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Personality correlates of Benton's visual retention test
Person. in&id. DI@ Vol. 8, No. I, pp. 141-143, 1987 in Great Britain
0191-8869187 Pergamon
Printed
$3.00 + 0.00
Journals Ltd
Personality correlates of Benton’s Visual Retention Test BRUCE KIRKCALDY Rehabilitation Clinic, University of Cologne, Lindenburger Allee 44, 5000 Cologne 41, Lindenthat, F.R.G. (Received 6 November
1985)
Summary-Bivariate correlations revealed that only L was highly significantly (negatively) correlated with the ability to retain and reproduce geometrical figures (Benton Visual Retention Test). Personality groups were generated using extreme cut-offs for E and N, as well as P and L. Extraverts produced similar error profiles to introverts. High trait N Ss tended to emit more errors of omission compared to low trait N persons, otherwise the performance profiles were not statistically different. Several E x N interactions emerged however, with stable introverts yielding significantly more correct reproductions and a lower error frequency than the other groups, with dysthymics (introverted neurotics) performing worst, the latter group further characterised by a greater number of perseveration and mislocation errors. High and low P-scoring Ss did not differ significantly in their ability to reproduce figures, with the exception of perseveration errors which were more common amongst P + Ss. L + individuals displayed inferior performance compared to L- Ss. An analysis of error categories revealed that L+ emitted more distortion, left- and right-handed errors. There was no indication of any P x L interaction effect.
INTRODUCTION The Benton Visual Retention Test represents a non-verbal, motor-perceptual task involving the memorisation and reproduction of a display of geometrical figures of varying complexity. It has frequently been implemented as a clinical diagnostic instrument in effectively discriminating brain-damaged groups (Orme, 1970). Personality correlates of graphic response styles in clinical samples have, however, generally been neglected. Since introverts are chronically more aroused than extraverts, they are likely to be more cautious and accurate in their responding (Eysenck, 1967). Conversely, extraverts are fast and impulsive in their behaviour, attributes which result in their producing more (omission) errors. Anxiety, itself an admixture of Introversion and Neuroticism, usually has adverse effects on performance on a variety of complex cognitive tasks, a consequence of the anxious person’s tendency to employ ‘task irrelevant processing activities’, which in turn reduces the working memory’s capacity (Eysenck, 1982). It is hardly surprising therefore, that the relationship between performance variables such as speed and accuracy and Extraversion. is freauentlv moderated bv the personality variable, Neuroticism. In psychiatric observations, Brierley (1961) found that dysthmics (iniroverted neurbtics)were generally slow in responding, whereas hysterics (extraverted unstables) were characteristically inaccurate. Both neurotic groups were, however, slower and less accurate than normals. Wallach and Gahm (1960) found that (female) introverted Ss low on trait Neuroticism were more constrictive in graphic expression than extraverts. The stable extraverts were the most expansive personality group and stable introverts, the least. For the highly neurotic groups, the position was reversed, that is, introverted neurotics were comparatively more expansive than extraverted neurotics. Taft (1967) examined not only handwriting speed but expansiveness as well. These variables were uncorrelated with Extraversion, although speed was slightly positively related to Neuroticism. By considering interactive effects of E x N, in a zonal analysis, stable extraverts emerged as the fastest of the four generated personality quadrants. The smallest graphical script was displayed by unstable extraverts. Psychotics are likely to be slow and deliberate in their action; they generally have long reaction times and abnormalities in perceptual judgement (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1976). Schizophrenics and depressives have been shown to be characterised by high perseveration scores, in addition to diminished fluency compared to normals (Yates, 1973). Psychotics are less abled on psychomotor tasks, exhibiting inferior performance in terms of manual and finger dexterity and mirror drawing ability compared to normals (S.B.G. Eysenck, 1955). High trait Psychoticism scorers made more errors on a spiral maze task compared to low P-scorers (Gibson, 1964). More recently, dissimulators (high Lie-scoring Ss) yielded more cornmissive errors compared to L - Ss on a visual CRT task (free response speed) and produced significantly less correct responses during the high signal frequency condition (Kirkcaldy, 1985). The Lie-scale originally intended to assess the extent of dissimulation, appears