Perspectives on animal production systems in Asia

Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1 – 18 www.elsevier.com/locate/livsci

Review article

Perspectives on animal production systems in Asia C. Devendra Consulting Animal Production Systems Specialist, 130A Jalan Awan Jawa, 58200 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Received 8 May 2006; received in revised form 8 May 2006; accepted 8 May 2006

Abstract Asian animal production systems are discussed in the context of their relevance, types, trends, opportunities for productivity enhancement, and the implications for natural resource management (NRM). These include a variety of systems in agroecological zones which can be grouped broadly into one of three categories: landless, crop-based and, and rangeland-based. The landless production systems are of two types: (i) highly industrialised pig and poultry production, and (ii) extensive systems involving small ruminants, cattle and camels and resource-poor nomads, transhumants or agricultural laborers and seasonal migrations. Within crop-based systems, animals are found in both irrigated and rainfed areas. The genesis of these systems is illustrated, and includes two broad categories: systems combining animals with annual or perennial cropping. The significance of crop–animal interactions and economic benefits from 31 case studies in 11 countries highlight the importance of animals in crop-based systems. Animal production trends are influenced by strong demand-led factors such as population growth, urbanisation, income growth and changing consumer preferences These are of two categories: (i) modern, demand-driven and capital intensive non-ruminant (pig and poultry) sector which is dominant, growing, and supplies the major share of animal proteins,which however is unable to meet current and projected human requirements, and (ii) traditional resource-driven and labour intensive ruminant (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) sector which mainly involve small farms and small farmers and are lagging. The disparity questions efficiencies of prevailing animal production systems and NRM. Integrated animals–tree crop production systems are underestimated and are potentially very important. Two possible scenarios for the future of crop– animal systems are increased size and specialisation, and the other disintegration due to population pressure. It is suggested that crop–animal systems and small farms will continue to be predominant in Asia, in which intensification, growth and increased contribution are likely in the future. Major issues to be addressed across systems include inter alia nutrient flows, waste disposal, overgrazing, all year round feeding systems, zoonosis, and policy issues. The less-favored and more constrained rainfed areas can be made more productive through increased public and private sector investments, interdisciplinary research and development, and improved technology application. The challenges and benefits for the future include improved efficiency of NRM, agricultural growth, reduced poverty, improved livelihoods of the poor and environmental sustainability. D 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Animal production systems; Crop–animal systems; Types; Trends; Economic benefits; Productivity enhancement; Interdisciplinary research; Asia

E-mail address: [email protected]. 1871-1413/$ - see front matter D 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2006.05.005

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external environment with such factors as rapid population growth, urbanisation, increased incomes, demand-led processes, and changing consumer preferences for foods of animal origin. The projected total meat and milk human consumption levels in 2020 are far in excess of anticipated supplies and place unprecedented pressure on the management of the natural resources (crops, animals, land and water). The contribution by components of the animal industries, the efficiency and capacity of individual animal production systems is compelling and is in question. The question that is being asked is what are the approaches to, and opportunities for improving animal production systems and significantly increasing the productivity from animals in the future in Asia? The purpose of this paper is to focus discussion on the production systems and resources, types and trends of the systems and implications for NRM. It highlights the opportunities and challenges for productivity enhancement, and major issues that merit R&D attention. The review also examines prevailing and emerging scenarios concerning the future of Asian animal production systems. It will be have interest and use to practitioners, planners and policy makers concerned with NRM and agriculture.

1. Review methodology The review is based on an extensive perusal of published articles in books, journals, proceedings of conferences, and also unpublished reports in Asia. In addition, there was a search through the CABDirect database using the above key words involving 197 records between 1974–2005, which further enabled the use of references obtained by this method to include pertinent data. The review process also built on earlier detailed assessments and analyses of crop– animal systems in South East Asia (Devendra et al., 1997), and South Asia (Devendra et al., 2000).

2. Introduction Asian animal production systems involve a variety of systems that are found across the continent to include the arid and semi-arid, humid and sub-humid, and highland and temperate regions. Animals are found within these various agro-ecological zones (AEZ). The AEZs involve a great diversity in land use patterns and a wide range of biophysical environments, animals and animal production systems play a most important role in food production, supporting and enhancing crop production, as well as contribute towards income, generation, food security and livelihoods of the poor. This role is however especially significant in mixed farming systems which form the backbone of Asian agriculture, with an emphasis is on crop production. The justification for enhancing and increasing animal production in Asia is linked directly with the need for more animal proteins. This is associated with a region that is experiencing a rapidly changing

3. Role and contribution of animals Individual animal populations in Asia are diverse and relatively large. These are widely distributed across small farms, which are the reservoirs of a large proportion of the main animal species (buffaloes, cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, pigs and ducks). Table 1 gives an idea of the diversity of available

Table 1 Distribution of domestic animals by ecosystem and sub-region in Asia (Devendra, 1995a) Sub-region

