nonhom3rgaaic consonant-clusters is avoided la~ the occurrence of pair.,, of alternants within the pronominal system as w~:ll as outside it, i:; in general governed by the rule that the alternant which begins with a consonant is found before final vowel (as for instance kala-ne, ,i:ala-nipun), the alternant with initial vowel before final consonan:t (as foI instance omah-e, p~raa-ipun). The method of suffixation used in Old Javanese prose is only retained in Modem Javanese in some old sayings (such as: b~ai bubulmic, budi, awan bub.~knict badan, the night is the time for thinking, the day is the time fer action) and in some isolated words, notably the words for father bapaqnd, for older b:~other kakacmd and for he .dewOqn~, beside which also occur the mode:m forms bapaq~, kakaccd and .d~w~qd. 5. The main contours of the part of the deictic system presented in table 1, are fairly clear. The distinction between the personal prozx) See E. M. Uhlenbeck, 1949. De Structuur van het Javaanse Morpheem,
VeThandeli~¢gerKon. Batav~aasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetens~kappen, 78, Chapter 7.
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
IN OLD
JAVANESE
475
nouns and the personal pronominal suffixes it; a structural difference (word versus mt~pheme) which is clearcut, except in the case of -mami. We will (tiscuss the position of mami :n the next paragraph. The. pro,,uminM suffixes traditionally, but incorrectly called possessive suffixes, merely indicate that a relation is established between the referent of the word to which the .,uffix is attached and either the addresser(s), or the addressee(s) or the person(s) spoken about. From a linguistic point of view this relation is best left unspecified. The qualific,.t~on: possessive, is certainly toc narrow. The division of the pronominal system as to person is equally well estal,lished. The distinctions within the pronorr inal elements of the second and tnird person are largely parallel, except for th~ presence of kamu and kanyu. The distinction between singular and nonsingular within the pronouns of the first pe-son is not h.und elsewhere in the system. These facts point to t~e conclusior, that the structure of the system is quite different from the prono~ainal system of present-day Javanese in which the pronouns of the first and second person together are clearly opposed ~:o the p/onouns of the third person. As was already noted in the second paragraph, the di:;tinction as to social status is absent within the pronominal elemew:s of the first person. If the speaker wants to place himself on a low social level in relation to the addressee, he has at his disposal various pronominal substitutes such as sanhulun (literally: the servant/ and pinakahulun (literally: the one who serves as a servant), and ,'orresponding with l~hese also various pronominal substitutes to~ the second person, ~dl indicative of high social status of the add;essee such as rahadyan sac&ulun (my lord). The analysis of linguistic facts which belong to a distant past, is beset with many difficulties. There is always uncertainty as to the homogeneity of the corpus, there is the accidental cha,:.'a:ter of the materials available for analysis and there are interprct lttive difficulties caused by our imperfect factual knowledge of th~ language. In particular in the study of closed systems it is hard to distinguish between archaic elements, dialectal phenomena and ir general between peripheral and central dements of the system. In short there is a la.ck of historical perspective. In view of all this, it is impos;sible for me to do more than to record my impression tha': the picture given in table 1 may present a fu,,~ion between element-, ot two
476
E.M. UHLENBECK
different systems: kamu, kanyu -mu/-u and -nyu!-),~ perhaFs together with kami and mami m a y belong to a diffele[ c system that. the others, b u t I m a y be completely mistaken in thi.,.. 6. There is a clear difference in meaning between aku, I and kami I, we. Aku always indicates the single speaker of the sentence in which aku occurs; kami m a y do so too, but it m a y also refer to more than one addresser. It is never used to include the person or persons addressed. There seems to ~e also a ~ertaii~ preference for the use of aku as subject of the sentence, v hile ~ami is used a~,; subject as well as i:a other functions. SGme examples:
Sugyan tan wruha rzila ri kami, aku si Kindama brat~mana ¢,hulu~ ,u,~oeun agawe , apa makanara sarwaiata (aa:p. i i 6: i 9-20), in case .It . . . . .
~_7-
-
Y
•
•
5.
you do not know me, I ara Kindama, I am a brahman who continuously practices asceticism having as food all kinds of creeping plants. Aku dinalihta swe~.inyu (AdJp. 69:25), you t~.ke .. " to be your husband. Aku p~aha, marapwan kila huripa (Adip. 75" 18), i'~ will die in order that you m a y live! He swami, tasy-asih ta kila ri kam* (Adip. 94:21), nty husband, be so kind to me as to ... Ya tika alap~n pan~busante ibunta ri kami (Adip. 38" 17-18), take this (so t h a t it m a y serve) for us as your ransom for your mother. There is no observable difference in meaning between .ku/-,hku/-u and -mami. Both mean" mine, our. Neeertheless mami poses a problem, because it is also used as a substitute for kami. In the pammtexts this is still rare, but in more recent texts such as the P a r a r a t o n (1 ~th-15th century) mami is already regularly used as a personal pronoun of the first oerson singular and plural. On the basis ~f this e~'iderv:e one .,;hould distinguish between a suffix -mami and a word mami with the same meaning as kami. Some examples of the normal use of -mami as a suffix: Si Basuman naran-mami (Adip. 87:26), Basuman is m y name; inalap-mami teka~ l~mbu (Adip. 91:20), the cow was stolen b y us; yah tuhu kita sisya-mami (Adip. 130" 11), if you are really m y pupil... Some examples of mami as a personal pronoun: Tan hana karunanta tumon mami s~l~¢, masa~gama (Adip. 116, 17-
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
IN OLD JAV2~NESE
477
18), you showed no compassion, (at the moment when) you s;.~w me having intercourse. T ~ ! n pwa tof,gwanta, matai, yan mantwanii~hulun k/ta, yan panak mami dlaha (Adip. 99: 22-23), on the right side will be your place, therefore you will become my daughter-in-law, whet. in the future I have., a child. 7. The pronominal elements o! the se,:ond person ko and kita are clearly distinguished in the parwa-texts. Ko is only used when the addresser's social position is hig.*~er than the addressee's, or when the addresser wants to express his low opinion of ,)r his anger towards the addressee or addressees. Kita is the I Leutral term of address. Like ko it is used in the singular as weU as i a the plural. Ot~Ilie e X a l l l p l e ~ ;
(1) ~a~an~nku ko-i~ manusa kanist.a (Adip. i43:9), I shall devour you, you despicable human being! (2) King Yud.ist.ira to the female raksasa H i d i m b i aiap ta arinku sa~ Bima, tagawe ko subamai~gala, saparikr,~manin wiwaha (Adip. 145"5--6), take m y younger brother Bim~, (you) make a subamaC~gala, all that is needed for a wedding. (3) The god Agni to the puyuh-birds: anaku k..oo-it,]'z) puyuh (Adip. 214: 1 !), m y children, you quail. (4) An an:~'y brahman ~ursing a king: iwah tasmat ~r~adadya raksasa ta ko t~me.hanyu, apa~'¢makolahta ulal,mi i~raksasa maizan:~ manusa ta ko (Adip. 163:3-4 I, therefore you will becorr e a raksasa, because you have show.] the behavior of a human being-devouring raksasa. (5) B.rgu to the god Agni" Ad.a, adarma raksaka s; ko, hyan Agni (Adip. 19: 30), for shame! you are an und,~tiful guardian, Agni. The difference in meaning between ko a r d kita is repeated in the suffixes of the second person. Ko and -mu or -nyu are often found in the same sentence, referring to the sarac person. The same goes for kita and the -ta/-nta/-a suffix. An example of ko and -nyu occurring in the same ~entence is already given above (3). Another example is furnished by the sentence in which Kadru curses her chfld~ren: ts) I n t h i s s e n t e n c e as well as in s e n t e n c e (1) ko is c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e enclitic a r t i c l e -~.