to represent a substantive personality variable in its own right, almost contrapositive to Psychoticism, reflecting highly defensive, conventional behavioural styles. Several issues are raised in this study. How do the Benton scores compare with the norms provided (in the manual)? To what extent do extraverts and introverts differ in their abilitv to retain and reproduce graphical information? Does N serve as a moderator variable? Do high trait P patients differ in terms of the errors emitted (perseveration) compared to low P-scoring Ss? Are high L-scoring individuals significantly different from low L-scoring Ss? Are such differences, should they occur, confined to a specific category of error? METHOD A group of 84 psychiatric patients, predominantly psychotic (64%) and male (68 males) with a mean age of 33 years, from the area of North-Rhine Westfalen. F.R.G.. were administered Version C of the Benton’s Revised Visual Retention Test (Spreen, 1981). and Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire. For the Benton, the sample yielded a mean of 4.59 (SD 2.25) correct reproductions (maximum N = IO), and 9.27 (SD 4.97) errors. These are well below the population norms offered in Spreen’s Manual. The frequency of right- and left-sided errors 141
142
NOTES
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COMMUNICATIONS
was 5.23 (SD 2.93) and 3.21 (SD 1.98) respectively. The errors in reproduction of the figures were further categorised into classes of Omission, Distortion, Perseveration, Rotation, Mislocation and Magnitude. Over 60% of errors in copying the figures were due to omission or distortion. Seventy-five patients had further completed a non-verbal intelligence test (SPM), and the mean IQ was in the normal range (97.9 SD 21.1) so that inferior performance on the Benton could not be totally attributable to differential intellectual functioning. The EPQ assesses scores on four major personality dimensions, Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism and Social Desirability, the latter scale considered the obverse of P, representing social conforming and orthodox attitudes. The sample was, compared to population norms, marginally higher on P (4.8) introverted (mean E 10.3) neurotic (I 1.6) and conventional/conforming (mean L 12.4). RESULTS
Bivariate intercorrelations were performed between the total number of correct responses on the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and the personality variables P(sychoticism), and Social Desirability (L-scale).
(CR) and error frequency (ER) E(xtraversion), N(euroticism)
Table I. Pearson product-moment COTrelations between trait and performance (Benton) variables P
E
N
CR
0.00
ER
0.02
-0.19 0.12
-0.06 0.08
L -0.40*** 0.32’.
***Represents P -z0.001 (two-tailed test). **Represents P i 0.01(two-tailed test). Four groups were generated, using extreme cut-off points of at least one standard deviation beyond the mean E and N scores, thus enabling a zonal analysis. A between group (E + and E -) discrimination analysis of all error categories/scales, revealed that high and low trait E Ss exhibit similar performance profiles (A = 0.74, Rao’s R = 0.52, df 8, 12, ns.). On only one scale, O(missions), were extraverts likely to make more errors (F = 3.21, P <: 0.09). There were no significant differences between extraverts and introverts in terms of either CR (F(1, 19) = 1.93) or ER (F(1, 19) = 0.75). High trait neurotics (N+) were not significantly different compared to low trait N Ss (N-) in terms of CR (F(1, 19) = 2.35) or ER (F(1, 19) = 2.29). The between group profiles using error scales as the dependent variables, did not emerge as statistically significant (Trace 0.25, V = 0.49, df 8, 12, ns.), although separate univariate F-ratios revealed that N+ individuals were inclined to yield more errors of omission compared to their stable counterparts (N+ 3.91 SD 3.56 n = 11, N1.92 SD 1.62 n = 12; F = 4.02, P < 0.06). The E x N interaction approached statistical significance (F( I, 19) = 3.03, P < 0.09; F = 2.80, P < 0.1 I, for ER and CR respectively). A planned comparison between personality groups revealed that stable introverts emitted significantly more correct responses (F = 4.97, P < 0.04) and less errors (F = 5.12, P < 0.04) than unstable introverts (E - N - CR 6.8 + 1.30. ER 4.6 + 2.41; EL N+ CR 4.17 i 2.14, ER 1 l.l7‘+ 6.43) both extraverted stable and unstable Ss producing-scores intermediate to those obtained by introverts. Univariate F-tests were performed for between group E x N interaction comparisons in terms of separate error scales; perseveration errors were most frequent amongst dysthymics (F = 3.51, P < 0.07), the latter further character&d by production of significantly more Mis(location) errors than the other groups (F = 9.24, P < 0.01). Errors of size were most common amongst stable extraverts (F = 3.72, P < 0.07). Extreme P and L scorers were also used to generate groups for zonal analysis. High P scoring Ss (P+) did not differ significantly when compared with low P scoring Ss (P -) on CR @‘(I, 20) = 1.96). nor did they differ in terms of ER (F(l,20) = 1.54). P+ persons were inclined to emit more perseveration errors (P + 1.69 + 1.49, P -0.64 + 1.03; F(l,20) = 3.50, P -c0.07). High L-scoring individuals (L+) displayed significantly more errors of reproduction than Lpersons (L + 11.67 f 4.35, L - 6.83 + 3.10, F(1,20) = 8.75, P
DISCUSSION