Agroecosystem and animal species Lowland irrigated

China Hindu-Kush South Asia Mekong countries South East Asia

Lowland/upland rainfed

Semi-arid and arid

Highland

Buffalo/ cattle

Goats/ sheep

Pigs/ poultry/ ducks

Buffalo/ cattle

Goats/ sheep

Pigs/ poultry/ ducks

Buffalo/ cattle

Goats/ sheep

Pigs/ poultry/ ducks

Buffalo/ cattle

Goats/ sheep

*** *** *** *** ***

* * * * *

*** ** ** *** ***

** ** ** ** **

*** *** *** ** **

*** * ** *** ***

* * * ** *

*** – *** * **

* – – – *

** * * * *

*** *** * * *

C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18

animals and their wide distribution across ecosystems and by sub-region. Animals form an important economic and ecological niche, and their functions and contribution are numerous. They are consistently and widely owned by small farmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra, 1983; Chantalakhana, 1990):— ! Diversification in the use of production resources and reduction of socio-economic risks ! Promotion of linkages between system components (land, crops and water) ! Generation of value-added products (e.g. meat, milk, eggs and skins) ! Income generation, investment, insurance and economic security ! Supply of draught power for crop cultivation, transportation and haulage operations ! Contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling (dung and urine) ! Contribution to sustainable agriculture, and environmental protection ! Prestige, social and recreational values, and ! Development of stable farm households. 4. Demand for animal products Increased human population growth and increasing urbanisation, will significantly drive the demand for animal foods. The increases are awesome, and at projected human population growth rates of 0.7%, 1.6% and 1.4% per year up to year 2010, in China, India and Asia, the population increases by 2010 will be 33%, 18% and 12% respectively. It is significant to also note that of these, between 47– 57% of the population will be economically active

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in agriculture (Alexandratos, 1995). Among South Asian countries, India (60%) and Nepal, (88%), had the highest percentage of the human population active in agriculture. Table 2 presents the trends in per capita meat and milk consumption. With the exception of South Asian countries, meat consumption significantly increased, especially in East Asia. Milk consumption has also been increasing. This trend is also consistent with the fact that consumers have been obtaining an increasingly greater share of calories and protein from animal food products in 1993 than before. Between 1982–1994, the annual growth rate for total meat consumption was generally high for South East and East Asia (5.6 to 5.8%) and especially high for China (8.6%). The demand for, and increased consumption of animal foods, is also directly related to increased affluence and increased disposable income. At higher levels of income per capita consumption of meat levels off because of saturation (Delgado et al., 2001). China and India fall out of this trend because of the very high consumption of pork in the former and religious preferences against meat in the latter. The same authors have also reported that either pork or mutton is the main substitute for beef and the preference increased with increasing income. The situation is serious in that the projected consumption levels in year 2000 are way in excess of production or supply levels. With meat, the shortfall in projected consumption levels in China and other South East Asian countries are about 40– 125%. With milk, the supply deficits in China, India and South East Asia are approximately 100%, 89% and 433% respectively.

Table 2 Current production and projected consumption trends (1993–2020) (Adapted from Delgado et al., 1999, 2001) Region

China Other East Asia India Other South Asia Southeast Asia World

Per capita production in 1993 kg)

Per capita consumption in 2020 (kg)

Annual growth of production (1993–2020, %)

Shortfalls allowing for annual growth with meat

Meat

Milk

Meat

Milk

Meat

Milk

Prod.

%

33 24 5 8 16 34

6 30 66 62 3 93

71 54 7 12 29 44

16 29 104 78 12 87

3.0 3.2 3.5 3.3 3.3 2.0

5 1.7 3.2 3.0 2.9 1.5

38 30 2.0 4.0 13.0 10.0

115.0 125.0 40.0 50.0 81.3 29.4

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5. Animal production systems 5.1. Types Animal production involves both non-ruminants and ruminants and a variety of systems integrated with crops. The systems vary as a function of agro-ecological zone and intensity of farming operations. The development of these systems has considerable potential, the benefits being associated with the complementary interactions of the subsystems in which the products are additive. The prevailing animal production systems in Asia fall into one of three categories and it is appropriate to discuss these briefly:— (i). blandlessQ; (ii). crop-based; and (iii). rangeland-based. 5.1.1. Landless systems The blandlessQ systems are of two categories as follows: 5.1.1.1. Urban and peri-urban industrial blandlessQ systems. These blandless’ systems are generally large, mainly industrial, very intensive and vertically integrated pig and poultry enterprises whose economic outputs are higher than those of the ruminant enterprises. The systems involve the use of largely imported production inputs at high cost — germplasm, feeds, supplements, medication and technologies which during times of economic crisis make these systems very vulnerable, compared to the ruminant sector. The systems are also very efficient with production cycles of four to five crops of broilers of 8 weeks each, and an average efficiency of feed conversion of about 1.8. They are usually run by the private-sector and found concentrated in peri-urban areas close to processing facilities and the markets. Examples of such enterprise are common throughout South, South East, and East Asia. Individual enterprises are large with broiler units as large as 500,000 birds, and with 2000 or more breeding sows in pig units. In China’s largest 18 cities over half of the meat and poultry demand was produced in the urban area, in Katmandu 11% of the animal food needs were met, and in Singapore 80% of the poultry products stemmed from urban farmers (UNDP, 1996).