478
E. M. U t t L E N B E C K
tasmad duhka pangihenyu, pai~an~nii, apuy ta _k° kaZani ya: a,a pa gawe ma,~ara]a Janame]aya (Adip. 36: 1-3), therefore you ~i!l suffer distress, you will be ~.onsumed by fire, when king Janamejay~ makes his serpent=sacrifice. Kita and =ta/-nta/-a are far more frequently used than ko and -mu or -nyu, as is characteristic for unmarked members of an opposition, x3) No difference in meaning was :found to exist between -mu and =nyu. In Old Javanese lingui,;tics it is commonly assumed that kita m a y also be used for the first person inclusive of the adresser in the way it is used in other Indonesian language.s in contrast with kami. In his Old Javanese grammar Kern gives only one sentence in which kita is said to h~ve this meaning, x4) This is the sentence sa/,anahananta matya ki~a denya si Dasarati, everyone of you, you will all be killed by that son of Dasarata. This sentence occurs in the R a m a y a na-kakawin (eally 10th century) canto 5, strophe 7. It is spoken by Surpanaka to her brother Rawana. In my opinion there is no reason to assume that ~n this sentence kita has not its normal meaning of you. In other more recen~c publications the statement that kita m a y be used as a pronoun of the first person inclusi-e is repeated, however wkhout supporting evidence. In Kats' introduction to Old Javanese grammar 15) not even one example is given of this alleged usage of kita. Inggris in his short grammai only presents one ~~ample clearly made up by himself in order to illustrate this fictitious usage. The seatence kita tumon ikai$ bandusa given by him 16) is obviously made on the basis of the sentence sira tumon ikaiz bandusa, he saw the coffin (Adip. 111: 14). In his Old Javanese grammar based on the Adiparwa text, Zoetmulder gives one sentence in which kita might be considered to indicate both the addresser and the addressee. 17) However, this kita is the result of a wrong reading of the Javanese text. Instead of kunaiz ika¢, anibak~n i~h sumur i kita Sa~mis.ta naranya (Adit~. 78: 29), but the one who has thrown me xu) See J. H. Greenberg, 1966. Language Universals, Current Trends in Linguistics 3, p. 61-112. x4) Kern o.c.p. 142. xs) j. Kats, 1929. KusumawicJtra II, Inleiding tot de studie van her OudJavaansch, Weltevreden (]:)jakarta), p. 18. xe) A. Inggris, 1944. Djawa-koena, Djakaxta, p. 18. x?) Zoctmulder, o.c.p. 18.
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
IN OLD J A V A N E S E
479
imo the well, is named Sarmista, one should read" K u n a n ika¢, anibak&, i~ sumur iki ta ... That this word division is the correct one wa~ realized by Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatna a few years later, as the same sentence with the word division given above is found in their intr'~duction to Old Javanese grammar.IS) There remain, however, some occurrences of kita in the Wirat.aparwa on which an interpretation as you and I could be based. Such an interpretation was apparently acc~.pted by Fokker (1938), as his translation given without any f u r t h e comment, proves. The Wirat aparwa passages are discussed by Zo,'tmulder and Poedj awijatna in their grammar mentioned above, 19) but they reach a different conclusion than Fokker. They argue --convincingly in my opinion that even in these cases kita only means you. The sentences of the Wirataparwa-text are the following: (1) King Yu.distira addresses his four Lrothers and Dropadi: Kuna¢, kahyuni~hulun Wira.tapura juga paranant__a~, maharaja Matsyapati pa~asrayana. W~na~ sira rumakse kita ... sapala sinewaka ri¢¢ wwan kadi kita (Wir. ed. F. 4:20-24), and it is my wish that you go to Wirat.apura ... King Matsyapati will be your protector. He is able to give you shelter ... !t is fitting that he be served by people like you. One might agree with Fokker that since Yud.ist.ira will join his brother and Dropadi, kita as well as-n[a could be translated by we, that is: you and I included. (2) King Wirat.a to his brahmans upon ,seeing Yud.ist.ira disguised as a brahman: Brahmana aparan ra~iki ha(~ar d.at~n nke &santa (Wir. ed. F. 12: 12-13), who is the brahman who has just come in your country. As desanta refers to the country over which king Wirat.a himself reigns, one might indeed prefer to translate this word by" our country. (3) Yu.dist.ira addresses his brother Bima" Luputak&z sira sa,t~ke~ pasagraha~a, ¢d:.° kita-r wal~sa asihnira ri kita (Wir. ed. J. 49: 23-
ts) Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatr a, o.c.p. 53. xg) Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatv.a, o.c.p. 35-36.
480
E. ~,I. UHLENBECK 24), free him from his bonds, now you should repay his affection for you.
Although it is true that king Wirat.a had affection not only for Bima but also :for Yud.ist.ira and the other brothers, there seems no need to translate kita by us. (4) King Wirat.a gives a command to a messenger: Gosanak~na-nta ike ka~ayanta rii~ samara (Wir. ed. J. 51:34), proclaim your victory on the battlefield! Here -nta could very well be translated by ou~. The victory is the king's victory in the first place, not the messenger's. Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatna however, point out that in all th~ four sentences cited above the addres~r has alvcays a higher social status than those addressed. It is true that in all four cases the addresser-king discusses a topic or mentions something which also pertains to himself (Yu .dist.ira will go to. Wirata as well, king Wirat.a will protect him as well, the country is also king Wirat.a's country etc.), but being on a higher social level than the addressee he wants to push this into the background. He does this by using the normal pronoun of the second person. I agree with this view. It seems therefore that at least at this moment there is no compelling evidence to reject the conclusion that in Old Javanese of the 10th century kita only indicates the addressee or the address-.es. No more than between -mu and -nyu, could a clear difference in meaning between kamu and kanyu be discovered. There is a marked difference, however, in frequency. K a n y u doe,,~ not occur in the Adiparwa-text, in the Wirat.aparwa only twice, ~0) but kamu is found regularly in the parwa-texts. It is not very likely that there would be no difference between kamu and kita at all, but for the present all that can be said is t h a t kamu is preferably used in invocations or as a term of solemn address. It is then followed by a noun or a nominal group. The enclitic article n which precedes the noun is attached to kamu. Some examples: (1) The gods to Ruru" A i kamu sai, Ruru (Adip. 22: 12), O, you, Rurul
¢o) Kanyu is found in other texts too, such as Bratayuda, Arjunawiwaha and Tantu Pang~laran, but the material collected thus far is not sufficient for dete~nining its meaning.