Despite the relatively normal mean non-verbal intelligence scores obtained on Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, the Benton scores were well below those values reported for normal Ss, and slightly inferior to those for patients with functional psychiatric disturbances, including neurotic, depressive and psychopathic disorders (Crochelet, 1970) indicating that such a retention and reproduction task may be a better discriminator of psychiatric disturbances than tests of intellectual functioning. Extraverted Ss did not differ significantly from introverts in terms of response accuracy (total error frequency and number of correct reproductions). There was a tendency, however, for extraverted patients to display more omission-type errors, thus partly supporting the notion of their being more impulsive in response style. High trait neurotic (N+) and stable (N-) Ss displayed similar error profiles as verified by the non-significant discriminant function, with the exception of the category of omission errors which occurred more frequently amongst the less stable individuals. The relationship between Extraversion-Introversion and Benton performance was clearly moderated by Neuroticism, as demonstrated by the series of statistically significant interactions, E x N, for the between personality groups analysis
NOTES
AND
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COMMUNICATIONS
143
(generated using extreme cut-offs). The most accurate group, both in terms of the absolute number of correct reproductions as well as the total error frequency, was the stable introverts, and the least accurate, the dysthymics (introverted stables), with both extraverted groups (neurotic and stable) yielding roughly equivalent performances, lying intermediate to the extremes of introverted stables and unstables. An analysis of the separate error components revealed that dysthymics were particularly high on perseverationand mislocation-type errors. Once again, the significant difference between extraverts and introverts were disclosed only when trait neuroticism was high. In addition, errors of magnitude were limited to the dysthymics and stable extraverts, the latter yielding the highest mean (size) error rate. The pattern of greater expansion amongst dysthymics compared to hysterics is consistent with claims of increased graphical expansiveness in unstable introverts. The effect of ignoring moderator variables serves to annihilate diametrically opposed effects, and consequently increases the probability of committing a type I error. The high P-scoring patients were inclined to yield more perseveration errors compared to P- Ss. Perseveration reflects a tendency to reproduce those figural elements which were presented on a temporally proximal trial/item, but is an inappropriate response for the present item. It is a difficulty in shifting from one form to another, and bears similarity to rigidity, inertness, or perceptual defense (Leach, 1967), representing cognitive inertia. A closely related variable, Social Conformity (L), a scale usually correlated negatively with Psychoticism was highly correlated with both correct responses and error frequency, sharing some 22% common variance with Benton performance. The highly defensive and conventional behavioural style of ‘dissimulators’ appears to be associated with efficiency of mental processing. The separation of two extreme L-scoring groups served to attenuate these differences. L+ patients were inclined to be less accurate than less conforming Ss (L -). The best discriminating variables between groups were the error categories, distortion (L+ yielding significantly more errors), and left- and right-sided errors (L+ producing more errors of both kind, particularly evident for right-sided errors). This may indicate that L+ Ss primary exhibit dysfunctions related to differential hemispherical functioning. Personality variables do appear to relate to form perception and graphical reproduction in a coherent fashion. As such, its implementation in clinical studies may explain some of the immense variation reported in the performance of schizophrenics and depressives on the Benton (Spreen, 1981). Acknowledgemenls-I would like to express my thanks to the Deutscheforschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn, who financed much of the research project “Wiedereingliederung psychisch Behinderter in den Arbeitsprozess”, and as always to the patients and staff of St Alexianer Krankenhaus and the GWN Neuss, who were kind enough to share their time.