Intensive production is the key feature of these systems, in which the use of grain-based feedstuffs is the norm. Not all countries are able to grow maize, and this represents a major item of cost to production. There are two concerns associated with this production system. One is the rising cost of imported feeds mainly maize and protein supplements, and ways to offset this by use of cheaper local feeds. Secondly, there are serious problems of pollution, surface water contamination and human health hazards. 5.1.1.2. Rural blandlessQ livestock production systems. Rural blandless bproduction systems refer mainly to ruminants. These involve zero grazing practices and extensive systems that are associated with resource-poor nomads, transhumants or agricultural laborers and seasonal migrations with small ruminants, cattle and camels (Devendra, 1999a,b). They are very common in the arid and semi-arid regions notably Pakistan and India, and also in the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region in South Asia. The movements are annual cycles that are triggered by reduced feed and water supplies, and market opportunities. They are also a way of life for the poor. Two common problems are overgrazing and environmental degradation due to bslash and burn bfor agriculture. In India, the migrating flocks of goats and sheep are often used overnight to fertilise crop land, and crop farmers pay relatively high prices or give cereals in return for their service. In northern India, this means for example, 2000–3000 goats and sheep folded on 0.2 ha of land costing 1 US$ per 100 animals per night or 60– 80 kg of grain in return (Devendra, 1999b). In many parts of China, landless rural households often keep poultry and pigs for home consumption and also sale. Similarly, in the rice growing countries in South East Asia and East Asia, landless farmers produce ducks and sell these after feeding on fallen grains and also weeds after the rice harvest. 5.1.2. Crop-based systems Crop-based systems in Asia mainly encompass mixed farming crop–animal systems These systems form the backbone of Asian agriculture, and are especially important in terms of land area involved, extent of poverty, integrated NRM, food security and

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potential opportunities for increased food production. Diversification and integration of the production resources are common The sections below give a brief description of the features of mixed farming systems. Attention is drawn to a recent publication on crop– animal systems in Asia, which discussed various aspects of the subject (Agricultural Systems, 2002). For reasons of brevity, this review will therefore only highlight the more important issues concerned with these systems. 5.1.2.1. Categories. Two broad categories of mixed farming systems can be identified: (a) systems combining animals and annual cropping in which there are two further sub-types: ! systems involving non-ruminants, ponds and fish e.g. vegetables–pigs–ducks–fish systems in Vietnam, rice–maize–vegetables–sweet potatoes–pigs–dairy cattle (China) ! systems involving ruminants e.g., maize– groundnuts/soyabean–goats systems (Indonesia), rice–finger millet–rice–goats (Nepal) (b) systems combining animals and perennial cropping in which there are again two sub-types: ! systems involving ruminants e.g. coconuts– sheep integration (Philippines), Oil palm– cattle integration (Malaysia) ! systems involving non-ruminants e.g. oil palm– chickens integration (Malaysia) 5.1.2.2. Relevance. Mixed farming systems are synonymous with crop–animal systems, are varied and integrated with cropping in various ways. Both ruminants and non-ruminants are involved, and the choice of one or more species is dependent on overriding influence of preference, market dictates, potential to generate income, contribution to crop cultivation and livelihoods. Much will depend on the extent of the functional contribution of animals. In Asia, mixed farming provided 90% of the milk, 77% of the ruminant meat, 47% of pork and poultry meat, and 31% of the eggs. Past growth trends suggest (Steinfeld, 1998) that mixed farming systems grew half as fast (2.2% per year) compared to industrial systems (4.3% per year), and three times as fast as that of pastoral systems (0.7% per year). The data suggests that ruminant production in