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
481
IN OLD J A V A N E S E
t:2) Bagawan B.rgu to the god Agni" j w a h tasmat karma t~munyu, kamuiz hyan Apuy sarwabaksa ta kamu (Adip. 19: 31), therefore you will experience your karma, you, Firegod, you will become one who consumes everything (with fire). (3) Gaflga to the Ast.abasu's: Kamu hyai~ Ast.abasu, kadi prihati gatinta (Adip. 91: 16), You divine Ast.abasu! you look sorrowful. (4) Rm'u to the gods: Ai kamu~, hya~ sakwehta dewata (Adip. 22"3), O you, gods, all of you! 115) The gods to Garud.a: Kamu~ hyai~ Garud. a, kita .rsi, kita mahamuni (Adip. 37:3), You divine Garuda~ you ascetic, you holy man! As can be seen from the preceding sentei~ces k, mu (as well as kanyu) is used in the singular and in the plural. 7. The difference between ya and sira is largely parallel to the difference between ko and kita. Ya corresponds to -nya/-ya exactly as sira to -nira/-ira. Ya and -nya/-ya are always used to refer to somebody who is of lower socied status than the one who is referred 1:o by means of sira and -nira/-ira. Again ya and -ya/-nya are the marked members of the opposition, sira and -nira/-im the unmarked memb~ers. The difference between ya and sira may be illustrated by many cases, such as for instance: (1) hana ta sira rsi, bagawan Kindama ¢,amnira, k~na raga sira dadi kidai~ lanan, tumutc;k~n ika¢~ hari~;i kanya swetawarna sina~zgama ta y_a (Adip. 116: t0-12), there was he, a hermit, the holy Kindama was his name, he fell in love, having become a roebuck, he followed the young white coloured fawn (and) b.ad intercourse with her. (2) In the story of Dewabrata's fight with the king of Andyakapura after the kidnapping of the three girls Amba, An~bika and Ambalika: !nala,pnira ika~ kanya tigan siki, in~nahnirei~ ratha ika~ kanya. Lu~itha ta s~ra sake~t sabamandala. Mas6 tan ratu kabeh kapwa sumambut sai~ah~nya. Hana ta san ratu ri¢~Andyakapura, .sa¢~,Mandarapati ¢~arany_~a. Ika ta #inakadinya tumututi san Dewabrata. Pa.da wanini-_ re~ palagan. (Adip. 98:9o), He ( = Dewabrata) seized the three girls, (and) put them in his chariot. He left the royal gathering. All the kings advanced and took up their arms. The king of Andyakapura, Mandarapati was his name, he was the one who was first in ,.
,~2
E.M. UHLENBECK
the pursuit of the kingly Dewabrata. Equal was their courage on the battlefield. The hero of the story is Dewabrata. He is always referred to by sira and -nira/-ira, while the minor kings, who play only a very secondary role in the story, are referred to with -nya]-ya. In the case of the king of Andyakapura there is some uncertainty. Because of his being a king the use of sira and -nira[-ira would seem obligatory, but as he is .~nferior to Dewabrata ya and -nya[-ya would also be acceptable. The manuscripts are divided on this point. Some Adiparwa manuscripts have san Mandarapati ~arany.._a, others sai~ Mandarapati naranira. In the sentence pad.a waninirei~ palagan, -nira has to be used because it refers both to Dewabrata and Manda-. rapatl. 8. As in many other languages the pronouns in Old Javanese form a closed subsystem of their own. The personal pronouns and pronominal suffixes form only a part of this system. This means that in the description given above the relations of the personal pronouns and pronominal elements with the other prono,'~dnal elements in the system are left undiscussed. A second obvious shortcoming is the absence of a systematic account of the distributional data. We hope to devote another article to this topic in the near future, as here a number of interesting phenomena present themselves which have not found adequate treatment so far. I ant referring to the enclitic -n and especially to the enclitic -n which can be attached to a preceding personal pronoun as well as to a preceding pronominal element.
University o/Leyden Author's address: Dr. Kuyperlaan xI, Voorhout, The Netherlands
PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES IN OLD JAVANESE E. M. U H I . E N B E C K
1. The description of the system of Old Javanese personal pro. nouns, and related ~uffixes presented here, is based mainly on an analysis of the Adiparwa and Wirat.aparwa, two Old Javanese versior~s in prose of parts of the Sanskrit Mah~bh~r, tta epicA) It: is commonly assumed that both texts date It ~m the e,ld of the 10th century. They ~orm a fairly homogeneous whole anti may be considered ,:o offer an acceptable starting point for the lirgaistic study of the javanese language of that period. The many conversatiops found in them lead to an abundant use of persona] pronouns, which makes them l)a, ticO~,rly suitable for our purpose. The Ackiparwa was edited og Juynboll in 1906, but the quality of t h s edition is such that it is constantly necessary to return t~ the man ascripts. As to the Wirataparwa, a much more reliable editior of the first part was provided by Fokker in 1938. For the second part, t he Wirat.aparwa edition of Juynboll of 1912 had to be used. Old Javanese grammar is still a largely unexpmred fielcl. H. Kern provided the first grammatical description based on the few editions existing around 1900.2) Some aspects of Ohl Javanese igrammar were treated by Gonda,S) while Zoetmulder provided a grammatical 1) I gratefully acknowledge the help of my Ja,,auese assistant Mr. J. Soegiarto in preparing this article. In particular his expert k lowledge of Javanese script h,~5 been extremely useful. I am indebted to Mr. f. O. Robson for correcting my English. 2) H. Kern, 1918-1920. Spraakkunst van het Oud Javaan,,, Ferspreide Geschri/te,, vol. 8 and 9, see for his discussion of pronoum vol. 8, p. 138--183. ~) J. G o n d a 1949. Opmerkingen over Gad Javaanse zinsleer, Bijdrag~n tot de TAM-, Land- en Volkenkunde 105, p. 25-57; 1959. On Old Jav~mese sentence structure, Orie ~s Extremus 6; 1958. Some notes on the rel~tion bet~veen syntactic and met:ical units in a Javanese tddung, Bijdrage~ tot de Taai-, Le~nden Volkenkund,; 114, p. 98-116.