REFERENCES Brierley H. H. (1961) The speed and accuracy characteristics of neurotics. Br. J. Psychol. 52, 273-280. Crochelet Y. (1970) Considerations sur l’apport de I’examen medicopsychologique dans l’expertise du syndrome postcommotionnel subjectif des traumaises crlniens. Acfa Psychiat. Belg. 70, 233-279. Eysenck H. J. (1967) The Biological Basis of Behaviour. C. C. Thomas, Springfield. Eysenck H. J. and Eysenck S. B. G. (1976) Psychoticism as a Dimevsion of Personality. Hodder and Stoughton, London. Eysenck M. W. (1982) Attention and Arousal. Cognition and Performance. Springer, New York. Eysenck S. B. G. (1955) A dimensional analysis of mental abnormality. Unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, University of London Library. Gibson H. B. (1964) The spiral maze. A psychomotor test with implications for the study of delinquency. Br. J. Psychol. 55, 219-225. Kirkcaldy B. D. (1985) The relationship between personality variables and performance in a clinical sample. Unpubl. Res. Rep., Rehazentrum der Uniklinik Koeln, F.R.G. Leach P. L. (1967) A critical study of the literature concerning rigidity. Br. J. sot. clin. Psychol. 6, 1 l-22. Spreen 0. (1981) Deutsche Bearbeitung der Benton-Test Handbuch (Edited by Benton A. L.), 5th edn. H. Huber, Bern. Orme J. E. (1970) Long-stay psychiatric patients. In The Psychological Assessment of Mental and Physical Handicaps (Edited by Mittler P.). Tavistock, London. Taft P. (1967) Extraversion, neuroticism and expressive behaviour: An application of Wallach’s moderator effect on handwriting analysis. J. Person. 35, 57G-584. Wallach M. A. and Gahm R. (1960) Personality functions of graphic constriction and expansiveness. J. Person. 28, 73-88. Yates A. (1973) Abnormalities of psychomotor functions. In Handbook of Abnormal Psychology (Edited by Eysenck H. J.), 2nd edn. Pitman Medical, London.
0191-8869187 Pergamon
Printed
$3.00 + 0.00
Journals Ltd
Personality correlates of Benton’s Visual Retention Test BRUCE KIRKCALDY Rehabilitation Clinic, University of Cologne, Lindenburger Allee 44, 5000 Cologne 41, Lindenthat, F.R.G. (Received 6 November
1985)
Summary-Bivariate correlations revealed that only L was highly significantly (negatively) correlated with the ability to retain and reproduce geometrical figures (Benton Visual Retention Test). Personality groups were generated using extreme cut-offs for E and N, as well as P and L. Extraverts produced similar error profiles to introverts. High trait N Ss tended to emit more errors of omission compared to low trait N persons, otherwise the performance profiles were not statistically different. Several E x N interactions emerged however, with stable introverts yielding significantly more correct reproductions and a lower error frequency than the other groups, with dysthymics (introverted neurotics) performing worst, the latter group further characterised by a greater number of perseveration and mislocation errors. High and low P-scoring Ss did not differ significantly in their ability to reproduce figures, with the exception of perseveration errors which were more common amongst P + Ss. L + individuals displayed inferior performance compared to L- Ss. An analysis of error categories revealed that L+ emitted more distortion, left- and right-handed errors. There was no indication of any P x L interaction effect.
