Perspectives for cancer therapies with cdk2 inhibitors

REVIEWS Perspectives for cancer therapies with cdk2 inhibitors Scott Wadler Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10021, USA

Abstract Modern anticancer strategies are designed against specific molecular targets with the goal of sparing normal, non-neoplastic tissues. Choosing specific molecular targets, however, is problematic. Cdk2 (Cyclin dependent kinase 2, cell division kinase 2, p33) is an important candidate target for therapeutic intervention. Phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (pRb) by Cdk2 is the penultimate step in the transition from G1 to S phase. Inhibition of this step could potentially result in inhibition of proliferation, cytostasis and possibly apoptosis in human tumors. Cdk2 also plays a critical role in the transition through S phase and the S to G2 transition as well. Inhibitors of the cyclin dependent kinases, such as flavopiridol and UCN-01, are currently in clinical trials. While demonstrating clinical activity, neither acts specifically against Cdk2. Other more specific Cdk2 inhibitors are currently in preclinical development. Further studies to explore the therapeutic worth C 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. of such agents are warranted. °

INTRODUCTION ell growth consists of two precisely controlled and repetitive processes occurring in a cyclical fashion: replication of cellular DNA and division of the replicated product into daughter cells. In eukaryotes, these processes are separated by two preparative phases during which both external and internal regulatory events occur that influence the decision to proceed with DNA replication and cell division. Perturbation of these regulatory events or their interactions with the cell-cycle machinery can result in cytostasis, apoptosis, or uncontrolled cell growth and cell division. Loss of growth regulation is one of the hallmarks of the neoplastic state, and is therefore a central focus of biomedical research efforts. Cell cycle progression is defined by sequential phosphorylation events brought about by holoenzymes which include a family of regulatory proteins, called cyclins, and their catalytic partners, the cyclin-dependent kinases (cdks). Transition through the cell cycle is regulated in part by oscillating levels of specific cyclins, which ensure the precise targeting and sequence of these phosphorylation events. As expected, dysregulation of this process can result in disordered cell growth. Cyclin dependent kinase 2 (cdk2) plays a central role in cell growth regulation. As will be described below, cdk2-induced phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) is the penultimate step before release of the transcription factor, E2F, and entry into S phase. Unlike cdk4 and cdk6-mediated phosphorylation of pRb, cdk2 activity is less affected by external

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stimuli; in addition, cdk2 functions as part of a complex autoregulatory loop, whose action is critical for the transition to S phase. Cdk2 also functions throughout S phase and in G2/M to regulate critical steps in cell growth and division. Therefore, pharmacologic inhibition of cdk2 activity is potentially an important therapeutic strategy. CDK2 (CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 2, CELL DIVISION KINASE 2, P33) Historical perspective The onset of S-phase and M-phase in both Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Saccharomyces cerevisiae requires the function of the cdc2/cdc28 gene product, p34, a serinethreonine protein kinase. A human homolog, p34cdc2 , was identified by functional complementation of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe cdc2 mutation.1 Using a human cDNA expression library to search for suppressors of cdc28 mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a second functional p34 homolog, cdk2 cell division kinase, was identified.2 This gene is expressed as a 2.1 kb transcript encoding a polypeptide of 298 amino acids. This protein retained nearly all of the amino acids highly conserved among previously identified p34 homologs from other species, but was considerably divergent from all previous p34cdc2 homologs, exhibiting approximately 65% identity. Furthermore, this gene encoded the human homolog of the Xenopus Eg1 gene, sharing 89% amino acid identity, and defined a second sub-family of cdc2 homologs. Cdk2 was initially cloned from cDNA complementary to the S. cerevisiae cdc28.3 In S, pombe with a null allele for cdc28, cdc2, but not cdk2, was able to restore activity. Furthermore, cdk2 mRNA appeared earlier in the cell cycle than cdc2 mRNA in human fibroblasts. This established that cdk2 and cdc2 were unique kinases acting at different points in the cell cycle. A 2.4-kb DNA fragment from the upstream region of cdk2 contained five transcription initiation sites within a 72-bp stretch.4 A 200-bp subfragment that confers 70% of maximal basal promoter activity contained two synergistically acting Sp1 sites. Like cdk4, cdk2 mapped to 12q13.5 Cdk2 and its multiprotein complex Cdk2 functions as part of a multiprotein complex that includes cyclin A or E and cell cycle regulatory proteins such as p21, PCNA, p27, p45SKP2 , p19SKP1 , and cks1/cks2 (Table 1). Cdk2 also forms a complex with cyclin E. The abundance of the cyclin E protein and the cyclin E-Cdk2 complex is maximal in cells in G1.6 Finally, Cdk2 forms a complex with cyclin A. Analysis of the physical structure of the human cyclin A/Cdk2/ATP complex at 2.3-Angstrom resolution revealed that cyclin A binds to one side of Cdk2 catalytic cleft, inducing large conformational changes that activate the kinase by realigning active site residues and relieving the steric blockage at the entrance of the catalytic cleft.7 Skp2 inhibits the kinase activity of cyclin A/Cdk2 in vitro, both by direct inhibition of cyclin A/cdk2 and by inhibition of the activation of Cdk2 by Cdk-activating kinase (CAK, see below) phosphorylation. The kinase activity of Cdk2, but not of that of Cdc2 or Cdk5, is inhibited by Skp2. Skp2 and the Cdk inhibitor, p21 (see below), bind to cyclin A/Cdk2 in a mutually exclusive manner. Furthermore, overexpression of Skp2, but c °

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Wadler Table 1 Components of the Cdk2 multiprotein complex Component

Size (amino acids)

Cyclin A Cyclin E

432 395

p21

164

p27 PCNA

198 261

Skp2

424

Skp1 Cks1 Cks2 CAK Retinoblastoma protein p130 p107

163 79 79 323 928 80 1068

Function

Ref

Binds and activates Cdk2 kinases, thus promotes G1/S and G2/M transitions Binds and activates Cdk2 reaching peak levels at end of G1 and promoting G1/S transition Intermediate by which p53 mediates role as inhibitor of proliferation; binds and inhibits Cdk activity preventing phosphorylation of Cdk substrates and blocking cell proliferation Binds and inhibits Cdk activity blocking cell proliferation Associated with cell proliferation; cofactor for DNA polymerase delta which helps maintain DNA fidelity during replication Required for ubiquitin-mediated degradation of p27; essential for S phase entry Facilitates ubiqutin-mediated proteolysis of cell cycle regulators Associates with Cdks; necessary for degradation of p27 Associates with Cdks; necessary for degradation of p27 Multiunit protein which phosphorylates and activates Cdks Binds and represses E2F preventing entry into S phase Prevents entry into S phase Prevents entry into S phase

184 185 186

187 188 189 190 10 191 41 192 193 194

PCNA, Proliferating cell nuclear antigen; CAK, Cdk activating kinase.

not the associated protein Skp1, in mammalian cells causes a G1/S cell cycle arrest.8 The carboxyl-terminal region of Skp2 associates directly with another component of the cdk2 multiprotein complex, Cks1. Cks1 negatively regulates the interaction between Skp2 and cdk2. Overexpression of Cks1 inhibits cdk2 kinase activity, and additional expression of Skp2 can overcome this inhibition and restore cdk2 kinase activity.9 Analysis of the Cdk-Cks1 crystal structure suggested a possible mechanism of cooperativity and self-regulation of Cks proteins during the cell cycle, and implicated Cks as a targeting or matchmaking protein for cdk2 and at least one other phosphoprotein.10 Other components of the cyclin D1/Cdk4 complex include the Cdk inhibitor Cip/Kip proteins, p21 and p27 (see below, Endogenous inhibition of Cdk2). p27 inhibits cdk2 activity until the G1/S transition at which point p27 levels decrease. The interaction between cdk2 and p27 is mediated by a family of small proteins that include cks1, which binds to cdk2.10 In cks −/− cells, p27 levels remain stable; adding cks1 results in p27 ubiquitination, but not cyclin E. Normally inhibitory to cdk4 activity, as cyclin D1 levels increase, p21 and p27 are resequestered with cdk4/cyclin D1 where cyclin D1 retains its activity. In late G1, cyclin E/cdk2 phosphorylate p21 and p27. Skp2 degrades the ubiquitinated Cip/Kip proteins. Cks1 controls the ability of skp2 to bind to p27, by allowing a change in conformation that increases its affinity for p27.11 Cdk2 and CAK Cdks are regulated in various ways, including activating phosphorylation of a conserved threonine residue. This essential phosphorylation is carried out by the cdk-activating kinase (CAK). The structural consequences of phosphorylation of Cdk2 at Thr (160) include changes in conformation of the activation loop, with a 100,000-fold increase in catalytic effi348

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ciency and an approximate 1,000-fold increase in the overall turnover rate. The increase in catalytic power arises mainly from a 3,000-fold increase in the rate of the phosphoryl group transfer step with a more moderate increase in substrate binding affinity. In contrast, the rate of phosphoryl group transfer in the ATPase pathway is unaffected by phosphorylation, demonstrating that phosphorylation at Thr (160) does not serve to stabilize ATP in the ATPase reaction. Therefore, the role of phosphorylation in the kinase reaction may be to specifically stabilize the peptide phosphoacceptor group.12 Replacing this threonine residue in human cdk2 by serine demonstrated that cdk2 (Ser-160) is actually phosphorylated more efficiently than wild-type cdk2, and dephosphorylation proceeded more slowly with cdk2 (Ser-160) than with wild-type cdk2. Therefore, one reason for the conservation of threonine as the site of activating phosphorylation may be to favor unphosphorylated cdk2 following the degradation of cyclins.13 RINGO, a novel Cdc2 regulator, can directly stimulate the kinase activity of Cdk2 independently of Thr 160 phosphorylation. Moreover, RINGO-bound Cdc2 and Cdk2 are less susceptible to inhibition by p21 (see below). Cdk/RINGO complexes may be active under conditions where cyclin-bound Cdks are inhibited and can therefore play different regulatory roles.14 Cdk2 and pocket proteins Purified cdk2 forms a complex with and phosphorylates retinoblastoma protein (pRb) in vitro with timing of activation of cdk2 in the cell cycle similar to that of the onset of phosphorylation of the RB protein.15 Other pocket proteins, including p107 and p130, in addition to pRB are involved in cdk2 binding; both cyclin E/cdk2 and cyclin A/cdk2 kinases associated with p107 and E2F in a temporally distinct manner.16,17 Down-regulation of cdk2 activity may be required for