4.66
P R O N O U N S AND S U F i ; I X E S IN OLD J A V A N E S E
467
analysis of the Adiparwa in 1950.41 A short grammar of Old Javanose again based on parwa-texts was published in 1954 by Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatna. a) For further information on Old Javanose linguistics I refer to my survey of studies on the languages of Java and Madura of 1964. 6) The Javanese forms cited in this article are given in the spelling customary in Old Javanese linguistics, with a few exceptions. As the ~, s. and s do not reflect a phonemic difference, only s is used for indicating the dental spirant. For the same rea,;c~n vowel length is not indicated, nor aspirated stops. 2. Apart from some nouns used as pronominal substitutes which will not be discussed in this paper, there are in Old Javanese eight personal proncuns ~,,~! .~evcn pronominal suffixes. They form a three pc rson ~ystem and may be arranged in the Iollowing way: T~,BLE 1
Personal pronouns aku
It
kaml
-ku/-flku/-u
kamu
-.IllU/-U --nyu/-yu
ko I[
:II:
Pronominal s~,ffixes -mami
kanyu kita
-ta/-nta/-~,
ya
-nya/-y~.
sira
-nira/-ira
The main oppositions which govern the system are: (1) the opposition between words (p,ersonal pro~ J,ms) and suffixes (possessive pronominal suffixes) ; (211 the opposition bet~,een first, second and third person; and 4) p. j . Zoetmulder, 1950. De tam van het Adiparwa, Ee• grammati,:ale studio v a n het Oud -Javaans, Verhandehvgen Kon. Bataviaasct~ Genootschap yaP,. Kun~ten en Wrtenschappen 79.
:) P. J. Zoe'tmalder and I. R. Poed~awijatna, 1954 Bahasa Parwa, D lakarta, 2nd impression 1961. 8) E. M. Uhlenbeck, 1964. A critical survey of studies on the languages of Java, a n d Madura, Bibliographical Series 7 of the Koninkiijk /nstituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde see especially the chapter on ()la Javm~ese and Javanese literature, sections I and 7.
468
E. M, U H L E F B E C K
(3) the opposition as to the status of the person addressed to or referred to in relation to the speaker. As this formulation already implies, this third opposition is only Fresent within the pronouns and pronominal suffixes of the second and third person. Within the form of the first and second persons there are other oppositions of a more limited scope. They are (I) the opposition between aku and kami, (2) the opposition between kamu and kanyu on the one hand and ko and kita on the other, and (3) the opposition between -ku/-i~ku/-u and -mami. Before discussing these six dimensions of the system, first the rules which govern the occurrence of the alternants o:f the pronominal suffixes will be given. 3.
For the description (,f the alternant rules the suffixes can best
be rcarranged in the following way" 1
-ku -ta
2 3 4
5 6 I i
TABLE 2 -nku -nta
-u -a
- I 1 1 Li
- tl
-nyu -nya -nira
-yu -ya -ira
The occurrence of the second series of alternants is determint'd by the fact that Old Javanese (like Modern Javanese) does not allow a sequence of two identical consonants. Thus the suffix al,:ernant -u of the first row is folind only if the word to which the suffix is attached has final k, tile suffix alternant -a of the second row only if attached to a word w:~th final t, the suffix alternant -u of the third row only if attached to a word with final m, etc. Some examples: (l) Anak-u 7) maharaja Yayati (#.dip. 80: 28), my' child, king Yayati A nak-u koh puyuh (Adip. 214: 1), my children, you puyuh-birds.
(2) Atyanta sampaynikan Yayati ri ~inik~t-a s) nuni tan pastriya si 7) Both the spelling anakhu and the syelling anaku are found in the texts. s) Examples of the a l t e r n a n t -a are very xare. This p r o b a b l y explains w h y t h e y are n o t m e n t i o n e d in the existing linguistic descriptions. A second example is found in Uttarakan~la, an Old J a v a n e s e version in prose of a p a r t of the R a m a y a n a epic, Cod. Or. L B 4027, 87: 15-17. B o t h the spelling pindhdtta and pindhdta are found in the Adiparwa-manuscxip~s.
?RONOUNS
AND
SUFFIXES
IN O L D J A X ' A N E S E
4,59
Sarmis.ta (Adip. 82: 18), extreme has been the disreg;:rd of Yayati for your warning not to take S. as his wife. (4? I~ahyun-y,._......._.__~malakya manusya (Adip. 143: I0), .eour desire is *o m a l t y a human ~o~Llt~, "-( 5 Hana ta si Gurnika i~aran-ya (Adip. 79:2), there was (a girl) Gurnika was her name. (6, KunJi~ sai~ dewata kaheh tin ikunih naga hahanan-ira (Adip. 32:10-11), and the gods, their position was at the tail of the serpent. No examples can be given for the :bird row. This is not surprising, in view of the very small number of words ending in -m. In addition to the general rule which determines the occurrence of the alternants ot column II throe is a subsidiary, much more re~ , , , . ~ u rule wmcn governs only the occurrence of the alternants of the two first rows within column I. The alternants of c(~Iumn Ia TABLE 3 -ku
- - p . . . . . . hid.-ip-ku !~__
-ta
Adip. 263'11 . . . . . . . . . my opinion ,
m
i ~
i
[.
---n---- - - ~ a n - k u :~-~. . . .
..... Ad~p] 2 6 i i 6 . . . . . . . my name ~ ~£~---:=:-- .......
Ii
ininum-ta
.
.
.
.
.
.
L~ 2 ~ .
I !
] - - 7 - - - --h~--ia-r-~:a ...... Adip~-44-27 m y wings wuwus-ku
R a m . VI 12d my werds
kadan-ta
Z
"2
L
..
_
L.
"
y°e_ .wr_e_th Adip. 5 6 : 8 v o u r relatives
[
nheLta
V¢ir. -15-i-i y o u r tiredness
[ I
ujar-ta
Adip. 4 4 : 1 7 your words
I
\awas-ta
Adip, 7 6 : 2 8 y o u r duration, (the duration t h a t y o u .,.)
' , ulih-ku
Adip. 5 1 ' 8 is d r u n k by you
kai~vun-ta-~x-dip.-30-33 ~,.mr desire gaiak'ta " A-ctip[ 1 4 : 2 1 ............
[ n [ lifl-ku Adip. 3 8 : 2 2 ] mv words I--i---- .....................................
s
hurip-ta Adip. 22i 21 . . . . . . . . . . y o u r life
Adip. 15: 30 asih-ta m y obtai_ni .ng_!it)_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adip. 17" 12 y o u r lov e . . . . . . . .
I
470
E. M. U H L E N B E C K
occur only when the suffix is attached to a word ending in a consonant, the alternants of column i~b only when the suffix is attached to a word ending in a vo;vel. Su,: h a rule does not exist for the other four rows.