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mixed farming systems will continue to be important in the future. 5.1.2.3. Genesis. Crop–animal systems have evolved and developed over many centuries. The principal determinants of the type of crop and animal systems in a particular location are the agro-ecological conditions (Duckham and Masefield, 1970; Spedding, 1975; Ruthenberg, 1980; Sere and Steinfeld, 1996). Climate, and to a lesser extent soils, affect the natural vegetation and determine what crops can be grown. These in turn determine the feed base and its quantity, quality and distribution. The feed base, together with the disease challenge, governs the development of potential animal production systems. Feed resources provide a direct link between crops and animals and the interaction of the two largely dictates the development and intensification of animal production systems (Fig. 1). 5.1.2.4. Diversification and integration. The integration of various crops and animals enable synergistic interactions, which have a greater total contribution than the sum of their individual effects (19). Additionally, both ecological and economic sustainability are addressed in a mutually reinforcing manner. Such integrated systems are especially well developed in East and South East Asia. An overview of their potential importance and relevance to small farms in Asia, and description of the distinctive characteristics has been reported (Devendra, 1995b, 1996). These include inter alia: ! Diversified and integrated use of the production resources, mainly crops and animals. ! Use of both ruminants (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) and non-ruminants (chickens, ducks and pigs). ! Animals and crops play multi-purpose roles. ! Crop–animal–soil interactions are varied and have socio-economic and ecological implications. ! Low inputs use, indigenous and traditional systems. Involves the three main AEZs (highlands, semi-arid and arid tropics, and sub-humid/humid. 5.1.2.5. Significance of feeds. Feeding and nutrition are the major constraints to animal production throughout South East Asia (Devendra et al., 1997) and South

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Fig. 1. Genesis and types of animal production systems in Asia.

Asia (Devendra et al., 2000). Animal production within the mixed farming systems is dependent to a very large extent on the efficiency of use of the available feeds. The level of efficiency will dictate to a very large extent improved per animal performance and increased productivity from the animal resources. There exist four categories of feeds: a. pastures — these include native and improved grasses, herbaceous legumes and multi-purpose trees b. crop residues — these include such examples as cereal straws and maize stover (the dried stalks and leaves of the crop) c. agro-industrial by-products (AIBP) — good examples are cereal bran, coconut cake and soya bean meal, and, d. non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) — this category includes diverse feeds that are not traditionally used in animal feeding; examples are palm press fibre, spent brewer’s grains, sugar cane bagasse (the residue from crushing the canes) and rubber seed meal. The fibrous crop residues (FCRs), which have in common their high biomass, low crude protein and

high crude fibre content, of approximately 3–4% and 35–48% respectively. These FCRs form the basis of feeding systems for ruminants throughout the developing countries, and include all cereal straws, sugar cane tops, bagasse, cocoa pod husks, pineapple waste and coffee seed pulp. Complementary to FCRs are those crop residues that have higher protein content, and can therefore be used judiciously to improve the overall diet. This category includes a variety of oilseed cakes and meals, such as coconut cake, palm kernel cake, cottonseed cake and sweet potato vines, which are often used as dietary supplements. Sweet potato vines for example are widely used to feed pigs in China and the Mekong countries. The availability and importance of these feeds in Asia has recently been reviewed (Devendra and Sevilla, 2002). Throughout humid South East Asia, southern China, southern India, Sri Lanka and the Mekong countries, feeds are generally plentiful for use by various animals. By comparison, chronic feed deficits exist throughout the arid and semi-arid regions of South Asia and western parts of China. In order to ensure nutritional efficiency, priorities for use of the available feeds are important.

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With ruminant production systems, there are three categories: extensive systems; systems combining arable cropping (roadside, communal and arable grazing systems, tethering, and cut-and-carry feeding); and systems integrated with tree cropping. These production systems are unlikely to change in the foreseeable future (Mahadevan and Devendra, 1986; Devendra, 1989). New proposed systems and returns from them would have to be demonstrably superior and supported by massive capital and other resources. There will however, be increasing intensification and a shift within systems, especially from extensive to systems combining arable cropping, induced by population growth. The principal aim should therefore be improved feeding and nutrition, maximum use of the available feed resources, notably crop residues and low quality roughages, and various leguminous forages as supplements. 5.1.3. Rangeland-based systems Rangeland-based systems are found mainly in the semi-arid and arid regions of South Asia and China. Sparse vegetation, containing mainly native grasses and shrubs are characteristic of this area. These however are important sources of feeds. In Pakistan, some 65% of the total land area, from altitudes of 0– N 4000 m are rangelands, and it is estimated that 60% and 5% of the total feed requirements of small ruminants and large ruminants respectively are met by the rangelands (Devendra et al., 2000).These areas support low carrying capacities of 5–8 sheep/ha such as those found in the Balochistan Province of Pakistan. Three major concerns about rangeland-based systems are the need for strategies to use of common property grazing lands, communal management of these lands, and drought feeding.