Cdk2 inhibitors for cancer therapy pRB-mediated cell cycle arrest.18 p107 can inhibit the phosphorylation of target substrates by cyclin A/cdk2 and cyclin E/cdk2 complexes19 through an interaction with E2F family members via a p21-related domain present in the C terminus of the protein. pRb2/p130 also possesses this activity, but through a separate domain. Increased expression of pRb/p130 during various cellular processes correlates with the decreased cdk2 kinase activity. pRb2/p130 acts not only to bind and modify E2F activity, but also to inhibit cdk2 kinase activity in concert with p21 in a manner different from p107.20 In pRB(−), p16(+) Saos-2 osteosarcoma cells, p130, but not p107, was phosphorylated and released from E2F-4 in late G1 and S phase cells. p130 phosphorylation occurred in the absence of cyclin D/cdk4 complexes, coincided with cyclin E- and cdk2-associated kinase activity, and was prevented by expression of dominant negative cdk2. Moreover, a dominant negative cdk2 prevented the dissociation of endogenous p130-E2F-4 complexes and inhibited E2F-4-dependent transcription.21 Cdk2 and PCNA PCNA and cdk2 form a complex together with cyclin A. This ternary PCNA-Cdk2-cyclin A complex was able to phosphorylate the PCNA binding region of the large subunit of replication factor C as well as DNA ligase I. Furthermore, PCNA appears to be a connector between cdk2 and DNA ligase I and to stimulate phosphorylation of DNA ligase I.22 Cdk2 and E2F Interactions between cdk2, its molecular target, pRB, and the pRb-repressed transcription factor, E2F, are highly complex. Cyclin E/cdk2 and cyclin A/cdk2 have differential functions in the regulation of pRb-mediated repression of E2F.23 Specifically, cyclin A/cdk2, unlike cyclin E/cdk2, binds directly to E2F-1 and inhibits the DNA-binding activity of E2F-1/DP-1; the DNA-binding activity of the E2F-1/DP-1 complex is inhibited following phosphorylation by cyclin A/cdk2.24,25 Overexpressed E2F, in the absence of cdk2 expression, can initiate entry into S phase. Likewise, overexpression of cdk2 can replace E2F activity in the transition to S phase.26 Cdk2 and cdk inhibitors This will be discussed below under Endogenous Inhibitors of Cdk2. Cdk2 and oncoproteins B-Myb is a target of cyclin A/cdk2 and B-myb activity is regulated by cdk2-mediated phosphorylation.27 Furthermore, B-myb is an in vitro substrate for cyclin A/cdk2, but not for cyclin D1/cdk4 or cyclin E/cdk2.28 Two-dimensional tryptic phosphopeptide analysis indicated that the majority of the Bmyb sites phosphorylated in vivo are targeted in vitro by cyclin A/cdk2. Six sites in B-myb fulfil the requirements for recognition by cdk2.29 v-Jun accelerates G1 progression and shares the capacity of the myc, E2F, and E1A oncoproteins to sustain S-phase entry in the absence of mitogens; v-Jun enables cells to express cyclin A and cyclin A-cdk2 kinase activity in the absence of growth factors and deregulation of cdk2 is required for

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S-phase entry. Cyclin A expression is repressed in quiescent cells by E2F acting in conjunction with its pocket protein partners Rb, p107, and p130; however, v-Jun overrides this control, causing phosphorylated pRb and proliferation-specific E2Fp107 complexes to persist after mitogen withdrawal. Despite this, v-Jun does not stimulate D-cyclin-cdk activity but does induce a marked deregulation of cyclin E-cdk2. In particular, hormonal activation of a conditional v-Jun-estrogen receptor fusion protein in quiescent, growth factor-deprived cells stimulates cyclin E-cdk2 activity and triggers pRb phosphorylation and DNA synthesis.30 Cdk2 and apoptosis Cdk2 appears to play a role in cellular apoptosis. Resting thymocytes undergoing apoptosis in response to specific stimuli degrade the cdk inhibitor p27 and upregulate cdk2 kinase activity. Inhibition of cdk2 kinase activity efficiently blocks cell death via certain apoptosis pathways; overexpression of cdk2 accelerates such cell death. Cdk2 activation during thymocyte apoptosis can be regulated by p53, Bax and Bcl-2.31 Apoptosis of human endothelial cells after growth factor deprivation is associated with rapid and dramatic upregulation of cyclin A-associated cdk2 activity. Caspasemediated cleavage of p21 and p27 results in a substantial reduction in their association with cyclin-cdk2 complexes, with a dramatic induction of cdk2 activity. Dominant-negative cdk2, as well as a mutant of p21 resistant to caspase cleavage, partially suppress apoptosis. Therefore, cdk2 activation, through caspase-mediated cleavage of cdk inhibitors, may be instrumental in the execution of apoptosis following caspase activation.32 MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CDK2 In colon adenoma and focal carcinoma in adenomatous tissue, cdk2/cdc2 was overexpressed in a subset of adenomas (14/50; 28.0%) but this overexpression was much greater in focal carcinoma (13/15; 86.7%).33 Gene amplification of cyclin E was detected in 5 of 53 (9.4%) primary colorectal carcinoma tissues. In three of five tumors showing cyclin E gene amplification, the cdk2 gene was amplified simultaneously with rearrangements.34 Western blot analysis revealed that colorectal cancer expressed higher levels of cdk2 and cdc2 than did normal mucosa and that the ratio of the hyperphosphorylated form of pRb was higher in colorectal cancer.35 The protein expression of cyclin (D1, D3, E, and A) and cdks (cdk4, cdk2, and cdc2) was higher in primary colorectal carcinoma tissue than in adjacent normal tissue. Whereas only three of eight patients had increased cdk4 activity in cancer tissue, eight of eight and seven of eight patients had increased cdk2 and cdc2 activities, respectively, in cancer tissue compared with adjacent normal tissue.36 Expression of cyclins A and E and cdk2 was examined immunohistochemically in 190 cases of human lung carcinoma.37 All were overexpressed in tumors. Unlike cyclin E, tumors which exhibited higher cyclin A and cdk2 expression also had higher cdk2 kinase activity. Elevated expression of cyclin A, but not cyclin E, correlated with shorter survival. In human lung carcinomas, elevated expression of active cyclin A-cdk2, but not cyclin E/cdk2, was associated with c °

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Wadler unrestrained proliferation of tumor cells and predicted a worse outcome. No prognostic relevance was found for cdk2 among 40 newly diagnosed childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemias.38 Primary, metastatic, recurrent and benign ovarian tumors were screened for cyclin E and cdk2 gene amplification. Cyclin E was shown to be amplified in 21% and cdk2 in 6.4% of the cases analyzed. Cyclin E and cdk2 RNA expression levels were determined by semi-quantitative RT-PCR and compared to the expression levels of normal ovarian surface epithelial cells. Cyclin E RNA was overexpressed in 29.5% and cdk2 in 6.5% of ovarian tumors tested.39 In 20 normal oral mucosa, 42 dysplastic epithelia, and 103 oral squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs), cdk2, and cyclins A and E were not detected in the normal epithelium and significantly altered from epithelial dysplasia to SCC. While there were no significant correlations between the expression of cyclins A, E and the patients’ survival, cdk2 expression was significantly correlated with lymph node involvement (P = 0.025), tumor differentiation (P = 0.032), mode of tumor invasion (P = 0.017), and shorter survival period (P = 0.0173).40

ROLE OF CDK2 IN SPECIFIC PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE G1 phase Early G1 Cells are most sensitive to environmental cues during the G1 portion of the cell cycle. The components of the G1 signaling network include: (1) cdk4/6 + cyclin D1-3; (2) cyclin E + cdk2 + the cdk inhibitor proteins; and (3) retinoblastoma protein (pRb) + the transcription factor, E2F. All of these are present in quiescent cells. The D-type cyclins, which regulate progression through the early portions of G1, exert their effects by the formation of a holoenzyme complex with either cdk4 or cdk6, which is subsequently activated by cdk activated kinase (CAK) containing cyclin H and cdk7 proteins.41 The timely regulation of cyclin D1 is important for normal cell-cycle progression, and aberrant overexpression is associated with neoplastic changes. In cells exhibiting uncontrolled growth, cyclin D1 has been implicated as a protooncogene. It is able to cooperate with an activated ras oncogene or a defective adenovirus EIA oncogene to increase the transformation of primary rodent fibroblasts.42 It can also cooperate with the myc oncoprotein in transgenic mouse lymphomagenesis.43 It is also responsive to estrogen and other steroidal stimulation. In normal cells, overexpression of exogenous cyclin D1 results in acceleration of the cell cycle due to a decrease in the length of the G1 phase.44 In addition to its broader regulatory role, cyclin D1 is also associated with the mechanisms governing programmed cell death (apoptosis)45,46 and senescence.47,48 Activation of cdk2 is in part dependent on activation of cyclin D1. In mitogen-stimulated cells, cyclin D1 induction in early G1 is followed by induction of cyclin E, activation of cdk2, and hyperphosphorylation of pRB in mid-to-late G1 phase. In T-47D breast cancer cells expressing cyclin D1 under the control of a metal-responsive metallothionein promoter, cdk2 activation and pRB hyperphosphorylation were conse350