A full set of words which woul.t illustrate the alternants of column ia woula contain 20 items; as there are 11 final consonants: p m t n k n l r s h and y. They are given in table 3. It is very unlikely that the existing lacunae imply tlm existence of sec,mdary, as yet unknown rules. I expect t h a t by enlarging the material the who!, table will be filled in. Examples of Ib: TABLE 4
-nt, a [
lJlit~ a - n K u
[ I ibu-riku ari--~ku de-nku
~talp.
lt~'] : gO
m y friend Adip. 116:30 m y mother Adip. 178 : 18 m y younger l:rother Adip. 75 : 15 m y deed, actioi~
bapa-nta taku-uta ari-nta de-nta
Adip. 93: 14 your father Adip. 170: 25 your course Adip, 99:22 your younger brother Adip. 78 : 2 y o u r deed, ac,:ion
A set of words which fully illustrate the alternants -mu, -~yu, -nya and -nira would contain 16 × 4 = 64 items, as in addition to the eleven final consonants six vowels m a y occur in final position. At the moment such a complete set is not yet availabie. W h a t I have been able to collect is presented in table 5. It is again v cry unlikely t h a t the existing lacunae are caused b y secondary, as yet unknown rules. However, there is one special case, namely when the suffix of the first row is added to a word with final -n. In such cases final -n is replaced by ¢~: ~aran, name - i, ara~ku (Adip. 210: 10), m y name; w~gil~n, take refuge with - w~gil~ku (Adip. 101 : 25), m y possible refuge; flatapan, hermitage - patapa~,ku (Adip. 101: 12), m y hermitage. This rule is not always reflected in the spelling. Next to ~ara~ku (Adip. 27:1 and 210: 10) one finds for instance ~aranku (Adip. 26: 16), mid there ar~ ether cases in which -n is retained in the spelling. It seems likely t h a t the actual pronunciation was with the velar nasal.9) 9) There is a general preference f~r consonant clusters of stop p r e c e d e d b y homorganic nasal. I n modern Javar, e s e - a k u a n d - a m u a r e a l t e r n a n t s of - k u a n d -mu before consonants.
PRONOUNS
AND
SUFFIXES TABLE
-nyu
kahari!.p-mu Adip. 84: 20 y o u r desire
P
: : ~ 2 2 7 Z _'2- 7- 2 Z ~ :
=~
JAVANESE
~--~2 ?
takut-nyu V~ir. 57:35 y o u r fear
471
5
-nya
t6kap-nyu Adip. 52: 14 by you
.....
IN OLD
-nira
hi d 6 p - n y a Adip. 15" 8 his opinion
kahar~p-nira Adip. 8" 15 w h a t is desired by him
rum-nya R a m . X V I 30d their fragrance
ininum-nira Adip. 13"8 = wtaat is d l u n k
t
takut-mu Ram. V32d y o u r fear
n
. .u. . . . . . . . . . . :7:>:5==:. .... I ........... l d. o. n.- m
yo u r a i m
t buntut:n~:a--i Adip, 3 5 : 1 7 [ its tail
paw\vat:nira , Adip. 9 : 2 0 i I w h a t was h a n d e d
~ i : - ~ - ~ ======================= :::-:--7:.~i!7_.~:~7:7--
:~_=~-:~!/_7__~_-=:= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..:_-~-:: . . . . . . . . . .---::==~f:!_---2 ... ~ :_. _~/_~:~i~-:C~:::-::.: :::-:
w~nafl-nyu Adip. 2 8 : 2 y o u r selfw;lled-
awak-nya Adip. 7 8 its b o d y
anak-nira Adip. 7" 2 her child
indufl-nva Adip. 9 : 3 0 its mot:her
lifi-r ira Adip. 9:17 his words
~
- ! =<-7
hess
1
w,d n-n va Adip. 114:23 his being born from
r
u;ar-mu R a m . V 33a your words
"s-: h
iaras-nyu- . . . . Wir. 59 : 9 y o u r bow
manah-mu R a m . V 32b your heart
y
a'
upaya-nyu Adip. 47" 15 y o u r ruse
s~fik-~r-i~y a Adip. 15' 16 1 its spoke , ui~slnya Adip. 35' 17 its color
flhel-ni ra Adip. 37:24 its tiredness, ujar-tara Adip. 25: 2(1 his w o r d s lawas-nira Adip. 4" 14 his t e r m
kweh-nya Adip. 3 19 t h e i r nt, m b e r
alah-nira Adip. 5 3 7 his d e f e a t
wafikav-nva Adip. 34 : l 7 their dead bodies
panamuy-mra Adip. 159 : 25 his welcome, reception
padarta-nya Adip. 5"26 its c o n t e n t s
ahara-nira , Adip. 1 0 i his food
"
472
E.M. UHLENBECK TABL~ S (co~ainued) -mu
-nyu
t~nm-nyu Adip. 19:31 what will be your exper~ience rabi-nyu A~tip. ~2:14 your wife
U
bltdi-nlu Ram. V 35b your intention .
.
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Ram. II 73e by your action by you
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-nya
-nira
hetu-nya Adip. 10: 5 the cause of it
pupu-nira Adip. 4: 20 his thigh
bakti-nya Adip. 17:10 its obeisance, homage
pal i-nir~ Adip. 5: 32 h~s dea,th
.
Adip. 29:1 Adip. 47:6 3,our disregard, his task _ .contemPt ..............................................
we~nlra Adip. 51 : 8 his water
amb6-nya Adip. 55:27 its ;smell
No single case was di3covered in which the converse occurred. Nowhere was final velar nasal -n replaced by n after -ta had been added. The rules presented here account fo:: many hundreds of cases throughout the parwa-texts. In the Adiparwa only 37 exce ~tions were found, namely 23 single occurrences of the following :;tems: t~kapira (Adip. 39:14), inalapira (Adip. 197:2), analffra (Adip. 53:29), wa~sanakira (Adip. 64: 16), sanakira (Adip. 92:6), sihira (Adip. 77: 3), kasihira {Adip. 42: 6), patihira (Adip. 53: 19), manahira (Adip. 121 : 20), wayahifa (Adip. 162: 5), u]arim (Adip. 4.5:30), lwirira (Adip. 78:21), linu~surira (Adirp. 117:11), ira~ira (Adip. 69:32), sinyacdra (Adip. 61 : 26), g~l~,Mra (Adip0 135: 24), walaka,~ira (Adip. 150: 6), saSat~#,ira (Adip. 152: 17), pt;.~aira (Adip. 80: 27), lawasira (Adip. 85: 20), la,rasira (Adip. 101 : 26), huwusira (Adip. 103:7), sawuwusira (Adip. 28:24), fo~, ~ occurrences of s~(l~,¢dra (Adip. 49: 1, 121 : 10, 182: 28, 211 : 14-15), three occurrences of li~ira (Adip. 8:3, 83:14, 181:20), three occurrences of t~lasira (Adip. 68:22, 134: 18, 152: 18-19) and two occurr,mces of hi.d~pira (Adip. 53: 15, 121 : 13) and w~t~idra (Adip. 77: 6, l 13: 2). These are the
PRONOUNS
AND
SUFFIXES
IN OLD JAVANESE
473
exceptions found in the JuynboU-edition of the Adiparwa. Howew~r, if one turns to the eight Adiparwa man~scripts available one notices that some of the m~nuscripts have the regular forms. For instance: of the eight Adiparwa manuscripts four have the regular im~nira, while one has the regular inalapnira. Moreover, m other places the regular forms occurred many times. For instance the regular forms li~nira and lawasnira were found throughout the text. The few irregular formations can best be explained as scribal inaccuracies induced by the suffixation-mechanism of Modern Javanese. 4. The rules of suffixation as found in Old Javanese are no longer operative in present-day Javanese, although .~o.m..eelements of the present system are identical with some of the Old Javanese pronominal suffixes. Although not occurring in modern standard Javanese, -niraf-ira are still in regular use in historical writings such as the Babad Giyanti, which probably dates from the early 19th century, bat the rule for the occurrence of these t~o alternants has been changed: -nira is now found only after vc,wels, while -ira occurs not only after final -n, but after all final consonants. Although it seems very speculative to connect the pronominal system of Old Javanese as found in Old Javanese text.,~ of the tenth century, a language spoken in the eastern part of J a v a with the pronominal system of Javanese texts of around !800, ~, language spoken in central Java, a certain link might be sug~;ested. The rulc~ given in the, preceding paragraph have be, n firmlv es:ablished on the basis of an extensive amount of Old Javanese prose. However, if one looks ~nto the Old Javanese kakawin literature, 1hat is literary works composed according to metrical schemes imForted from India, one notices an interesting deviation~ In the Bharata-yuddha kakawin which dates from the middle of the 1 !th century, as well as for instance in the Nagarak.rtagama frc,m the middle of the 14th century, the v - ~ frequent alternants -nira and -ira are used to comply to certain metrical requirements, Every line of one and the same canto of a kakawin is thought to display a certain succession of long and short syllables characteristic for ~:he metre used. As the convention exists that syllables containing a. sequence of vowel + two consonants are considered to be long, the alternants -nira and -ira 10) are to) O t h e r pairs of a l t e r n a n t s are used in t h e s a m e w a y .