INTRODUCTION The Benton Visual Retention Test represents a non-verbal, motor-perceptual task involving the memorisation and reproduction of a display of geometrical figures of varying complexity. It has frequently been implemented as a clinical diagnostic instrument in effectively discriminating brain-damaged groups (Orme, 1970). Personality correlates of graphic response styles in clinical samples have, however, generally been neglected. Since introverts are chronically more aroused than extraverts, they are likely to be more cautious and accurate in their responding (Eysenck, 1967). Conversely, extraverts are fast and impulsive in their behaviour, attributes which result in their producing more (omission) errors. Anxiety, itself an admixture of Introversion and Neuroticism, usually has adverse effects on performance on a variety of complex cognitive tasks, a consequence of the anxious person’s tendency to employ ‘task irrelevant processing activities’, which in turn reduces the working memory’s capacity (Eysenck, 1982). It is hardly surprising therefore, that the relationship between performance variables such as speed and accuracy and Extraversion. is freauentlv moderated bv the personality variable, Neuroticism. In psychiatric observations, Brierley (1961) found that dysthmics (iniroverted neurbtics)were generally slow in responding, whereas hysterics (extraverted unstables) were characteristically inaccurate. Both neurotic groups were, however, slower and less accurate than normals. Wallach and Gahm (1960) found that (female) introverted Ss low on trait Neuroticism were more constrictive in graphic expression than extraverts. The stable extraverts were the most expansive personality group and stable introverts, the least. For the highly neurotic groups, the position was reversed, that is, introverted neurotics were comparatively more expansive than extraverted neurotics. Taft (1967) examined not only handwriting speed but expansiveness as well. These variables were uncorrelated with Extraversion, although speed was slightly positively related to Neuroticism. By considering interactive effects of E x N, in a zonal analysis, stable extraverts emerged as the fastest of the four generated personality quadrants. The smallest graphical script was displayed by unstable extraverts. Psychotics are likely to be slow and deliberate in their action; they generally have long reaction times and abnormalities in perceptual judgement (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1976). Schizophrenics and depressives have been shown to be characterised by high perseveration scores, in addition to diminished fluency compared to normals (Yates, 1973). Psychotics are less abled on psychomotor tasks, exhibiting inferior performance in terms of manual and finger dexterity and mirror drawing ability compared to normals (S.B.G. Eysenck, 1955). High trait Psychoticism scorers made more errors on a spiral maze task compared to low P-scorers (Gibson, 1964). More recently, dissimulators (high Lie-scoring Ss) yielded more cornmissive errors compared to L - Ss on a visual CRT task (free response speed) and produced significantly less correct responses during the high signal frequency condition (Kirkcaldy, 1985). The Lie-scale originally intended to assess the extent of dissimulation, appears to represent a substantive personality variable in its own right, almost contrapositive to Psychoticism, reflecting highly defensive, conventional behavioural styles. Several issues are raised in this study. How do the Benton scores compare with the norms provided (in the manual)? To what extent do extraverts and introverts differ in their abilitv to retain and reproduce graphical information? Does N serve as a moderator variable? Do high trait P patients differ in terms of the errors emitted (perseveration) compared to low P-scoring Ss? Are high L-scoring individuals significantly different from low L-scoring Ss? Are such differences, should they occur, confined to a specific category of error? METHOD A group of 84 psychiatric patients, predominantly psychotic (64%) and male (68 males) with a mean age of 33 years, from the area of North-Rhine Westfalen. F.R.G.. were administered Version C of the Benton’s Revised Visual Retention Test (Spreen, 1981). and Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire. For the Benton, the sample yielded a mean of 4.59 (SD 2.25) correct reproductions (maximum N = IO), and 9.27 (SD 4.97) errors. These are well below the population norms offered in Spreen’s Manual. The frequency of right- and left-sided errors 141
142
NOTES
AND
SHORTER
COMMUNICATIONS
was 5.23 (SD 2.93) and 3.21 (SD 1.98) respectively. The errors in reproduction of the figures were further categorised into classes of Omission, Distortion, Perseveration, Rotation, Mislocation and Magnitude. Over 60% of errors in copying the figures were due to omission or distortion. Seventy-five patients had further completed a non-verbal intelligence test (SPM), and the mean IQ was in the normal range (97.9 SD 21.1) so that inferior performance on the Benton could not be totally attributable to differential intellectual functioning. The EPQ assesses scores on four major personality dimensions, Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism and Social Desirability, the latter scale considered the obverse of P, representing social conforming and orthodox attitudes. The sample was, compared to population norms, marginally higher on P (4.8) introverted (mean E 10.3) neurotic (I 1.6) and conventional/conforming (mean L 12.4). RESULTS
Bivariate intercorrelations were performed between the total number of correct responses on the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and the personality variables P(sychoticism), and Social Desirability (L-scale).
(CR) and error frequency (ER) E(xtraversion), N(euroticism)
Table I. Pearson product-moment COTrelations between trait and performance (Benton) variables P
E
N
CR
0.00
ER
0.02
-0.19 0.12
-0.06 0.08
L -0.40*** 0.32’.