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quences of cyclin D1 induction. In this system, a 4-5-fold increase in cyclin D1 protein abundance was followed by approximately 2-fold increases in cyclin E protein abundance and cdk2 activity and by hyperphosphorylation of pRB.49 Paradoxically, cyclin D1 can also function to prevent the transition to S phase in the presence of DNA damaging agents in some mammary epithelial tumor models.44,50,51 Excessive levels of cyclin D1 were shown to repress cell proliferation by inhibiting DNA replication and cdk2 activity through the binding of cyclin D1 to PCNA and cdk2.52 Role of cdk inhibitors in transition to late G1 Late G1 is characterized by an increase in levels of cyclin E and cyclin E/cdk2 binding; this step is associated with the irreversibility of the commitment for entry into S phase and replication of DNA. Entry into the G1/S transition is controlled by cyclin E/cdk2, which are synthesized later than D-type cylins and peak later in the G1 phase.6,53 Cyclin E-cdk2 complexes in a mammmalian cells promote cell cycle progression by directly phosphorylating p27 in vitro. In late G1, the INK4 proteins (p16, p15, p18, p19) inhibit cyclin D, but also act to arrest cyclin E activity by displacing Cip/Kip proteins to cyclin E (discussed below). Therefore, the INK4 proteins act to terminate the actions of both cyclins D and E as G1 concludes. In cells induced to overexpress p16, a higher proportion of cellular p27 formed complexes with cyclin E-cdk2, and cdk2-associated kinase activities were correspondingly inhibited. Cells engineered to express moderately elevated levels of cyclin E became resistant to p16-mediated growth suppression. These results demonstrate that inhibition of cyclin D-dependent kinase activity may not be sufficient to cause G1 arrest in actively proliferating tumor cells. Inhibition of cyclin E-dependent kinases is required in p16-mediated growth suppression.54 Phosphorylation of pRb The molecular target for phosphorylation by cyclin D1/cdk4/6 and cyclin E/cdk2 holoenzyme complexes is the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein, pRb. The phosphorylation of pRb by an active cyclin/cdk complex results in the dissociation of pRB from the transcription factor E2F, thus altering the status of E2F-regulated genes from fully repressed to induced. The E2F-responsive genes are therefore activated in cancer cells because of the loss of pRb/E2F repressor complexes and the liberation of free E2F. At least two phosphorylation events are necessary for release of pRb from E2F; these are performed sequentially first by cyclin D1/cdk4/6, then by cyclin E/cdk2.55 The first step involves the inducible holoenzyme complex; the latter is regulated by an autoregulatory feedback loop and is associated with an irreversible step towards entry into phase. Several studies clearly suggest that both cyclin E and the cyclin E/cdk2 complex play a pivotal role in regulating the transition from G1 to S phase. Cyclin E, an important E2Ftarget gene, creates a feedback loop with E2F, thus allowing an increase in the activity of both proteins near the G1 /S transition (Fig. 1). While the precise mechanism by which E2F mediates S phase induction remains to be elucidated, it is likely that cyclin E/cdk2 complexes and E2F cooperate to initiate S phase. However, recent reports indicate that the overexpression of

Cdk2 inhibitors for cancer therapy

Fig. 1 E2F and cyclinE-Cdk2 cooperate to initiate S phase. Cdk2 functions as part of an autoregulatory feedback loop to derepress E2F. Unlike cyclin D/Cdk4, the cyclin E/Cdk2 multiprotein unit is relatively insulated from external stimuli; once activated, cells become irreparably committed to S phase entry.

either cyclin E or E2F alone can induce S phase without activating the other, suggesting a more complex signaling system.26,56 Recent studies show that there are at least 2 distinct signaling pathways downstream of E2F to initiate S phase. Only one of these pathways involves the activity of the cyclin E/cdk2 complex and its cooperation with E2F is required for the efficient initiation of DNA replication in a normal mammalian cell cycle.57 The cyclin E/cdk2 complex plays a collaborative role in induction of S phase functioning downstream of E2F; this role is also likely altered by inhibition of cdk2. The transition to S phase p220NPAT is an important downstream target of cdk2. NPAT associates with cyclin E-cdk2 in vivo and can be phosphorylated by this cdk. The protein level of NPAT peaks at the G1/S boundary. Overexpression of NPAT accelerates S-phase entry, and this effect is enhanced by coexpression of cyclin E-CDK2. These results suggest that NPAT is a substrate of cyclin E-cdk2 and plays a role in S-phase entry.58 Five cyclin E/cdk2 phosphorylation sites in p220 have been identified. The timing of NPAT phosphorylation correlates with the appearance of cyclin E in Cajal bodies at the G1/S boundary, and this phosphorylation is maintained until prophase. Histone acetylation A series of recent observations has provided important evidence for an interface between the machinery regulating orderly cell-cycle progression and the processes regulating histone acetylation and deacetylation (reviewed in:59 ). pRb/HDAC (histone deacetylase) complexes regulate the expression of the cyclin E gene, and cyclin E/cdk2 in turn plays a role in regulation of histone gene expression. Histone biosynthesis is induced during G1/S phase transition, contributing to the increase in mRNA synthesis that occurs as cells progress into S-phase. Expression of NPAT (see above) activates transcription of the histone H2B promoter. NPAT links cyclical cyclin E/cdk2 kinase activity to replication-dependent histone gene transcription.60 NPAT activates histone gene transcription, and this activation is dependent on promoter elements which

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mediate cell cycle-dependent transcription. Cyclin E is also associated with histone gene loci, and cyclin E-cdk2 stimulates the NPAT-mediated activation of histone gene transcription.61 NPAT overexpression can induce both histone gene expression and G1/S phase transition suggesting these two properties may be functionally linked. Additional levels of interaction between cyclin E/cdk2 and chromatin include findings that cyclin E can directly associate with the histone acetyltransferase, p300, and phosphorylation of CBP at the G1/S boundary by cyclin E/cdk2 correlated with an increase in CBP HAT activity. Cyclin E can also bind to the chromatin remodeling protein Brg1 and inhibit Brg1-mediated growth arrest.59 The coordinate induction of histone gene expression is important in maintaining the integrity of genomic replication. S phase Biochemical cascades following E2F release from pRb The transition from G1 to S involves a complex series of events that follow the derepression of E2F by cdk2-mediated phosphorylation of pRb. To investigate the biochemical cascades from E2F derepression to the S phase entry and specifically the molecular mechanism of the E2F-1-mediated initiation of chromosomal DNA replication, stably transfected mouse NIH3T3 cells that express exogenous human E2F-1 under the control of a heavy metal-inducible metallothionein promoter were generated.57 Ectopic E2F-1 expression in serum deprived murine cells arrested in G0/G1 enabled them to progress through G1 and enter S phase. During G1, cyclin E, but not cyclin D1, was induced, and subsequently activated cdk2. Cdk2, but not cdk4, was required for S phase entry mediated by E2F-1. In experiments utilizing a chemical cdk-specific inhibitor, butyrolactone, cdk2 activity was required only for chromatin binding of the Cdc45 proteins, and not for the expression of Cdc45 or chromatin binding of MCM4 and -7. Therefore at least two separate pathways function downstream of E2F to initiate S phase; in this murine system, only one depended upon the activity of cdk2. Co-injection of human E2F-1 and cyclin E proteins into immature oocytes allowed them to initiate DNA replication. Injection of cyclin E alone, which was sufficient to activate endogenous cdk2, failed to induce DNA replication. Thus, like somatic cells, activities of E2F and cyclin E/cdk2 complex were required for induction of the DNA replication ability in maturing Xenopus oocytes, and enhancement of both activities enables oocytes to override DNA-replication inhibitory mechanisms that specifically lie in maturing oocytes.62 Initiation of DNA replication The role of cdk2 in DNA replication is critical. The transition from G1 to S phase of the mammalian cell cycle requires the activity of both cyclin E/cdk2 and cyclin A/cdk2. While cyclin E is expressed in middle to late G1, cyclin A is first expressed at the G1/S transition of the cell cycle.17,63,64 Microinjection of anticyclin E or anticyclin A antibodies into human cells or expression of antisense cyclin A RNA, inhibits initiation of DNA replication.65,66 Furthermore, enhanced levels of cyclins A and E accelerate the G1/S transition in vivo67,68 and in vitro.69 c °

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Wadler Assembly of the prereplicative (RC) and origin replication complexes (ORC) Although the mechanism of pre-RC assembly in human cells has not yet been fully characterized, all of the components of the pre-RC identified so far in yeast appear to be conserved in humans. A growing body of evidence indicates that components of the pre-RC are cdk substrates whose modification is likely to regulate the initiation of DNA replication. The initiation of DNA replication in eukaryotes requires the stepwise assembly of this multiprotein prereplicative complex on replicator elements in the chromatin. Studies in yeast and in Xenopus have determined that the six-subunit ORC serves to nucleate this assembly. Cyclin A/cdk2 associates with ORC, and cdk2-specific phosphorylation of ORC destroys ORC binding (reviewed in:70 ). Before initiation of DNA replication, ORC proteins, cdc6 and minichromosome maintenance (MCM) proteins, bind to chromatin sequentially and form preinitiation complexes. In G1, the cdc6 protein promotes the loading of the MCMs onto chromatin.71–74 This reaction presumably involves direct physical interaction between cdc6 and ORC.75,76 In Xenopus laevis egg extracts, after the formation of these complexes and before initiation of DNA replication, cdc6 is rapidly removed from chromatin, possibly degraded by a cdk2-activated, ubiquitindependent proteolytic pathway. If this displacement is inhibited, DNA replication fails to initiate. After assembly of MCM proteins into preinitiation complexes, removal of the ORC from DNA does not block the subsequent initiation of replication. Under conditions in which both ORC and cdc6 protein are absent from preinitiation complexes, DNA replication is still dependent on cdk2 activity. Therefore, the final steps in the process leading to initiation of DNA replication during S phase of the cell cycle are independent of ORC and cdc6 proteins, but dependent on cdk2 activity.77,78 All cdc6-related proteins identified so far contain several potential sites for phosphorylation by cdk. In human cells, the N-terminal consensus cdk phosphorylation sites of HsCdc6 are specifically phosphorylated in vitro by cyclin E/cdk2 and cyclin A/cdk2 and in vivo at the G1/S transition.79 Phosphorylation of human cdc6 by cdk2 is necessary for initiation of DNA replication in human cells. Purified, biochemically active HsCdc6 is specifically phosphorylated by cycinE/cdk2, cyclinA/cdk2, and cyclinA/cdc2 in vitro, and sequential mutagenesis of potential cdk sites in HsCdc6 has resulted in stepwise reduction of HsCdc6 phosphorylation by cyclinA/cdk2 and cyclinE/cdk2. At least two biochemical roles for HsCdc6 phosphorylation by cdk2 in the initiation process can be postulated. Phosphorylation of HsCdc6 is a prerequisite for its export from the nucleus in early S phase.79,80 Alternatively, phosphorylation of HsCdc6 may be required to remodel the prereplicative complex late in the initiation process.81 Activation of cyclin E-cdk2 is linked to the ubiquitination of human p27Kip or Xenopus p27Xicl by SCF (Skp1-Cullin-Fbox protein) ubiquitin ligases. For human p27, ubiquitination requires direct phosphorylation by cyclin E-cdk2. Xic1 ubiquitination does not require phosphorylation by cyclin E-cdk2, but it does require nuclear accumulation of the Xic1-cyclin E-cdk2 complex, and recruitment of this complex to chromatin by ORC together with cdc6 replication preinitiation factors. It also requires an activation step necessitating cyclin 352