474
E.M. UHLENBECK
used to make a syllable long or short, whenever this is required by the metrical scheme. Some lines taken from th ~ Nagarak.rtagama kakawin will illustrate how the poet handles his .-,~ra/-ira alternants: In canto 5, second stanza, line 4 one finds" an saksat a nuja t~kapnirai, narendra, because the metrical scheme reqaires chat the a of t~kap be l,:mg. In canto 33, first stanza, line 1-2 however one finds" sin~g~h-s~gi~]~an !!~kapira saCt maharsi, because here the metrical scheme requires that the a-vowel of t~kap is short. Canto 35, fourth stanza, line 1 has: i huwusnira mpu pas~g~h, because the second u of huwus has to be long, but canto 33, third stanza, lir.e 1 has" ri huwusira, because the u had to be short. This free use of alternants which are subject to strict rules elsewhere in t he language, is a phenomenon in common use in kakawins. It i:; not ~ phenomenon restricted to -nira and -ira. The same m a y be Ol.. ..... -t.~ ~,,~.veu~1 for ,L,,c use of the alternants -nii~ and -ia, for nika and -ik~. The relevance of this metrical technique for the change in the ma:mer of suffixation is clear. By this technique exactly those suffixed ~orm:; are introduced which in later Javanese have become the regular ones. In modern Javanese where sequence of nonhom3rgaaic consonant-clusters is avoided la~ the occurrence of pair.,, of alternants within the pronominal system as w~:ll as outside it, i:; in general governed by the rule that the alternant which begins with a consonant is found before final vowel (as for instance kala-ne, ,i:ala-nipun), the alternant with initial vowel before final consonan:t (as foI instance omah-e, p~raa-ipun). The method of suffixation used in Old Javanese prose is only retained in Modem Javanese in some old sayings (such as: b~ai bubulmic, budi, awan bub.~knict badan, the night is the time for thinking, the day is the time fer action) and in some isolated words, notably the words for father bapaqnd, for older b:~other kakacmd and for he .dewOqn~, beside which also occur the mode:m forms bapaq~, kakaccd and .d~w~qd. 5. The main contours of the part of the deictic system presented in table 1, are fairly clear. The distinction between the personal prozx) See E. M. Uhlenbeck, 1949. De Structuur van het Javaanse Morpheem,
VeThandeli~¢gerKon. Batav~aasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetens~kappen, 78, Chapter 7.
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
IN OLD
JAVANESE
475
nouns and the personal pronominal suffixes it; a structural difference (word versus mt~pheme) which is clearcut, except in the case of -mami. We will (tiscuss the position of mami :n the next paragraph. The. pro,,uminM suffixes traditionally, but incorrectly called possessive suffixes, merely indicate that a relation is established between the referent of the word to which the .,uffix is attached and either the addresser(s), or the addressee(s) or the person(s) spoken about. From a linguistic point of view this relation is best left unspecified. The qualific,.t~on: possessive, is certainly toc narrow. The division of the pronominal system as to person is equally well estal,lished. The distinctions within the pronorr inal elements of the second and tnird person are largely parallel, except for th~ presence of kamu and kanyu. The distinction between singular and nonsingular within the pronouns of the first pe-son is not h.und elsewhere in the system. These facts point to t~e conclusior, that the structure of the system is quite different from the prono~ainal system of present-day Javanese in which the pronouns of the first and second person together are clearly opposed ~:o the p/onouns of the third person. As was already noted in the second paragraph, the di:;tinction as to social status is absent within the pronominal elemew:s of the first person. If the speaker wants to place himself on a low social level in relation to the addressee, he has at his disposal various pronominal substitutes such as sanhulun (literally: the servant/ and pinakahulun (literally: the one who serves as a servant), and ,'orresponding with l~hese also various pronominal substitutes to~ the second person, ~dl indicative of high social status of the add;essee such as rahadyan sac&ulun (my lord). The analysis of linguistic facts which belong to a distant past, is beset with many difficulties. There is always uncertainty as to the homogeneity of the corpus, there is the accidental cha,:.'a:ter of the materials available for analysis and there are interprct lttive difficulties caused by our imperfect factual knowledge of th~ language. In particular in the study of closed systems it is hard to distinguish between archaic elements, dialectal phenomena and ir general between peripheral and central dements of the system. In short there is a la.ck of historical perspective. In view of all this, it is impos;sible for me to do more than to record my impression tha': the picture given in table 1 may present a fu,,~ion between element-, ot two
476
E.M. UHLENBECK
different systems: kamu, kanyu -mu/-u and -nyu!-),~ perhaFs together with kami and mami m a y belong to a diffele[ c system that. the others, b u t I m a y be completely mistaken in thi.,.. 6. There is a clear difference in meaning between aku, I and kami I, we. Aku always indicates the single speaker of the sentence in which aku occurs; kami m a y do so too, but it m a y also refer to more than one addresser. It is never used to include the person or persons addressed. There seems to ~e also a ~ertaii~ preference for the use of aku as subject of the sentence, v hile ~ami is used a~,; subject as well as i:a other functions. SGme examples:
Sugyan tan wruha rzila ri kami, aku si Kindama brat~mana ¢,hulu~ ,u,~oeun agawe , apa makanara sarwaiata (aa:p. i i 6: i 9-20), in case .It . . . . .