6. Animal production trends Animal production trends in Asia are influenced to a very large extent by a strong demand-led process, the drivers of which are the following factors: ! population growth ! urbanisation ! income growth

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! efficiencies in NRM ! inadequate protein supplies to match the demand, and ! changing consumer preferences. The trends are of two categories (Steinfeld, 1999): (a) Modern, demand-driven and capital-intensive non-ruminant sector which produces poultry meat, eggs and pork. Some milk is also produced from dairy cattle and buffaloes. These are mainly industrial and peri-urban systems, which are very efficient and have good market access. The systems are very intensive, involve large concentrations of animals, have increasing pollution problems and disease risks to humans. The collection and disposal of animal manure is of increasing concern, with very limited evidence of recycling the material for crop production. (b) Traditional, resource-driven and labour intensive ruminant sector, which produces a multitude of services to subsistence farms. Low technology uptake, insufficient market facilities and infrastructure, and small economies of scale are common. The non-ruminant pig and poultry industries continue to contribute the major share of meat and egg production to meet projected human needs. The application of major advances in non-ruminant nutrition enables maximum per animal performance as well as high efficiency of feed conversion is high. With ruminants by comparison, overall meat production continues to come mainly from the slaughter of numbers rather than improved animals having good growth rates, optimum slaughter weights, and short duration to slaughter. Without exception, this is the trend with beef from cattle, buffalo meat, and meat from goats and sheep. Considerable opportunities exist for increasing productivity in the ruminant sector in tandem with the need to increase food security, reduce poverty and efficient natural resource management (NRM).

7. Inadequate arable land: targeting rainfed environments The need for increased productivity from animals will place unprecedented stress on the use of natural

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resources (land, water, crops and animals). In the past, emphasis and the major productivity of cereals through the bGreen RevolutionQ came mainly from the irrigated arable areas. With it came many benefits and prosperity, especially to rice farmers, but the higher agricultural growth exacerbated poverty and food insecurity among the poor in rainfed areas. Given the fact that these areas are overused, attention now needs to shift to the rainfed areas, the availability of which is about 82% of the land area in Asia in the priority agro-ecological zones (AEZs). The largest areas are found in the arid/semi-arid zones and also humid/sub-humid zones (TAC, 1992). The rationale and justification for targeting the rainfed areas in Asia is related to the twin reasons of inadequate availability of arable land and the need to increase productivity from animals to match the projected human needs. The decreasing availability of arable land with human population increase is reflected in the projected decrease from between 0.17 and 1.0 ha/ person in 1988/90 to 0.05 and 0.30 ha/person by 2010 (FAO, 1998). It is also relevant to note that the priority AEZs are the rainfed humid/sub-humid tropical systems and rainfed arid/semi-arid sub-systems (TAC, 1992), within which are two broad areas: rainfed lowlands and rainfed uplands. The two areas are a continuum, with the former having greater opportunities for crop cultivation because of increased soil moisture and less fragility. The characteristics of the lowlands and uplands have been reported (Devendra et al., 1997). Inadequacy of arable land is associated with the following reasons:— ! demand for agricultural land to meet human needs e.g. housing, recreation and industrialisation ! expansion of crop production to ceiling levels ! increasing and very high animal densities ! increased urbanisation and use of arable land, and ! growing environmental concerns due to very intensive crop production e.g. acidification and salinisation with rice cultivation, and human health risks due to expanding peri-urban poultry and pig production. These circumstances place much stress on the use of natural resources, and thus force a need to look beyond the use of arable land in the irrigated areas, and to focus much needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areas. Thus for example, rainfed lowland and upland

areas are underutilised. This is reflected in the availability of approximately 141  106 ha of land or 43% of the total arable land, and the presence of 51% of the total human population, and 51–55% of cattle and small ruminant populations in Asia (TAC, 1992). The rainfed areas have been constrained by many factors such as roads and market access, on account of which they have been relatively underutilised. The development of rural roads is especially significant, and in China for example, it has been shown that for every yuan invested on low-quality roads yields five yuan of rural non-farm gross domestic product (GDP). Also, low quality roads raise more people out of poverty per yuan than high quality roads. (Shenggen Fan and Chan-Kang, 2005).Increased rural roads also contribute to more market access. Water is also a constraint, and without adequate irrigation systems, rained areas have not been able to increase productivity and capacity. These constraints can however be overcome by increased research and development attention, technology delivery, and market-oriented production systems.

8. Economic benefits The potential economic benefits of the application of important technologies, improved NRM and the impact have been discussed (Devendra, 2001). The beneficial effects of crop–animal interactions are many and are associated with draught power, manure, feeds and weed control that result in increased productivity, income generation, and the sustainability of mixed farming systems (Devendra and Thomas, 2002). Table 3 summarises the situation from 31 case studies from 11 countries in the Asian region. The data in the table have been adapted to reflect the benefits due to interventions in each system due to integration. Additional to these studies, it has been reported that the introduction of a variety of livestock in a total of 1593 coconut growing communities consistently gave increased income, improved household nutrition and farm stability (IPGRI, 2005).