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E-cdk2-kinase and SCF ubiquitin-ligase activity, and additional factors associated with MCM proteins, including the inactivation of geminin. Components of the SCF ubiquitin-ligase complex, including Skp1 and Cul1, are also recruited to chromatin through cyclin E-cdk2 and the preinitiation complex. Thus, activation of the cyclin E-cdk2 kinase and ubiquitin-dependent destruction of its inhibitor are spatially constrained to the site of a properly assembled preinitiation complex.82 Centrosome duplication The function of the centrosomes is critical for accurate chromosome transmission to daughter cells. Since each daughter cell inherits one centrosome, each centrosome must duplicate exactly once prior to the next mitosis. Deregulation of the centrosome duplication cycle results in abnormal amplification of centrosomes, leading to aberrant mitoses and increased chromosome transmission errors. The kinase activity of cdk2/cyclin E is required for centrosomes to initiate duplication and is part of the regulatory process.83,84 In a Xenopus egg extract arrested in S phase, multiple rounds of centrosome reproduction were blocked by selective inactivation of cdk2/cyclin E and were restored by addition of purified cdk2/cyclin E. Confocal microscopy revealed that cyclin E was localized at the centrosome.85 Nucleophosmin (NPM/B23), a phosphoprotein primarily found in the nucleolus, associates with unduplicated centrosomes and is a direct substrate of cdk2-cyclin E in centrosome duplication.86 Upon phosphorylation by cdk2-cyclin E, NPM/B23 dissociates from centrosomes, which is a prerequisite step for centrosomes to initiate duplication. Threonine 199 (Thr(199)) of NPM/B23 is the major phosphorylation target site of cdk2-cyclin E. NPM/T199A, a nonphosphorylatable NPM/B23 substitution mutant (Thr(199) −→ Ala) acts as dominant negative when expressed in cells, resulting in specific inhibition of centrosome duplication. As expected, NPM/T199A remained associated with the centrosomes, providing direct evidence that the cdk2-cyclin E-mediated phosphorylation on Thr(199) determines association and dissociation of NPM/B23 to the centrosomes, which is a critical control for the centrosome to initiate duplication.87 Cyclin E/cdk2 is also required for centriole separation.83 Nucleosome assembly The influence of reversible protein phosphorylation on nucleosome assembly during DNA replication was analyzed in extracts from human cells. Inhibitor studies and add-back experiments indicated requirements of cyclin A/cdk2, cyclin E/cdk2, and protein phosphatase type 1 (PP1) activities for nucleosome assembly during DNA synthesis by chromatin assembly factor 1 (CAF-1). The p60 subunit of CAF-1 is a molecular target for reversible phosphorylation by cyclin/cdk complexes and PP1 during nucleosome assembly and DNA synthesis in vitro. Purified p60 can be directly phosphorylated by purified cyclin A/cdk2, cyclin E/cdk2, and cyclin B1/cdk1, but not by cyclin D/cdk4 complexes in vitro.88 G2/M phase While levels of cdk2 decline in G2, cdk2 continues to regulate the transition to M. Under normal culture conditions, a dominant-negative cdk2 (Cdk2-dn) was able to arrest cells with

Cdk2 inhibitors for cancer therapy S and G2/M DNA contents, predominantly in G2 phase, prior to the onset of mitosis: these cells contained uncondensed chromosomes, low levels of cyclin B-associated kinase activity, and high levels of tyrosine-phosphorylated cdk1. Cdk2-dn did not delay progression through mitosis upon release of cells from a nocodazole block.89 Cyclin A/cdk2 is activated in early G2 phase by a cdc25 activity. In the G2 phase checkpoint arrest initiated in response to various forms of DNA damage, the cdc25-dependent activation of both cyclin A/cdk2 and cyclin B1/cdc2 was blocked. Ectopic expression of cdc25B, but not cdc25C, in G2-phase-arrested cells activated both cyclin A/cdk2 and cyclin B1/cdc2. The block in cyclin A/cdk2 activation in the G2 checkpoint arrest was independent of ataxia-telangiectasia, mutated and ataxia telangiectasia and rad3-related (ATM/ATR). Cyclin A/cdk2 activation may act as a further layer of checkpoint control, and blocking G2 phase cyclin A/cdk2 activation contributes to the G2 phase checkpoint arrest.90 The initiation of anaphase and exit from mitosis depend on the activation of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a multicomponent, ubiquitin-protein ligase.91 Mammalian cyclin A/cdk2 prevented unscheduled anaphase-promoting complex (APC) reactivation during S phase via a cadherin-mediated mechanism.92 CDK2 AND VIRAL ONCOPROTEINS Adenoviral oncoproteins In adenovirus-transformed cells, the viral E1A oncoprotein associates with cdk2/cyclin A but not p34cdc2 /cyclin A (Table 2).93 E1A can act downstream of p27 and cyclin E/cdk2. Specifically, association of E1A with pRb-family proteins was required for E1A to prevent growth arrest by either p27 or p16. Bypassing cdk2 inhibition requires an additional function of E1A: a mutant E1A Delta 26–35 did not overcome p27induced arrest, while it bound pRb-family proteins, prevented p16-induced arrest, and alleviated pRb-mediated repression of E2F-1 transcriptional activity. Besides the pRb family, E1A targets other specific effectors of cdk2 in G1-S control.94 Human papillomaviral (HPV) oncoproteins The E6 and E7 viral oncoproteins function by binding and altering the activity of cellular proteins, which regulate cell cy-

Table 2 Cdk2 associated oncoproteins Protein

Source

E1A

Adenovirus

E6

SV40 TAg IE1,2

Function

Bind pRb and dissociates from E2F Papillomavirus Accelerates ubiquitinmediated degradation of p53 Polyomavirus Complexes with p53 and p300 Cytomegalovirus Upregulate myc, fos; induces cyclins, pRb

pRb, retinoblastoma protein; T Ag, T antigen.

Reference 195 196

197 198, 199

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cle progression. Among the proteins bound by E7 are pRb, as well as p107 and p130. In addition, E7 binds cyclin A. HPV 18 E7 associates with cyclin E. E7/cyclin E complexes were immunoprecipitated from E7-expressing cells as well as from cell extracts using GST-E7 fusion proteins. E7 was found to complex with a single form of cyclin E, and the binding was mediated through p107. Of interest, both E7/cyclin E and E7/cyclin A complexes exhibit kinase activity through associated cdk2 proteins which can contribute to phosphorylation of p107.95 HPV-16 E7-expressing keratinocytes had elevated cdk2 kinase activity despite high levels of p21 and association of p21 with cdk2. HPV E7 protein abrogated p21-mediated inhibition of cyclin A and E-associated kinase activities.96 In keratinocytes, initiation of DNA synthesis by E7 oncoprotein was resistant to p21-mediated inhibition of cyclin E-cdk2 activity.97 Like E7, the replicative helicase E1 of bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1) interacts with cyclin E/cdk2. The E1 helicase, which interacts with cyclin E and not with cdk2, presents the highest affinity for catalytically active kinase complexes. Thus, the BPV initiator of replication and cyclin E/cdk2 function together as a protein complex to regulate papillomavirus replication.98 Human cytomegaloviral (HCMV) oncoproteins HCMV, a herpesvirus, activates cdk2, and inhibition of cellular cdk2 activity blocks HCMV replication. Furthermore, inhibition of cdk2 activity by roscovitine inhibited HCMV DNA synthesis, production of infectious progeny, and late antigen expression in infected cells. HCMV replication was also inhibited by the expression of a cdk2 dominant negative mutant, whereas expression of wild-type cdk2 has no effect on viral replication.99 HCMV infection also resulted in the translocation of cdk2 into the nucleus.100 MEQ is a potential oncogene found in Marek’s disease virus, an avian α herpesvirus. Phosphorylation of MEQ by cdk2 drastically reduced the DNA binding activity of MEQ, which may in part account for the lack of retention of MEQ oncoprotein in the nucleus. Localization of cdk2 in coiled bodies and the nucleolar periphery was observed only in MEQ-transformed Rat-2 cells, implicating MEQ in modifying the subcellular localization of cdk2.101 SV40 T antigen The association of cyclin A and cdk2 with DNA occurs in the presence of SV40 T antigen (the viral replication initiator protein). Under replication initiation conditions, cyclin A and cdk2 from S-phase extracts specifically associated with SV40 T antigen, and purified recombinant cyclin A associated directly with SV40 T antigen. Therefore, cyclin A and cdk2 are components of the SV40 replication initiation complex, and protein-protein interactions between cyclin A-cdk2 and T antigen may facilitate the association of cyclin A-cdk2 with the complex.102 INHIBITION OF CDK2 Inhibition of cdk2 kinase activity is a physiologic process that is an integral part of cell cycle and cell division. Naturally occuring cdk inhibitors include members of the Cip/Kip and INK4 families, as described above, as well as other proteins described below. Both CIP/KIP and INK4 proteins participate c °

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Wadler Table 3 Physiologic Cdk2 inhibitors Inhibitor

Mechanism

Cip/Kip proteins

Main regulators of Cdk activity. Inhibit cell proliferation through reciprocal regulation of cyclin/Cdk activity. Phosphorylation of p27/Kip results in elimination from cell and cell cycle progression. p21-mediated cell cycle inhibition ties cell cycle regulation to p53. Main regulators of Cdk activity. Specific inhibitors of Cdk4. Induction of p16 displaces p27 from Cdk4 to Cdk2. Oncoprotein that induces Cdk2 activity. Down-regulation of myc induces cell cycle arrest by down-regulation of Cdk2 Combination of cytokines, but not either alone, reduces Cdk2 activity in vitro Associates with cyclin/Cdk2 and inhibits kinase activity Recruits p27 to inhibit Cdk2 activity Inhibits Cdk2 by p27 recruitment and cyclin A down-regulation

INK4 proteins Myc Interferon/TNF PKC Insulin receptor kinase Cell-cell contact

See text for references. TNF, tumor necrosis factor; PKC, protein kinase C.