~_7-
-
Y
•
•
5.
you do not know me, I ara Kindama, I am a brahman who continuously practices asceticism having as food all kinds of creeping plants. Aku dinalihta swe~.inyu (AdJp. 69:25), you t~.ke .. " to be your husband. Aku p~aha, marapwan kila huripa (Adip. 75" 18), i'~ will die in order that you m a y live! He swami, tasy-asih ta kila ri kam* (Adip. 94:21), nty husband, be so kind to me as to ... Ya tika alap~n pan~busante ibunta ri kami (Adip. 38" 17-18), take this (so t h a t it m a y serve) for us as your ransom for your mother. There is no observable difference in meaning between .ku/-,hku/-u and -mami. Both mean" mine, our. Neeertheless mami poses a problem, because it is also used as a substitute for kami. In the pammtexts this is still rare, but in more recent texts such as the P a r a r a t o n (1 ~th-15th century) mami is already regularly used as a personal pronoun of the first oerson singular and plural. On the basis ~f this e~'iderv:e one .,;hould distinguish between a suffix -mami and a word mami with the same meaning as kami. Some examples of the normal use of -mami as a suffix: Si Basuman naran-mami (Adip. 87:26), Basuman is m y name; inalap-mami teka~ l~mbu (Adip. 91:20), the cow was stolen b y us; yah tuhu kita sisya-mami (Adip. 130" 11), if you are really m y pupil... Some examples of mami as a personal pronoun: Tan hana karunanta tumon mami s~l~¢, masa~gama (Adip. 116, 17-
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
IN OLD JAV2~NESE
477
18), you showed no compassion, (at the moment when) you s;.~w me having intercourse. T ~ ! n pwa tof,gwanta, matai, yan mantwanii~hulun k/ta, yan panak mami dlaha (Adip. 99: 22-23), on the right side will be your place, therefore you will become my daughter-in-law, whet. in the future I have., a child. 7. The pronominal elements o! the se,:ond person ko and kita are clearly distinguished in the parwa-texts. Ko is only used when the addresser's social position is hig.*~er than the addressee's, or when the addresser wants to express his low opinion of ,)r his anger towards the addressee or addressees. Kita is the I Leutral term of address. Like ko it is used in the singular as weU as i a the plural. Ot~Ilie e X a l l l p l e ~ ;
(1) ~a~an~nku ko-i~ manusa kanist.a (Adip. i43:9), I shall devour you, you despicable human being! (2) King Yud.ist.ira to the female raksasa H i d i m b i aiap ta arinku sa~ Bima, tagawe ko subamai~gala, saparikr,~manin wiwaha (Adip. 145"5--6), take m y younger brother Bim~, (you) make a subamaC~gala, all that is needed for a wedding. (3) The god Agni to the puyuh-birds: anaku k..oo-it,]'z) puyuh (Adip. 214: 1 !), m y children, you quail. (4) An an:~'y brahman ~ursing a king: iwah tasmat ~r~adadya raksasa ta ko t~me.hanyu, apa~'¢makolahta ulal,mi i~raksasa maizan:~ manusa ta ko (Adip. 163:3-4 I, therefore you will becorr e a raksasa, because you have show.] the behavior of a human being-devouring raksasa. (5) B.rgu to the god Agni" Ad.a, adarma raksaka s; ko, hyan Agni (Adip. 19: 30), for shame! you are an und,~tiful guardian, Agni. The difference in meaning between ko a r d kita is repeated in the suffixes of the second person. Ko and -mu or -nyu are often found in the same sentence, referring to the sarac person. The same goes for kita and the -ta/-nta/-a suffix. An example of ko and -nyu occurring in the same ~entence is already given above (3). Another example is furnished by the sentence in which Kadru curses her chfld~ren: ts) I n t h i s s e n t e n c e as well as in s e n t e n c e (1) ko is c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e enclitic a r t i c l e -~.
478
E. M. U t t L E N B E C K
tasmad duhka pangihenyu, pai~an~nii, apuy ta _k° kaZani ya: a,a pa gawe ma,~ara]a Janame]aya (Adip. 36: 1-3), therefore you ~i!l suffer distress, you will be ~.onsumed by fire, when king Janamejay~ makes his serpent=sacrifice. Kita and =ta/-nta/-a are far more frequently used than ko and -mu or -nyu, as is characteristic for unmarked members of an opposition, x3) No difference in meaning was :found to exist between -mu and =nyu. In Old Javanese lingui,;tics it is commonly assumed that kita m a y also be used for the first person inclusive of the adresser in the way it is used in other Indonesian language.s in contrast with kami. In his Old Javanese grammar Kern gives only one sentence in which kita is said to h~ve this meaning, x4) This is the sentence sa/,anahananta matya ki~a denya si Dasarati, everyone of you, you will all be killed by that son of Dasarata. This sentence occurs in the R a m a y a na-kakawin (eally 10th century) canto 5, strophe 7. It is spoken by Surpanaka to her brother Rawana. In my opinion there is no reason to assume that ~n this sentence kita has not its normal meaning of you. In other more recen~c publications the statement that kita m a y be used as a pronoun of the first person inclusi-e is repeated, however wkhout supporting evidence. In Kats' introduction to Old Javanese grammar 15) not even one example is given of this alleged usage of kita. Inggris in his short grammai only presents one ~~ample clearly made up by himself in order to illustrate this fictitious usage. The seatence kita tumon ikai$ bandusa given by him 16) is obviously made on the basis of the sentence sira tumon ikaiz bandusa, he saw the coffin (Adip. 111: 14). In his Old Javanese grammar based on the Adiparwa text, Zoetmulder gives one sentence in which kita might be considered to indicate both the addresser and the addressee. 17) However, this kita is the result of a wrong reading of the Javanese text. Instead of kunaiz ika¢, anibak~n i~h sumur i kita Sa~mis.ta naranya (Adit~. 78: 29), but the one who has thrown me xu) See J. H. Greenberg, 1966. Language Universals, Current Trends in Linguistics 3, p. 61-112. x4) Kern o.c.p. 142. xs) j. Kats, 1929. KusumawicJtra II, Inleiding tot de studie van her OudJavaansch, Weltevreden (]:)jakarta), p. 18. xe) A. Inggris, 1944. Djawa-koena, Djakaxta, p. 18. x?) Zoctmulder, o.c.p. 18.
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
IN OLD J A V A N E S E
479
imo the well, is named Sarmista, one should read" K u n a n ika¢, anibak&, i~ sumur iki ta ... That this word division is the correct one wa~ realized by Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatna a few years later, as the same sentence with the word division given above is found in their intr'~duction to Old Javanese grammar.IS) There remain, however, some occurrences of kita in the Wirat.aparwa on which an interpretation as you and I could be based. Such an interpretation was apparently acc~.pted by Fokker (1938), as his translation given without any f u r t h e comment, proves. The Wirat aparwa passages are discussed by Zo,'tmulder and Poedj awijatna in their grammar mentioned above, 19) but they reach a different conclusion than Fokker. They argue --convincingly in my opinion that even in these cases kita only means you. The sentences of the Wirataparwa-text are the following: (1) King Yu.distira addresses his four Lrothers and Dropadi: Kuna¢, kahyuni~hulun Wira.tapura juga paranant__a~, maharaja Matsyapati pa~asrayana. W~na~ sira rumakse kita ... sapala sinewaka ri¢¢ wwan kadi kita (Wir. ed. F. 4:20-24), and it is my wish that you go to Wirat.apura ... King Matsyapati will be your protector. He is able to give you shelter ... !t is fitting that he be served by people like you. One might agree with Fokker that since Yud.ist.ira will join his brother and Dropadi, kita as well as-n[a could be translated by we, that is: you and I included. (2) King Wirat.a to his brahmans upon ,seeing Yud.ist.ira disguised as a brahman: Brahmana aparan ra~iki ha(~ar d.at~n nke &santa (Wir. ed. F. 12: 12-13), who is the brahman who has just come in your country. As desanta refers to the country over which king Wirat.a himself reigns, one might indeed prefer to translate this word by" our country. (3) Yu.dist.ira addresses his brother Bima" Luputak&z sira sa,t~ke~ pasagraha~a, ¢d:.° kita-r wal~sa asihnira ri kita (Wir. ed. J. 49: 23-
ts) Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatr a, o.c.p. 53. xg) Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatv.a, o.c.p. 35-36.