9. Potential for productivity enhancement The continuing evolution, contribution, and future of animal production systems will be associated with a

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Table 3 Summary of examples of extent of benefits from animals in improved crop–animal systems in Asia Type of crop–animal system

Country

Estimated profitability/net income (US$)

Source

1. Crops–dairy–poultry

India

Sirohi et al. (1980)

2. Coconuts–beef cattle pastures

W. Samoa

3. Improved beef cattle production systems

Malaysia

4. Crops–dairy farming

India

5. Crops–dairy farming

India

6. Three-strata forage system

Indonesia

7 Goat/fish integration

Philippines

8. Oil palm–cattle–goats 9. Rice–ducks–fish

Malaysia India

10. Oil palm–cattle integration 11. Coconuts–crops–animals 12. Rice/wheat–dairying

Malaysia India Pakistan

13. Crops–cattle/buffaloes–fish

India

14. Improved grass–legume pastures in coconut plantations integrated with cattle 15. Coconuts–dairy cattle integration

Philippines

Net farm returns increased by between 148% and 165% in marginal and small farms Income from native pastures: 21–41% Income from improved pastures: 42–71% Free grazing — 0.21/day Semi-feed lot — 0.28/day Benefit — 33.3% Dairying increased farm income and farm employment Cost/l of milk was lowest compared to specialised dairy or arable farming Without project — 106 With project — 186 Benefit — 75.5% Highest fish yield of 1170 kg/ha with 20,000 O.niloticus and manure from 300 goats With integration — 110.8/ha/yr Income from arable farming — 1.01/day With ducks and fish — 1.79/day Benefit — 77.2% Increased yield of 0.49 mt FFB / ha More profitable than coconuts alone Increased income from dairying and net returns highest with inclusion of buffalo From arable farming — 607.9 /yr With integration of animals — 1213.8 Benefit — 99.7% Net profit — 510

Sri Lanka

Liyanage de Silva et al. (1993)

16. Triticale–rice–silage system 17. Oil palm–cattle integration

China Malaysia

18. Small ruminants under coconuts (1991–1994)

Philippines

19. Food crops, rubber and animal production system (1 cow, 3 goats and 11 chickens)

Indonesia

20. Rainfed rice, upland crops and cattle fattening (1984–1992)

Philippines

21. Baby corn–beef cattle integrated production 22. Rice–pigs–fish–duck–vegetable system

Thailand

Increased nut and copra yields by 17 and 11%. Reduced cost of fertiliser use by 69% Improved cow milk composition Increased yield of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) by 30% Net income without and (with) project: Sheep — 25 (127) Goats: — 35 (229) Net farm income: Without project: 24–81. With project: 124–138, Benefit: 149.5% Average net income/farm Before project — 733 After project —1130. Benefit: 54.2% Benefit 797.3/steer

Vietnam

Without project: 661 With project: 2479 Benefit: 275%

Reynolds (1995) Sukri and Dahlan (1984)

Devadoss et al. (1985) Rekib and Rajpali (1987) Nitis et al. (1990)

Libunao (1990)

Ganesan et al. (1991)

Samsuddin (1991) Das (1991)

Kadian et al. (1992)

Deocareza and Diesta (1993)

Wang et al. (1993) Chen and Chee (1993) PCARRD (1994)

Sevilla et al. (1995)

Prucsasri and Thanomwongwathana (1995) Thein et al. (1996)

(continued on next page)

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Table 3 (continued) Type of crop–animal system

Country

Estimated profitability/net income (US$)

Source

23. Integration of leguminous hedgerows on steep slopes (sloping agriculture land technology) 24. Rice + fish + duck

Philippines

Net profits 865.8–1940.1

Laquihon et al. (1997)

Indonesia

Suriapernama et al. (1998)

25. Rubber–sheep integration 26. Rice/wheat–buffalo

Indonesia India

27. Rice–Lathyrus sativus–dairy farming 28. Coconuts–dairy farming–poultry integration 29. Cereals–pulses–oil seeds– vegetables–dairy 30. Oil palm–cattle integration 31. Cash crops–grasses–tree legumes–goats integration

Bangladesh

Rice alone: 949.8 With ducks + fish: 2059.7 Benefit: 116.9% Increased income by 20% Net returns / 1000 Rest investment was highest with integrated farming Milk yield increased by 20%

India

Increased returns with livestock by 59%

Maheswarappa et al. (2001)

India

Increased farm income by 47.8%

Kumar et al. (2002)

Malaysia Vietnam

Reduced cost of weeding by 68.6% Before project — 420 After project — 1211 Increased income — 188%

Ongah (2004) Nguyen and Than (2005)

number of interrelated factors, together with the demand-driven factors for animal proteins. Among these, the issues below are considered to be especially important. 9.1. Emphasis on rainfed areas The decreasing availability of arable land, as human population densities increase, is a cause for much concern for productivity enhancement from animals. In Southeast Asia, for example, the main focus has been on crop production in the irrigated rice areas, which are already intensively used and overpopulated with people. The irrigated mixed farming systems in the humid areas have shown the greatest increases in productivity.To further increase crop production in the future; emphasis needs to be given to the neglected rainfed lowland and upland AEZs (Devendra et al., 1997, 2000; TAC, 1992; Devendra, 2000a), where land is available and also the significant populations of animals that are found here. Also, there is greater poverty in these zones than in the irrigated areas, and in the uplands particularly, the ecosystem is fragile with much natural resources degradation. Some progress has been made on understanding and improved productivity of these areas (Devendra and Pezo, 2002).