in regulation of cdk2 activity; however, their interactions are highly complex. Novel cdk inhibitors are of particular interest in cancer therapy because many naturally occuring cdk inhibitors are either mutated or deleted in primary tumor cells, abrogating their function as tumor suppressors. Novel, synthetic compounds that can replace the functions of altered tumor suppressor genes are not surprisingly prime targets in current cancer research. Therefore, restoring the function of cdk inhibitors or perturbing the function of cdk2 may result in anticancer effects through an antiproliferative, cytostatic or pro-apoptotic mechanism. Physiologic cdk inhibitors Early studies demonstrated that the activity of cdk2 could be inhibited by an associated 20k regulatory subunit that was bound to the cdk2/cyclin E complex.103 Two families of cellular cdk inhibitors were later identified: the Cip/Kip proteins, p21 and p27, and the INK4 proteins, p16, p15, p18 and p19. These proteins interact with cdk2 and other cdks in a complicated fashion to inhibit kinase activity. Further studies have revealed other classes of agents that interact with and inhibit cdk2 (Table 3). Cip/Kip proteins Binding by p21 to cdk2 requires a sequence of approximately 60 amino acids within the p21 NH2 terminus that transitions from a disordered to ordered state.104,105 p21 associates with cyclin-cdks in two functionally distinct forms, one in which the kinase activity is inhibited and the other in which the kinase is still active. The cdk2 and cyclin binding sites on p21 are both required to inhibit kinase activity; however, the alternate interaction, in which an active cyclin-cdk complex interacts with p21 either via the cyclin or the cdk2 binding site, but not through both, does not lead to inhibition of cyclin kinase activity.106 The Cip/Kip proteins function as part of the multiprotein cdk2 complex. While the associations of the pocket protein, p107, and the cdk inhibitor, p21, with cyclin/cdk2 rely on a structurally and functionally related interaction domain, the interactions between p107 or p21 with cyclin/cdk2 complexes are mutually exclusive. In cells treated with DNA354

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damaging agents, elevated levels of p21 cause a dissociation of p107/cyclin/cdk2 complexes to yield p21/cyclin/cdk2 complexes.19 In a partially purified preparation of E2F-p130 complex that contains cdk2, incubation of this complex with recombinant p21 results in a disruption of the interaction between cdk2 and the E2F-p130. An increase in the level of p21 correlates with a loss of cdk2 from the cdk2-containing E2Fp130 complex. Since p21 is believed to be a mediator of p53, the p21-mediated disruption of the cdk2-containing E2F-p130 complex relates cell growth suppression to function of p53.107 Like p21, p27 binds to cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinases and preferentially inhibits the catalytic activity of cdk2 and cdk4. The binding domain was contained within amino acid residues 53–85.108 In Mv1Lu cells containing a p27 inducible system, a 6-fold increase over the basal p27 level completely inhibited cdk2 and cell cycle progression. In contrast, the same or a larger increase in p27 levels did not inhibit cdk4 or its homologue cdk6, despite extensive binding to these kinases. A p27-cyclin A-Cdk2 complex formed in vitro was essentially inactive, whereas a p27-cyclin D2-cdk4 complex was active both as a retinoblastoma kinase and as a substrate for the Cdk-activating kinase CAK.109 p27 is the major inhibitor of cdk2 activity in mitogen-starved wild-type murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Inactivation of the cyclin E-cdk2 complex in response to mitogen starvation occurs normally in MEFs that have a homozygous deletion of the p27 gene. Cdk regulation by mitogens is not affected by the absence of both p27 and p21. A titratable cdk2 inhibitor, p130, compensates for the absence of both CKIs. Thus, cyclin E-Cdk2 kinase activity cannot be inhibited by mitogen starvation of MEFs that lack both p27 and p130.110 Cyclin E-Cdk2-dependent phosphorylation of p27 results in elimination of p27 from the cell, allowing cells to transit from G1 to S phase. Cyclin E/Cdk2 phosphorylates p27 at a carboxyterminal threonine residue (T187) in vitro. This reaction is not significantly inhibited by high concentrations of p27, suggesting that Cdk2 bound to p27 is catalytically active. In vivo, p27 bound to cyclins E and A, but not to D-type cyclins, is phosphorylated. Mutation of T187 to alanine in p27 created a p27 protein that caused a G1 block resistant to cyclin E and whose level of expression is not modulated by cyclin E. A kinetic analysis of the interaction between p27 and cyclin E-Cdk2 explains how p27 can be regulated by the same

Cdk2 inhibitors for cancer therapy enzyme it targets for inhibition. Thus, p27 interacts with cyclin E-Cdk2 in at least two distinct way depending on the level of ATP binding: one resulting in p27 phosphorylation and release, the other in tight binding and cyclin E-Cdk2 inhibition.111 A Cdk2 binding domain on p27 located within the sequence of amino acids 53–85 was further characterized by generating a series of point mutations within amino acid residues 62–75. Two regions, FDF (residues 62–64) and GXY (residues 72 and 74), were identified within the γ hairpin region of p27. Mutations within these regions nearly completely inhibited the binding to Cdk2 and Cdk2/cyclin E complexes formed in vitro or in vivo.112 An unlabeled p27 minimal domain, mutated in the N-terminal LFG motif, was unable to compete with a labeled minimal domain for binding to Cdk2/cyclin E, with inhibition of CAK-mediated phosphorylation of Cdk2/cyclin E. This inhibitory effect was significantly diminished with p27 minimal domain mutated in the LFG motif. Taken together, these results show that anchoring of p27 or p21 to cyclin E via the N-terminal LFG-containing motif can block CAK access to its Cdk2/cyclin E substrate.113 INK4 proteins The INK4 proteins include p16INK4A/CDKN2 , p15INK4B , p18INK4C , and p19INK4D . All are low molecular weight complexes that bind to cyclin-cdk complexes or cdks alone and inhibit their activity (reviewed in:114,115 ). The INK4 inhibitors bind specifically to cdk4. p16 is frequently deleted in human tumor cells leading to the conclusion that it functions as a tumor suppressor. p16 blocks cyclin D1/cdk4-specific phosphorylation of pRb, inducing cell cycle arrest in G1. Absence of p16 contributes to the tumor susceptibility phenotype. A variant transcript of CDKN2, p14ARF , binds and degrades MDM2, resulting in stabilization of p53 and a characteristic arrest in both G1 and G2. Thus, deletion of the INK4A locus simultaneously impairs the INK4A/cyclin D/cdk4/pRb pathway and the ARF/MDM2/p53 pathway. A second member of the INK4 family, p15, is located adjacent to p16 on 9p21 and is codeleted in a high proportion of human cancer cell lines. Furthermore, p15 appears to act as an effector of TGFβ mediated cell cycle arrest. The third and fourth members of this family, p18 and p19, also block cdk4 and cdk6 activity and act as tumor suppressors. Interaction of Cip/Kip and INK4 proteins The interplay of the INK4 inhibitors and the Cip/Kip family of cdk inhibitors is highly complex. As described above, induction of p16 results in a G1 arrest by inhibiting cdk4-specific phosphorylation of pRb. Induction of p16 also inhibits cdk2 activity. In studies in U2OS cells, sequestration of cdk4 by p16 allowed cyclin D1 to associate with cdk2 without affecting its interactions with the Cip/Kip inhibitors. Thus, with induction of p16, p27 appeared to switch its allegiance from cdk4 to cdk2, and the accompanying reassortment of components lead to inhibition of cyclin E-cdk2 by p27 and p21.116 In the same tumor model system, binding of p16 to cdk4 and cdk6 abrogated binding of cyclin D1, p27, and p21. Concomitantly, the total cellular level of p21 increased several-fold via a posttranscriptional mechanism. Most cyclin E-cdk2 complexes associated with p21 and became inactive, expression of cyclin

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A was curtailed, and DNA synthesis was strongly inhibited. Therefore, p21-mediated inhibition of cdk2 contributes to the cell cycle arrest imposed by p16 and is a potential point of cooperation between the p16/pRB and p14(ARF)/p53 tumor suppressor pathways.117 Upon being induced by TGF-β, p15 binds to and inhibits the cyclin D-dependent kinases, prevents p27 binding to these cdk complexes, and promotes p27 binding and inhibition of cyclin-cdk2. In vitro p15 prevents p27 binding only if it has access to cyclin D-cdk4 first. Different subcellular locations of p15 and p27 ensure the prior access of p15 to cdk4. In the cell, p15 is localized mostly in the cytoplasm, whereas p27 is nuclear. p15 prevails over p27 or a p27 construct consisting of the cdk inhibitory domain tagged with a nuclear localization signal. However, when p15 and p27 are forced to reside in the same subcellular location, either the cytoplasm or the nucleus, p15 no longer prevents p27 from binding to cdk4. These properties allow p15 and p27 to coordinately inhibit cdk4 and cdk2.118 In cell lines developed from head and neck squamous cell carcinomas, treatment of cells with TGFβ resulted in a several fold increase in cellular levels of p21, irrespective of biological response. Immune complex in vitro kinase assays demonstrated that the activity of CDK2 was inhibited by exposure to ligand in each case, confirming that a TGFβ signalling pathway which regulates kinase activity was intact in these cell lines.119 Cdk2 activation as a downstream effector of caspase is a critical step for the execution of TGF-β induced apoptosis.120 Oncoprotein-induced inhibition of cdk2 Myc and ras collaborate in inducing accumulation of active cyclin E/cdk2 and E2F.121 Likewise, inhibition of c-myc activity in exponentially growing cells leads to G1 arrest through loss of cyclin E-associated kinase activity.122 In addition to induction of cyclin E/cdk2 kinase activity, activation of myc triggers a rapid degradation of p27. Overt degradation of p27 is preceded by a specific dissociation of p27 from cyclin E/cdk2, but not from cyclin D/cdk4 complexes. Cyclin E/cdk2 phosphorylates p27 at a carboxy-terminal threonine residue (T187) in vitro. This reaction is not significantly inhibited by high concentrations of p27, suggesting that cdk2 bound to p27 is catalytically active. In vivo, p27 bound to cyclins E and A, but not to D-type cyclins, is phosphorylated. Myc-induced release of p27 from cdk2 requires cdk2 kinase activity.123 Induction of the myc-estrogen receptor fusion protein (mycER) by 4OH-tamoxifen (OHT) led to the activation of cyclin E/cdk2 complexes followed by the induction of DNA synthesis. This activation involved at least two myc-dependent steps: induction of cyclin E gene transcription followed by accumulation of cyclin E mRNA in a protein synthesis-independent manner and the inhibition of p27 association with cyclin E/cdk2 complexes containing newly synthesised cyclin E.124 Other endogenous inhibitors of cdk2 The combination of two cytokines, interferon-α and TNF-α, but not either cytokine alone suppressed levels of cdk2 and cyclin A in RPMI 4788 cells.125 suggesting a link between activity of the cell cycle regulatory pathways and various signal transduction elements. The addition of the nitric oxide donors SNP or SNAP to mitogen-stimulated vascular smooth muscle c °