***Represents P -z0.001 (two-tailed test). **Represents P i 0.01(two-tailed test). Four groups were generated, using extreme cut-off points of at least one standard deviation beyond the mean E and N scores, thus enabling a zonal analysis. A between group (E + and E -) discrimination analysis of all error categories/scales, revealed that high and low trait E Ss exhibit similar performance profiles (A = 0.74, Rao’s R = 0.52, df 8, 12, ns.). On only one scale, O(missions), were extraverts likely to make more errors (F = 3.21, P <: 0.09). There were no significant differences between extraverts and introverts in terms of either CR (F(1, 19) = 1.93) or ER (F(1, 19) = 0.75). High trait neurotics (N+) were not significantly different compared to low trait N Ss (N-) in terms of CR (F(1, 19) = 2.35) or ER (F(1, 19) = 2.29). The between group profiles using error scales as the dependent variables, did not emerge as statistically significant (Trace 0.25, V = 0.49, df 8, 12, ns.), although separate univariate F-ratios revealed that N+ individuals were inclined to yield more errors of omission compared to their stable counterparts (N+ 3.91 SD 3.56 n = 11, N1.92 SD 1.62 n = 12; F = 4.02, P < 0.06). The E x N interaction approached statistical significance (F( I, 19) = 3.03, P < 0.09; F = 2.80, P < 0.1 I, for ER and CR respectively). A planned comparison between personality groups revealed that stable introverts emitted significantly more correct responses (F = 4.97, P < 0.04) and less errors (F = 5.12, P < 0.04) than unstable introverts (E - N - CR 6.8 + 1.30. ER 4.6 + 2.41; EL N+ CR 4.17 i 2.14, ER 1 l.l7‘+ 6.43) both extraverted stable and unstable Ss producing-scores intermediate to those obtained by introverts. Univariate F-tests were performed for between group E x N interaction comparisons in terms of separate error scales; perseveration errors were most frequent amongst dysthymics (F = 3.51, P < 0.07), the latter further character&d by production of significantly more Mis(location) errors than the other groups (F = 9.24, P < 0.01). Errors of size were most common amongst stable extraverts (F = 3.72, P < 0.07). Extreme P and L scorers were also used to generate groups for zonal analysis. High P scoring Ss (P+) did not differ significantly when compared with low P scoring Ss (P -) on CR @‘(I, 20) = 1.96). nor did they differ in terms of ER (F(l,20) = 1.54). P+ persons were inclined to emit more perseveration errors (P + 1.69 + 1.49, P -0.64 + 1.03; F(l,20) = 3.50, P -c0.07). High L-scoring individuals (L+) displayed significantly more errors of reproduction than Lpersons (L + 11.67 f 4.35, L - 6.83 + 3.10, F(1,20) = 8.75, P
DISCUSSION
Despite the relatively normal mean non-verbal intelligence scores obtained on Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, the Benton scores were well below those values reported for normal Ss, and slightly inferior to those for patients with functional psychiatric disturbances, including neurotic, depressive and psychopathic disorders (Crochelet, 1970) indicating that such a retention and reproduction task may be a better discriminator of psychiatric disturbances than tests of intellectual functioning. Extraverted Ss did not differ significantly from introverts in terms of response accuracy (total error frequency and number of correct reproductions). There was a tendency, however, for extraverted patients to display more omission-type errors, thus partly supporting the notion of their being more impulsive in response style. High trait neurotic (N+) and stable (N-) Ss displayed similar error profiles as verified by the non-significant discriminant function, with the exception of the category of omission errors which occurred more frequently amongst the less stable individuals. The relationship between Extraversion-Introversion and Benton performance was clearly moderated by Neuroticism, as demonstrated by the series of statistically significant interactions, E x N, for the between personality groups analysis
NOTES
AND
SHORTER
COMMUNICATIONS
143