San NuNu and Deaton (1999) Sheokand et al. (2000) Akbar et al. (2000)

9.2. Significance of crop–animal interactions Crop–animal interactions are varied and are very important from the standpoint of farm productivity and sustainability of mixed farm systems Table 4 gives an indication of the main crop–animal interactions in mixed farming systems in Asia Many of these benefit small farmers and farming systems. Draught animals for example, provide ploughing and cultivation, and increase the land area prepared for cropping. The vast majority of farmers in the region do not have the resources to replace draught animal power with tractors. The environmental benefits and economic savings to Asian nations through the use of draught animal power has been highlighted (Ramaswamy, 1985), who estimated that it would take 30 million tractors to replace some 300 million draught animals on small farms. The use of renewable animal power instead of nonrenewable fossil fuels and tractors has, amongst other things, reduced carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide emissions into the atmosphere. Another example is the use of crop residues from cropping systems for conversion to edible animal products. Improved understanding of the nature and extent of the interactions can enhance the efficiency of animal production systems and farm outputs.

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Table 4 Main crop–animal interactions in mixed farming systems (Devendra and Thomas, 2002) Crop production

Animal production

Crops provide a range of residues and by-products that can be utilised by ruminants and non-ruminants. Native pastures, improved pastures and cover crops growing under perennial tree crops can provide grazing for ruminants.

Large ruminants provide power for operations such as land preparation and for soil conservation practices. Both ruminants and non-ruminants provide manure for the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility. In many farming systems it is the only source of nutrients for cropping. Manure can be applied to the land or, as in Southeast Asia, to the water which is applied to vegetables whose residues are used by non-ruminants. The sale of animal products and the hiring out of draught animals can provide cash for the purchase of fertilisers and pesticides used in crop production. Animal grazing vegetation under tree crops can control weeds and reduce the use of herbicides in farming systems. Animals provide entry-points for the introduction of improved forages in to cropping systems. Herbaceous forages can be unyrdersown in annual and perennial crops and shrubs or trees established as hedgerows in agroforestry-based cropping systems.

Cropping systems such as alley-cropping can provide tree forage for ruminants.

9.3. Production systems integrated with annual and perennial crops Relatively more attention will need to be given to mixed farming systems that involve annual crops, not only because of the importance of rice and wheat as food staples, and the opportunity to integrate annual legumes into the cereal cropping to develop food–feed systems. The potential importance of this system and successful examples has been reviewed (Devendra et al., 2001). In addition, there is a need to exploit other feed sources like leguminous shrubs and tree leaves, an example of which is Trichantera gigantea (Kier et al., 1997).The decreased availability of arable land in many areas and the need for more food from animals could encourage further integration of ruminants with tree crops in the upland areas. The development and intensification of potentially important integrated ruminants–tree crops or silvopastoral systems is a realistic objective, given the extent of farmer experience, the periodic collapse of world prices for plantation commodities, the projected demands for animal products in the future, and the advances that have already been made in Asia. This potential has recently been reviewed (Devendra, 2005). New technologies to intensify production and better scientific guidelines for managing the compo-

nents of silvo-pastoral systems are now available that can lead to higher farm incomes and a more protected environment. Future development of these integrated systems will require policy support concerning land use and also to encourage the introduction of ruminants and to increase total factor productivity. 9.4. Strategy for improved feed utilisation The strategy for feed resource use needs to take cognisance of the following interrelated issues (Devendra, 2000b): ! knowledge of the totality of available feeds that have been referred to ! appropriateness and effective use within production systems ! cost of feeding as a percentage of total production costs are about 50–60% for ruminants and 65–80% for non-ruminants in intensive production systems ! feeds and their use should be identified with farming systems and self-reliance, and ! potential promotion of linkages between rural and peri-urban areas in the use of production inputs, intensification, nutrient flows, and marketing of produce that is consistent with environmental integrity.

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The final objective should be the development of sustainable all year round feeding systems Associated with this, there should concurrently be efforts to increase feed supplies to overcome shortages, seasonal constraints and expanded production systems. Examples of such approaches include food–feed cropping (Devendra et al., 2001), forage production in rice buds and under tree crops, and alley cropping. Efficiency of feed use especially for ruminants must also identify priorities for using crop residues. Table 5 summarises how this can be achieved. 9.5. Animal manure, nutrient flows and dynamics A major environmental and human health concern in the future concerns the use and disposal animal manure from peri-urban and urban production systems. Crop production especially in the rainfed areas depend to a large extent on manure from animals because inorganic fertilizers are too expensive or unavailable to small farmers to sustain and improve soil fertility. In many countries, disposal and delivery systems for animal manure from intensive non-ruminant and dairy systems are not in place to enhance this situation. Consequently there is soil and water contamination, and emerging health hazards, such as has been reported for peri-urban dairy systems in Thailand (Chantalakhana et al., 1999). Even more serious is zoonosis and their effects on human health. Nutrient flows and nutrient dynamics, nutrient load on land, and crop– animal–soil–water interactions involving organic resources on and off the farm are critical areas for research and development in the future (Devendra, 2004). Some progress is being made to address these issues aimed at introducing new sutainable manure management systems in the area-wide integratio-