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Wadler cell VSMCs prevents activation of cdk2, a key regulator of the G1 and S phases of the cell cycle. These NO donors do not affect the expression of cdk2 protein but block the mitogeninduced expression of cyclin A.126 PKC that is endogenously expressed or overexpressed was found to associate with the cyclin E/cdk2/p21 complex in keratinocytes. Colocalization of PKC with cdk2 and cyclin E was observed in the cytoplasm, particularly in the perinuclear region. p21 was phosphorylated in the complex in a PKC-activator dependent manner. Association of PKC with cdk2 resulted in marked inhibition of cdk2-kinase activity.127 In rat liver parenchyma Golgi/endosomes, insulin-induced insulin receptor-kinase activation was followed by the inhibition of immunoprecipitated cdk2/cyclin E kinase activity. A massive recruitment of p27 was observed in the cdk2/cyclin E complexes isolated from plasmalemma.128 Both p27 induction and cyclin A downregulation contribute to the inhibition of cdk2 and cell proliferation by cell-cell contact in endothelial cells.129 Steroid hormone regulation of cdk2 Extensive interactions between steroid hormones and cdk2 have been observed. These are important in understanding the role of cdk2 in hormonally-driven tumors, such as breast and prostate cancer, as well as in identifying possible targets for pharmacologic intervention. In MCF-7 cells, estradiol relieved the cell cycle block resulting from tamoxifen treatment, leading to marked activation of cyclin E-cdk2 complexes and phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein within 6 h. Cyclin D1 levels increased significantly while the levels of cyclin E, cdk2, p21 and p27 were constant. However, p21 shifted from its association with cyclin E-cdk2 to cyclin D1-cdk4, providing an explanation for the observed activation of the cyclin E-cdk2 complexes.130 Similarly, in estrogen-antagonist blocked MCF-7 cells, treatment with 17β-estradiol resulted in the synchronous entry of cells into S phase. An increase in cdk4 activity was accompanied by increases in cyclin D1 mRNA and protein, indicating that an initiating event in the activation of cdk4 was increased cyclin D1 gene expression. In contrast, the levels of cdk2, p21 and p27 in total cell lysates and in cyclin E immunoprecipitates were unaltered. Furthermore, only a minority of cyclin E-cdk2 complexes were active following estradiol treatment. Active complexes were relatively deficient in both p21 and p27, and contained cdk2 with increased threonine 160 phosphorylation, consistent with a mechanism of activation of cyclin E-cdk2 involving both reduced cdk inhibitor association and cdk-activating kinase-mediated phosphorylation of cdk2.131 In uterine epithelia from ovariectomized adult mice 17βestradiol (E2) stimulated a synchronized wave of DNA synthesis and cell division in the epithelial cells, while pretreatment with progesterone completely inhibited this E2-induced cell proliferation. In contrast to the tamoxifen-blocked MCF-7 cells noted above, estradiol treatment activated cyclin E- and cyclin A-cdk2 kinases, resulting in hyperphosphorylation of pRb and p107. Progesterone pretreatment abrogated estradiol-induced cyclin E-cdk2 activation by dephosphorylation of cdk2, followed by inhibition of cyclin A expression and consequently 356

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of cyclin A-cdk2 kinase activity and further inhibition of phosphorylation of pRb and p107.132 Treatment of MCF-7 breast cancer cells with the pure estrogen antagonist ICI 182780 resulted in inhibition of cyclin E-cdk2 activity prior to a decrease in the G1 to S phase transition. As above, this decrease was dependent on p21 since treatment with antisense oligonucleotides to p21 attenuated the effect. Recruitment of p21 to cyclin E-cdk2 complexes was in turn dependent on decreased cyclin D1 expression since it was apparent following treatment with antisense cyclin D1 oligonucleotides.133 Ectopic expression of cyclin A increased hormonedependent and hormone-independent transcriptional activation by the estrogen receptor (ER) in vivo in a number of cell lines, including HeLa cells, U2OS osteosarcoma cells and Hs 578Bst breast epithelial cells. ER was phosphorylated by the cyclin A/cdk2 complex and incorporation of phosphate into ER was stimulated by ectopic expression of cyclin A in vivo. Together, these results strongly suggest a direct role for the cyclin A/cdk2 complex in phosphorylating ER and regulating its transcriptional activity.134 In clonal MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines in which c-myc or cyclin D1 was expressed under the control of the metalinducible metallothionein promoter, expression of c-myc or cyclin D1 was sufficient to activate cyclin E-cdk2 by promoting the formation of high-molecular-weight complexes lacking p21 following estrogen treatment. This was accompanied by an association between active cyclin E-cdk2 complexes and hyperphosphorylated p130, identifying a role for p130 in estrogen action. These data provide evidence for distinct c-myc and cyclin D1 pathways in estrogen-induced mitogenesis which converge on or prior to the formation of active cyclin E-cdk2-p130 complexes and loss of inactive cyclin E-cdk2-p21 complexes.135 In an MCF-7 breast cancer cell model, co-administration of insulin/IGF-1 and estrogen induced synergistic stimulation of S-phase entry coincident with synergistic activation of cyclin E-cdk2 complexes lacking p21. Induction of p21 to levels equivalent to those following treatment with insulin alone markedly inhibited the synergism between estradiol and insulin on S-phase entry. The ability of estradiol to antagonize the insulin-induced increase in p21 gene expression, with consequent activation of cyclin E-cdk2, is a central component of the synergistic stimulation of breast epithelial cell proliferation induced by simultaneous activation of the estrogen and insulin/IGF-I signaling pathways.136 In androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell lines, cdk2 was up-regulated and kinase activity increased within hours of androgen treatment.137 This appears to differ somewhat from the effects of estradiol as noted above. Pharmacologic cdk2 inhibitors Inhibition of cdk2 is a rational strategy for anticancer therapies. Nevertheless, substantial conceptual and practical problems confront the development and introduction of such drugs. Cdk2 is active throughout the cell cycle as described above, and plays multiple roles in progression through the cell cycle. Likely, these effects differ among different neoplastic as well as non-neoplastic tissues. Therefore, inhibition of cdk2 is likely to have highly complex effects.

Cdk2 inhibitors for cancer therapy Table 4 Pharmacologic inhibitors of Cdk2 Compound

Class

Comments

Flavopiridol UCN-01 CGP-41251 Roscovitine Olomucine Tyrphostins Retinoic acid Lycopene 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D3 Methylselenocysteine Lovastatin Eicosapentaenoic acid Docosahexaenoic acid TPA

Flavone Staurosporine derivative Staurosporine derivative Purine Purine Small molecules Retinoid Carotenoid Vitamin Organic compound HMG coA reductase inhibitor Fatty acid Fatty acid Mitogen

Inhibits Cdks 1, 2, 4, 7. Cdk2 inhibited at 0.1–0.3 uM. In Clinical trials Dephosphorylates pRb, Cdk2 and induces p21, p27. In clinical trials Inhibits Cdk2 kinase activity Inhibits Cdk2 at ATP binding site with IC50, 0.7 uM Inhibits Cdk2 at ATP binding site Inhibits cyclin D1 levels and Cdk2 kinase activity Decreases Cdk2 phosphorylation and kinase activity Recruits p27 and reduces cyclin D1 Recruits p21, p27 and reduces cyclin E activity Decreases Cdk2 kinase activity Recruts p21, p27 Inhibits phosphorylation of Cdk2 and inhibits Cdk2 kinase activity Inhibits phosphorylation of Cdk2 and inhbits Cdk2 kinase activity Inhibits phosphorylation

See text for references. TPA, phorbol myristate acetate.

Pharmacologic inhibitors of cdk2 are currently in development (Table 4). Several are in clinical testing. Problems in development have related to the absence of selectivity for most agents and the presence of unpredictable toxicity profiles. Some of these inhibitors are described below. Flavopiridol An important breakthrough in studies of cdk2 inhibition was the discovery of specific inhibitors including the polyhydroxylated flavones. Flavopiridol, a N-methylpiperidinyl, chlorophenyl flavone, derived from an indigenous plant from India, demonstrated potent and specific in vitro inhibition of all cdks tested (cdks 1, 2, 4 and 7) with block in cell cycle progression at the G1/S and G2/M boundaries. In preclinical studies flavopiridol induced programmed cell death, promoted differentiation, inhibited angiogenesis and modulated transcriptional events. The relationship with cdk inhibition is still unclear. In early clinical human trials flavopiridol showed activity in patients with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, renal, prostate, colon and gastric carcinomas. Side effects included secretory diarrhea and a pro-inflammatory syndrome associated with hypotension.138 In MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells that contained cdk4-cyclin D1 and MDA-MB-468 breast carcinoma cells that lack CDK4cyclin D1, recombinant CDK4-cyclin D1 was inhibited by flavopiridol. Flavopiridol inhibited the in vitro kinase activity of CDK2 (IC50, 100 nM at 400 µ ATP). Immunoprecipitated CDK2 kinase activity from either MCF-7 or MDA-MB-468 cells exposed to flavopiridol (300 nM) showed an initial increased activity, followed by a loss of kinase activity to immeasurable levels by 24 h. Cyclin E and A levels were not altered to the same extent as cyclin D, and neither cdk4 nor cdk2 levels were changed in response to flavopiridol. Inhibition of the cdk4 and/or cdk2 kinase activity by flavopiridol can therefore account for the G1 arrest observed after exposure to flavopiridol.139 Cells with compromised G1 checkpoint endoreduplicate and become polyploid in response to microtubule inhibitors. Endoreduplication and polyploidation can be prevented