(generated using extreme cut-offs). The most accurate group, both in terms of the absolute number of correct reproductions as well as the total error frequency, was the stable introverts, and the least accurate, the dysthymics (introverted stables), with both extraverted groups (neurotic and stable) yielding roughly equivalent performances, lying intermediate to the extremes of introverted stables and unstables. An analysis of the separate error components revealed that dysthymics were particularly high on perseverationand mislocation-type errors. Once again, the significant difference between extraverts and introverts were disclosed only when trait neuroticism was high. In addition, errors of magnitude were limited to the dysthymics and stable extraverts, the latter yielding the highest mean (size) error rate. The pattern of greater expansion amongst dysthymics compared to hysterics is consistent with claims of increased graphical expansiveness in unstable introverts. The effect of ignoring moderator variables serves to annihilate diametrically opposed effects, and consequently increases the probability of committing a type I error. The high P-scoring patients were inclined to yield more perseveration errors compared to P- Ss. Perseveration reflects a tendency to reproduce those figural elements which were presented on a temporally proximal trial/item, but is an inappropriate response for the present item. It is a difficulty in shifting from one form to another, and bears similarity to rigidity, inertness, or perceptual defense (Leach, 1967), representing cognitive inertia. A closely related variable, Social Conformity (L), a scale usually correlated negatively with Psychoticism was highly correlated with both correct responses and error frequency, sharing some 22% common variance with Benton performance. The highly defensive and conventional behavioural style of ‘dissimulators’ appears to be associated with efficiency of mental processing. The separation of two extreme L-scoring groups served to attenuate these differences. L+ patients were inclined to be less accurate than less conforming Ss (L -). The best discriminating variables between groups were the error categories, distortion (L+ yielding significantly more errors), and left- and right-sided errors (L+ producing more errors of both kind, particularly evident for right-sided errors). This may indicate that L+ Ss primary exhibit dysfunctions related to differential hemispherical functioning. Personality variables do appear to relate to form perception and graphical reproduction in a coherent fashion. As such, its implementation in clinical studies may explain some of the immense variation reported in the performance of schizophrenics and depressives on the Benton (Spreen, 1981). Acknowledgemenls-I would like to express my thanks to the Deutscheforschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn, who financed much of the research project “Wiedereingliederung psychisch Behinderter in den Arbeitsprozess”, and as always to the patients and staff of St Alexianer Krankenhaus and the GWN Neuss, who were kind enough to share their time.
REFERENCES Brierley H. H. (1961) The speed and accuracy characteristics of neurotics. Br. J. Psychol. 52, 273-280. Crochelet Y. (1970) Considerations sur l’apport de I’examen medicopsychologique dans l’expertise du syndrome postcommotionnel subjectif des traumaises crlniens. Acfa Psychiat. Belg. 70, 233-279. Eysenck H. J. (1967) The Biological Basis of Behaviour. C. C. Thomas, Springfield. Eysenck H. J. and Eysenck S. B. G. (1976) Psychoticism as a Dimevsion of Personality. Hodder and Stoughton, London. Eysenck M. W. (1982) Attention and Arousal. Cognition and Performance. Springer, New York. Eysenck S. B. G. (1955) A dimensional analysis of mental abnormality. Unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, University of London Library. Gibson H. B. (1964) The spiral maze. A psychomotor test with implications for the study of delinquency. Br. J. Psychol. 55, 219-225. Kirkcaldy B. D. (1985) The relationship between personality variables and performance in a clinical sample. Unpubl. Res. Rep., Rehazentrum der Uniklinik Koeln, F.R.G. Leach P. L. (1967) A critical study of the literature concerning rigidity. Br. J. sot. clin. Psychol. 6, 1 l-22. Spreen 0. (1981) Deutsche Bearbeitung der Benton-Test Handbuch (Edited by Benton A. L.), 5th edn. H. Huber, Bern. Orme J. E. (1970) Long-stay psychiatric patients. In The Psychological Assessment of Mental and Physical Handicaps (Edited by Mittler P.). Tavistock, London. Taft P. (1967) Extraversion, neuroticism and expressive behaviour: An application of Wallach’s moderator effect on handwriting analysis. J. Person. 35, 57G-584. Wallach M. A. and Gahm R. (1960) Personality functions of graphic constriction and expansiveness. J. Person. 28, 73-88. Yates A. (1973) Abnormalities of psychomotor functions. In Handbook of Abnormal Psychology (Edited by Eysenck H. J.), 2nd edn. Pitman Medical, London.