480
E. ~,I. UHLENBECK 24), free him from his bonds, now you should repay his affection for you.
Although it is true that king Wirat.a had affection not only for Bima but also :for Yud.ist.ira and the other brothers, there seems no need to translate kita by us. (4) King Wirat.a gives a command to a messenger: Gosanak~na-nta ike ka~ayanta rii~ samara (Wir. ed. J. 51:34), proclaim your victory on the battlefield! Here -nta could very well be translated by ou~. The victory is the king's victory in the first place, not the messenger's. Zoetmulder and Poedjawijatna however, point out that in all th~ four sentences cited above the addres~r has alvcays a higher social status than those addressed. It is true that in all four cases the addresser-king discusses a topic or mentions something which also pertains to himself (Yu .dist.ira will go to. Wirata as well, king Wirat.a will protect him as well, the country is also king Wirat.a's country etc.), but being on a higher social level than the addressee he wants to push this into the background. He does this by using the normal pronoun of the second person. I agree with this view. It seems therefore that at least at this moment there is no compelling evidence to reject the conclusion that in Old Javanese of the 10th century kita only indicates the addressee or the address-.es. No more than between -mu and -nyu, could a clear difference in meaning between kamu and kanyu be discovered. There is a marked difference, however, in frequency. K a n y u doe,,~ not occur in the Adiparwa-text, in the Wirat.aparwa only twice, ~0) but kamu is found regularly in the parwa-texts. It is not very likely that there would be no difference between kamu and kita at all, but for the present all that can be said is t h a t kamu is preferably used in invocations or as a term of solemn address. It is then followed by a noun or a nominal group. The enclitic article n which precedes the noun is attached to kamu. Some examples: (1) The gods to Ruru" A i kamu sai, Ruru (Adip. 22: 12), O, you, Rurul
¢o) Kanyu is found in other texts too, such as Bratayuda, Arjunawiwaha and Tantu Pang~laran, but the material collected thus far is not sufficient for dete~nining its meaning.
PRONOUNS
AND SUFFIXES
481
IN OLD J A V A N E S E
t:2) Bagawan B.rgu to the god Agni" j w a h tasmat karma t~munyu, kamuiz hyan Apuy sarwabaksa ta kamu (Adip. 19: 31), therefore you will experience your karma, you, Firegod, you will become one who consumes everything (with fire). (3) Gaflga to the Ast.abasu's: Kamu hyai~ Ast.abasu, kadi prihati gatinta (Adip. 91: 16), You divine Ast.abasu! you look sorrowful. (4) Rm'u to the gods: Ai kamu~, hya~ sakwehta dewata (Adip. 22"3), O you, gods, all of you! 115) The gods to Garud.a: Kamu~ hyai~ Garud. a, kita .rsi, kita mahamuni (Adip. 37:3), You divine Garuda~ you ascetic, you holy man! As can be seen from the preceding sentei~ces k, mu (as well as kanyu) is used in the singular and in the plural. 7. The difference between ya and sira is largely parallel to the difference between ko and kita. Ya corresponds to -nya/-ya exactly as sira to -nira/-ira. Ya and -nya/-ya are always used to refer to somebody who is of lower socied status than the one who is referred 1:o by means of sira and -nira/-ira. Again ya and -ya/-nya are the marked members of the opposition, sira and -nira/-im the unmarked memb~ers. The difference between ya and sira may be illustrated by many cases, such as for instance: (1) hana ta sira rsi, bagawan Kindama ¢,amnira, k~na raga sira dadi kidai~ lanan, tumutc;k~n ika¢~ hari~;i kanya swetawarna sina~zgama ta y_a (Adip. 116: t0-12), there was he, a hermit, the holy Kindama was his name, he fell in love, having become a roebuck, he followed the young white coloured fawn (and) b.ad intercourse with her. (2) In the story of Dewabrata's fight with the king of Andyakapura after the kidnapping of the three girls Amba, An~bika and Ambalika: !nala,pnira ika~ kanya tigan siki, in~nahnirei~ ratha ika~ kanya. Lu~itha ta s~ra sake~t sabamandala. Mas6 tan ratu kabeh kapwa sumambut sai~ah~nya. Hana ta san ratu ri¢~Andyakapura, .sa¢~,Mandarapati ¢~arany_~a. Ika ta #inakadinya tumututi san Dewabrata. Pa.da wanini-_ re~ palagan. (Adip. 98:9o), He ( = Dewabrata) seized the three girls, (and) put them in his chariot. He left the royal gathering. All the kings advanced and took up their arms. The king of Andyakapura, Mandarapati was his name, he was the one who was first in ,.
,~2
E.M. UHLENBECK
the pursuit of the kingly Dewabrata. Equal was their courage on the battlefield. The hero of the story is Dewabrata. He is always referred to by sira and -nira/-ira, while the minor kings, who play only a very secondary role in the story, are referred to with -nya]-ya. In the case of the king of Andyakapura there is some uncertainty. Because of his being a king the use of sira and -nira[-ira would seem obligatory, but as he is .~nferior to Dewabrata ya and -nya[-ya would also be acceptable. The manuscripts are divided on this point. Some Adiparwa manuscripts have san Mandarapati ~arany.._a, others sai~ Mandarapati naranira. In the sentence pad.a waninirei~ palagan, -nira has to be used because it refers both to Dewabrata and Manda-. rapatl. 8. As in many other languages the pronouns in Old Javanese form a closed subsystem of their own. The personal pronouns and pronominal suffixes form only a part of this system. This means that in the description given above the relations of the personal pronouns and pronominal elements with the other prono,'~dnal elements in the system are left undiscussed. A second obvious shortcoming is the absence of a systematic account of the distributional data. We hope to devote another article to this topic in the near future, as here a number of interesting phenomena present themselves which have not found adequate treatment so far. I ant referring to the enclitic -n and especially to the enclitic -n which can be attached to a preceding personal pronoun as well as to a preceding pronominal element.
University o/Leyden Author's address: Dr. Kuyperlaan xI, Voorhout, The Netherlands