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by inhibiting cdks with flavopiridol in G1 checkpointcompromised MDA-MB-468 (p53−/− and pRb−/− ) and p21−/− HCT116 cells.140 Caspases are instrumental in flavopiridol-induced apoptosis and multiple pathways are used, allowing flavopiridol to escape from certain resistance mechanisms, such as Bcl-2 overexpression. Interestingly, flavopiridol not only uses “classical” pathways of drug-induced apoptosis, but also seems to trigger hitherto unidentified mechanisms. Flavopiridolinduced apoptosis is not blocked by Bcl-2 overexpression, one of the most common problems encountered with cancer cells. In addition, flavopiridol could trigger apoptosis in the absence of caspase 3 or caspase 8, since it can utilize alternate pathways for the induction of cell death. These caspases are also lacking in certain human tumors, which could render them resistant to conventional chemotherapy. Taken together with the previously reported p53 independence and refractoriness to multi-drug resistance, flavopiridol could make an invaluable contribution to clinical oncology. In this context, the strong synergism of flavopiridol with other drugs, such as taxol, might be of particular importance.141 Flavopiridol has been identified as a substrate for the ABCG2 (MXR/BCRP/ABCP1) drug transporter.142 Detailed studies of synergy between flavopiridol and other anticancer drugs have been conducted.143–145 These preclinical studies have demonstrated a sequence-dependent synergistic interaction between flavopiridol and gemcitabine, paclitaxel and mitomycin C. Early clinical trial results of flavopiridol as a single agent,146,147 and the results of preclinical studies suggest that flavopiridol may be best employed in combination with cytotoxic agents. A novel flavone, (−)-cis-5,7-dihydroxyphenyl-8-[4-(3hydroxy-1-methyl)piperidinyl] -4H-1-benzopyran-4-one hydrochloride hemihydrate (L868276), which is the unchlorinated form of flavopiridol, underwent mechanism-based studies. Studying the crystal structure of a complex between CDK2 and L868276 at 2.33 angstroms resolution demonstrated that the aromatic portion of the inhibitor binds to the

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Wadler adenine-binding pocket of cdk2, and the position of the phenyl group of the inhibitor enables the inhibitor to make contacts with the enzyme not observed in the ATP complex structure. The analysis of the position of this phenyl ring explains the great differences of kinase inhibition among the flavonoid inhibitors.148 In human melanoma cells OCM-1, flavonoids, which induced a cell cycle block in G1, inhibited the activity of cdk2 by 40–60%. By contrast, those which caused an accumulation of cells in G2/M were without effect. Up-regulation of the cdk inhibitors p27 and p21 is likely responsible for the inhibition of cdk2.149 UCN-01 UCN-01 (7-hydroxystaurosporine) represents a second class of cdk2 inhibitors. UCN-01 inhibits cdk2 in a concentrationdependent fashion. In addition, cdk2 activities of the cells pretreated with UCN-01 were markedly inhibited. When the same cell lysates were analyzed by Western blotting for cdk2, the phosphorylated cdk2 was remarkably reduced, in accordance with the reduced activity. Furthermore, UCN-01 induced the expression of the cdk inhibitor p21 protein and its complex formation with cdk2, whereas the expression level was very low or undetectable in untreated or DNA-damaged cells. The increase of p21 mRNA levels was also induced under the same condition.150 In human breast cancer cell lines with p53 checkpoint function disrupted by human papillomavirus E6, UCN-01 was shown to be a potent abrogator of G2 checkpoint control. The authors concluded that UCN-01 might be capable of enhancing the effectiveness of DNA-damaging agents in the treatment of tumors with cells lacking normal p53 function.151 UCN-01 inhibits E2F-1 activity in vitro.152 In a preclinical tumor model system using human leukemia cells, UCN-01 was synergistic with fludarabine153 and was synergistic with cisplatin against Chinese hamster ovary cells154 and human ovarian cell lines suggesting as with flavopiridol, that the greatest utility of this agent may be as a modulator of cytotoxic drugs. In a phase I trial to define the maximum tolerated dose and dose-limiting toxicity of UCN-01, administered as a 72-hour continuous intravenous infusion 47 patients with refractory neoplasms received treatment. Total, free plasma, and salivary concentrations were determined to address the influence of plasma protein binding on peripheral tissue distribution. The phosphorylation state of the protein kinase C (PKC) substrate α-adducin and the abrogation of DNA damage checkpoint also were assessed. Avid plasma protein binding of UCN-01 dictated a change in dose escalation and administration schedules. Nine patients received drug on the initial 2-week schedule, and 38 received drug on the recommended 4-week schedule. Toxicities at 53 mg/m2 /d for 3 days included hyperglycemia with resultant metabolic acidosis, pulmonary dysfunction, nausea, vomiting, and hypotension. Pharmacokinetic determinations at the recommended dose of 42.5 mg/m2 /d for 3 days demonstrated a very prolonged terminal elimination half-life range of 447 to 1176 h, steady-state volume of distribution of 9.3 to 14.2 L, and clearances of 0.005 to 0.033 L/h. The authors concluded that UCN-01 can be administered safely as an initial 72-h continuous intravenous infusion with subsequent monthly doses administered as 36-h infusions 358

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because of the high protein binding and extremely long halflife of the compound.155,156 Other staurosporine derivatives CGP, 41251, a staurosporine derivative, is a potent inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC). In vitro assays in which CGP 41251 was added directly to the in vitro assay system revealed marked inhibition of both cdc2 and CDK2-associated kinase activity at about 1 µM. CGP 41251 was a radiation sensitizer in two glioblastoma cell lines. Therefore, this compound may be useful in the treatment of glioblastomas, possibly in combination with radiation therapy.157 In Meth-A cells, both low and high concentrations of staurosporine induce G1 arrest through down-regulation of cyclin E and cdk2 expression.156 Purine cdk2 inhibitors Roscovitine [2-(1-ethyl-2-hydroxyethylamino)-6-benzylamino9-isopropylpurine],158 was identified by screening a series of C2, N6, N9-substituted adenines on purified cdc2/cyclin B. Roscovitine behaves as a competitive inhibitor for ATP binding to cdc2. The purine portion of the inhibitor binds to the adenine binding pocket of cdk2. The positions of the benzyl ring group of the inhibitor enables the inhibitor to make contacts with the enzyme not observed in the ATP-complex structure.158 Cdc2/cyclin B, cdk2/cyclin A, cdk2/cyclin E and cdk5/p35, but not other protein kinases, are inhibited with IC50 values of 0.65, 0.7, 0.7 and 0.2 µM, respectively. Cdk4/cyclin D1 and cdk6/cyclin D2 are poorly inhibited by roscovitine. Extracellular regulated kinases erk1 and erk2 are inhibited (IC50 of 14–34 µM). Roscovitine reversibly arrests starfish oocytes and sea urchin embryos in late prophase, and inhibits M-phase-promoting factor activity and DNA synthesis in Xenopus egg extracts. It blocks progesterone-induced oocyte maturation of Xenopus oocytes and in vivo phosphorylation of the elongation factor eEF-1. Roscovitine inhibits the proliferation of mammalian cell lines with an average IC50 of 16 µM. In the presence of roscovitine L 1210 cells arrest in G1 and accumulate in G2.159 Another purine compound CVT313 was identified from a purine analog library. Inhibition was competitive with respect to ATP (Ki = 95 nM), and selective CVT-313 had no effect on other, nonrelated ATP-dependent serine/threonine kinases. In cells exposed to CVT-313, hyperphosphorylation of the retinoblastoma gene product was inhibited, and progression through the cell cycle was arrested at the G1/S boundary. The growth of mouse, rat, and human cells in culture was also inhibited by CVT-313. In a rat carotid artery model of restenosis, brief intraluminal exposure of CVT313 to a denuded rat carotid artery resulted in more than 80% inhibition of neointima formation.160 Olomoucine, a small molecule inhibitor of cdk2, reversibly arrested differentiated Petunia cells induced to divide at G1 phase and cyclin Arabidopsis cells in late G1 and G2.161 In normal human fibroblasts, olomoucine and roscovitine, but not the related compound iso-olomoucine, induced a dose-dependent arrest in G1 phase. Significant reduction in the hyperphosphorylated forms of retinoblastoma protein was found in samples treated with CDK inhibitors. Concomitantly, CDK2, but not CDK4, activity immunoprecipitated from cells treated with olomoucine or rescovitine was markedly inhibited. These results suggest that in normal cells, CDK2 kinase

Cdk2 inhibitors for cancer therapy activity is the specific target of olomoucine and roscovitine. A new series of 2,6,9-trisubstituted purines, characterized by the presence of a common alkynyl substituent at C-2 and a range of different anilino/benzylamino groups at C-6, were evaluated for their capacity to inhibit cyclin-dependent kinase activity (CDK1-cyclin B) in vitro. Compounds 4e (N-6-p-Clbenzylamino derivative) and 5e (N-6-m-Cl-anilino derivative) exhibited the strongest inhibitory activity with an IC50 of 60 nM.162 Low molecular weight compounds Tyrphostins Tyrphostins specifically inhibit protein tyrosine kinases. AG17 induces arrest at the G1 phase followed by apoptosis with general reduction of the intracellular level of tyrosinephosphorylated proteins. Bcl-2 and cdk2 protein levels were not altered with AG17, whereas cdk2 kinase activity, as well as p21 and p16 protein levels, were markedly reduced. These results suggest that the target of AG17 is inactivation of cdk2.163 Specific tyrphostins exhibit different selectivities. The EGFR kinase selective tyrphostin, AG 494, blocks cdk2 activation. In contrast, AG 1478, a more selective EGFR kinase blocker which is also active as EGFR kinase blocker in intact cells, fails to do so. AG 494 exerts its full inhibitory activity on Cdk2 activation even when added 20 h subsequent to EGF addition when cdk2 activation is maximal. The inhibitory activity on Cdk2 activation parallels its DNA synthesis inhibitory activity.164 Tyrphostins exert their inhibitory activity even when added after cells have already passed their restriction point and receptor activation is no longer necessary. Tyrphostins act by inhibiting the activation of the enzyme Cdk2 without affecting its levels or its intrinsic kinase activity. Furthermore, they do not alter the association of Cdk2 to cyclin E or cyclin A or to p21 and p27. These compounds also have no effect on the activating phosphorylation of Cdk2 by CAK and no effect on the catalytic domain of cdc25 phosphatase. These compounds lead to the accumulation of phosphorylated Cdk2 on tyrosine 15, which is most probably the cause for Cdk2 inhibition.165 Natural products Retinoic acid (RA) inhibition of breast cancer cell growth is associated with an accumulation of cells in G1 phase of the cell cycle Expression of the cyclin D1 transcript was reduced by 48 h and cdk2 mRNA levels declined within 8 h posttreatment followed by a decrease in cyclin D1 and cdk2 protein levels. While cdk4 activity was similar in control and RA-treated cells, cdk2 activity began to decrease within 48 h of exposure to RA and was profoundly reduced after 72 h. This reduced activity was associated with decreased phosphorylation of cdk2. The decrease in cdk2 activity occurred in the absence of RAmediated increases in the levels of p21 and p27.166 The tomato carotenoid, lycopene inhibits cell cycle progression via reduction of the cyclin D level and retention of p27 in cyclin E/cdk2, thus leading to inhibition of cdk kinase activity.167 In 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25D3)-resistant sublines of promyelocytic leukemia HL60 cells, both cdk2 and cdk6-associated kinase activity, but not cdk4 activity, were increased in the resistant sublines. The resistant cell lines constitutively express high levels of phosphorylated pRb,

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indicating that the G1 cyclin/cdk complexes in the resistant cells were physiologically active.168 Although both 1α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and the fluorinated analog, F6-D3, inhibited the proliferation of human colon carcinoma CaCo-2 cells by increasing their doubling times, only F6-D3 caused an arrest of these cells in the G1 phases of their cells cycle. This arrest was accompanied by an increase in the expression of the p21 and p27, which served to decrease the activity of cdk2 and −6. The expression of cyclin E was also decreased, which further inhibited the activity of cdk2.169 Other compounds Methylselenocysteine (MSC), an organic selenium compound has significant anticarcinogenic activity against mammary tumorigenesis. MSC arrested cells in S phase, during the TM6 cell cycle, and specifically affected the cdk2 kinase activity of the TM6 cells (54% reduction) at 16 h after release from growth arrest.170 Binding of p21 and p27 to cdk2 increases significantly following treatment of cells with lovastatin, a potent inhibitor of the enzyme HMG CoA reductase, leading to inhibition of cdk2 activity and a subsequent arrest of cells in G1. The increased cdk inhibitor binding to cdk2 was achieved by redistribution of both p21 and p27 from cdk4 to cdk2 complexes subsequent to decreases in cdk4 and cyclin D3 expression following lovastatin treatment.171 The fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the form of triacylglycerol (TG) inhibited G1/S progression in vascular smooth muscle cells. EPA and DHA inhibited the phosphorylation of cdk2 protein and cdk2 kinase activity without altering the amount of cyclin E and p27 proteins and cyclin dependent kinase activating kinase activity by growth stimulation.172 Ginsenoside Rh2, a plant glycoside with a dammarane skeleton resembling a steroid skeleton as an aglycone, has anticancer potentials in vitro or in vivo. In G1 arrested B16 melanoma cells and in S phase-arrested Meth-A sarcoma cells, that have been treated with Rh2, cdk2 kinase activity was suppressed in B16 cells but not in Meth-A cells. In addition, Rh2 was found to induce G1 arrest and concomitantly suppress the Cdk2 activity in carcinogen-susceptible BALB/c 3T3 A311-1 and A31-1-13 cell lines.173 In an intimal smooth muscle model, an antisense to cdk2 or cdc2 demonstrated that topical application of the antisense, but not the sense, cdc2 and cdk2 phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides resulted in reductions of intimal smooth muscle cell accumulation by 47% and 55% respectively.174 Indirect inhibition of cdk2 activity was observed in cell extracts treated with the mitogen 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol13-acetate (TPA), which blocks the G1/S transition in Demel melanoma cells in late G1 by mechanisms which regulate phosphorylation and activation of the cdk2 kinase by preventing the decrease in p21 and p27.175 In asynchronous human T47D-H3 cells, which contain mutated p53 and fail to arrest at G1/S in response to DNA damage, hyperoxic exposure (95% O2 , 40–64 h) induced an S-phase arrest associated with acute inhibition of cdk2 activity and DNA synthesis. Cdk2 inhibition was associated with increased cdk2-Tyr15 phosphorylation, increased E2F-1 recruitment, c °

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Wadler Table 5 Selective pharmacologic inhibitors of Cdk2 Drug

Structure

IC50 (nM)

Reference

SU9516 DPC 2313

3 substituted indolinone NA

22 6

PNU-252808 BMS-239091 NU2058 NU6027 NU6102

NA Aminothiazole O6 alkylguanine O4 alkylpyrimidine NA

48 20 17000 2200 5.4

179 Oliff, Keystone Symposium 180 181 183 183 183

NA, not available.

and decreased PCNA in cdk2 complexes. The latter results indicate a p21/p27-independent mechanism of S-phase checkpoint activation.176 Cdk2 inhibition and alopecia Inhibition of cdk2 may represent a therapeutic strategy for prevention of chemotherapy-induced alopecia by arresting the cell cycle and reducing the sensitivity of the epithelium to many cell cycle-active antitumor agents. Topical application of potent small-molecule inhibitors of cdk2 in a neonatal rat model of chemotherapy-induced alopecia reduced hair loss at the site of application in 33 to 50% of the animals.177 Selective cdk2 inhibitors Most inhibitors of cdk2 lack selectivity and may inhibit multiple kinases. Because of the interrelatedness of the cell growth regulatory kinases, a selective inhibitor of cdk2 is desirable. Examples of such compounds that are currently being studied are described above (Table 5). Peptides Recent studies identified a short peptide motif that blocks phosphorylation of substrates by cyclin A/cdk2 or cyclin E/cdk2 and preferentially induces transformed cells to undergo apoptosis when compared to non-transformed cells.178 This study also suggests that even a small decrease in the cyclin A/cdk2-mediated inhibition of E2F may result in apoptosis. SU9516 SU9516 (3-[1-(3H-imidazol-4-yl)-meth-(Z)-ylidene]-5-methoxy1,3-dihydro-indol-2-one), a novel 3-substituted indolinone inhibitor of cdk activity was identified via high throughput screening with cdk2 and examined to determine its effects on human colon cancer cell kinase activity, cell proliferation, cell cycle progression and apoptosis. SU9516 inhibited the activity of cdk2 with a 1.8 –> 4500 fold selectivity versus other cdks. Inhibition of cdk2 activity resulted in a time-dependent decrease (4–64%) in the phosphorylation of pRb, an increase in caspase-3 activation (5–84%), and alterations in cell cycle resulting in either a G0/G1 or a G2/M block.179 DPC 2313 The DuPont compound DPC 2313 inhibits cdk2 with relatively high specificity (A. Oliff, Keystone Symposium, 2/01) (See Table 6). Treatment with DPC2313 resulted in a G2M block in cultured neoplastic cells, but not normal fibroblasts, 360

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Table 6 IC50 for novel Dupont Cdk inhibitors

Cdk4 Cdk2

DPC 2313

DPC 0876

80 nM 6 nM

6 nM 32 nM

suggesting a selectivity of action. These effects were dependent on duration of exposure. In an MMTV-neu transgenic mouse model, some tumors demonstrated regression with drug treatment. The toxicities were primarily to bone marrow. PNU-252808 This compound from Pharmacia Upjohn Pharmaceuticals selectively inhibits cyclin D/cdk2 with a Ki = 0.048 µM. Treatment of HT29 human colon cancer cells in vitro resulted in complete G1 arrest and inhibition of phosphorylation of pRb. The drug was active only against actively growing tumor cells, and not normal human fibroblasts. The drug also has confirmed in vivo activity against three human tumor model systems.180 BMS-239091 This aminothiazole compound from Bristol-Mayers Squibb Pharmaceuticals is a selective inhibitor of cdk2 with an IC50 of 20 nM. It exhibited 15-100 fold selectivity versus cdk1 and cdk4, respectively. In vitro, 239091 inhibited phosphorylation of pRb, histone H1 and the 70 kD subunit of DNA pol-α. Like SU9516, 239091 inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis. A related compound, BMS 250904 induced growth delay in vivo.181 BMS is also developing a family of 2-amino-5thioalkylaryl thiazoles as inhibitors of cdk2. Over 100 analogs have been developed with IC50s in the 1–10 nM range.182 NU2058 and NU6027 These small molecule inhibitors of cdk2, which are in development by AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, are O6 -alkylguanine and O4 -alkylpyrimidine derivatives, respectively. They are somewhat less selective for cdk2 with comparable IC50 values for both cdk1 and cdk2. Structure-activity studies of these compounds and related analogs has led to the development of more potent cdk2 inhibitors, including NU6102, which has different pharmacologic properties from the parent compounds.183 These compounds bind cdk2 in a fashion distinct from olomucine and have a different activity spectrum from olomucine and flavopiridol. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Cdk2 appears to be critical in the commitment of cells to undergo DNA replication and cell division. Cdk2-specific phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein is the penultimate step in the transition from G1 to S. Furthermore, cdk2 plays an important role downstream in the transition through S phase and from S phase to G2. Therefore, inhibition of cdk2 is a rational target for inhibition of the unregulated growth observed in neoplastic cells. Barriers to the development of an effective cdk2 inhibitor have been multifold. High throughput screening programs

Cdk2 inhibitors for cancer therapy have identified a number of promising candidates. The single most important barrier, however, has been the absence of selectivity among candidate compounds. Compounds currently in clinical development, such as flavopiridol and UCN-01, inhibit both cdk2 and cdk4 as well as other cell kinases. More selective compounds, such as SU9516, are in clinical development. Other barriers have included the development of compounds with acceptable toxicity profiles. Non-selective inhibitors, such as flavopiridol and UCN-01, have demonstrated either severe toxicities, like diarrhea, or aberrant pharmacokinetic profiles. SU9516, while selective, has demonstrated problems with formulation. This has been a problem in the development of other compounds. Other compounds in development have demonstrated inadequate toxicity profiles which render them unsuitable for further development. Early phase I trials will be necessary to precisely define the toxicity profiles of candidate compounds. Following the demonstration of tolerability, phase II development is likely to be complex. It may be useful to target such trials against tumor types or even specific tumors that overexpress cdk2; such a strategy, however, is fraught with difficulties. Specifically, development of a real-time assay for cdk2 expression will be difficult. Even identification of tumor types that overexpress cdk2 does not guarantee response to treatment, although identification of other molecular targets such as her2/neu expression levels or c-kit for herceptin and ST1571, respectively, have proven feasible. More important will be studies that combine a cdk2 inhibitor with other agents, such as a cytotoxic drug. Preclinical studies using flavopiridol and UCN-01 have demonstrated synergy for these compounds in combination with cytotoxic agents. Nevertheless, this has been dependent on proper sequencing of these agents; improper sequencing may result in abrogation of the effects of one or both agents, or even antagonism. Furthermore, combination studies will require strict attention to the development of novel or unexpected toxicities.200 Development of a therapeutic cdk2 inhibitor is a challenging, but potentially useful antineoplastic strategy. Further development of such a strategy will require the identification of potent and selective candidate drugs.201

Received 30 October 2001; Revised 8 December 2001; Accepted 11 December 2001 Correspondence to: Scott Wadler MD, Division of Hematology/Oncology, C606, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA. Tel: +1212 746-2060; Fax: +1212 746-8866; E-mail: [email protected]

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