n(AWI) of livestock and crop activities project in FAO‘s the Livestock, Environment and Development (LEAD) initiative (Menzi and Gerber, 2005). 9.6. Integration with aquaculture The integration of crops and animals makes more efficient use of the natural resource base than if the components are produced separately. Intensive and semi-intensive annual crops–aquaculture–animal systems have the potential to improve the sustainability and income generation of small farms, when these are fully integrated with household activities. These also allow farm families and communities to manage their natural resources and available time more effectively. Such systems can be less risky because, when managed efficiently, they can benefit from synergism among enterprises, diversity in produce and environmental soundness. Fish convert crop, livestock and household wastes into high quality protein and nutrient-rich pond mud that can replace fertiliser completely in small vegetable gardens as has been demonstrated in the Philippines (Libunao, 1990) and in India (Ganesan et al., 1991; Kadian et al., 1992). Aquaculture systems are especially advanced in China (Congyi and Yixian, 1995) and Vietnam in terms of efficiency and complementary management of the natural resources, but much more needs to be known about the practice of these traditional systems. 9.7. Policy issues There exist major opportunities for the use of improved policy issues. These relate to institutions, services and delivery systems that affect animal production systems. In view of the bio-physical focus

Table 5 Priorities for crop residue use by animals in Asia (Devendra, 1997) Type of residue

Nutrient potential

Species (product/service)

Good quality (e.g. oilseed cakes and meals, cassava leaves)

High protein High-energy supplement Mineral Medium protein

Pigs, chickens, ducks, ruminants* (milk, meat)

Medium quality (e.g. coconut cake, palm kernel cake, sweet potato vines) Low quality (e.g. cereal straws, palm press Low protein, very fibrous fibre, stovers) ! dRuminantsT refers to buffalo, cattle, goats and sheep.

Pigs, chickens, ruminants (meats, milk) Ruminants (meats, draught), camels, donkeys, horses (draught)

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of this paper, and for reasons of brevity, attention is drawn to only four important policy areas in this review. An important issue that impinges on improved animal production systems and productivity enhancement, concerns institutional capacity to deal with NRM and holistic systems in participatory efforts with farmers. Presently, knowledge of systems perspectives, R&D, and ability to undertake adaptive research at the farm level, are major limitations in most countries, and these offer major and urgent training needs at the college and university level. Other associated emerging issues are community empowerment of local resource planning, management and decision making and rural to urban market integration to link with production to consumption systems. Among the ruminant production systems, despite the economic benefits of added value, integrated systems with tree crops remain underestimated. Policy interventions are required to stimulate more integration with animals, for example through tax incentives, and also encourage increased private sector investments. The market chain involves rural, urban and international markets. In an era of globalization and improved marketing, presently, the rural–urban market linkages are weak, and closer integration is very necessary. Rural markets are especially important to rural communities and their households, and are also used for the sale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas. Appropriate policies are required to provide good links between rural and urban markets, infrastructural and communication facilities that must be in place, as also collection and processing centres. Horizontal and vertical coordination and the development of cooperatives are also important initiatives. Because of the greater market demand for animal products in urban areas, such facilities become more essential. Urban markets are the outlets for exports, and promote international trade, and have opportunities for foreign direct investments and growth benefits (Otte et al., 2005). The fourth area concerns small farm systems in Asia. About 87% of the total distribution of small farms, defined as those having less than 2 ha of land, are presently found in Asia (Nagayets, 2005). These farms are mainly mixed farms and provide 90% of the milk, 77% of the ruminant meats, 47% of pork and poultry meat, and 31% of the eggs (Steinfeld, 1998). These same farms also supply the bulk of the draught power

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from cattle and buffaloes for arable farming, some pork, as well as meat and eggs from ducks. The resource-poor small farmers also suffer from isolation, extremes of poverty, access to technology and also markets. There is a school of thought that with increasing globalisation, economies of scale, intensification and commercialization, these small farms do not have a viable future and are likely to disappear. In Asia, this is unlikely to be the case because of the very extent of small farms and the size of the rural populations therein. Pro-poor strategies, social and effective development policies are needed that can sustain and increase the contribution from these farms. Additionally, there needs to be an enabling economic environment to spur agricultural development. The recent outbreak of viruses in intensive pig and poultry systems further justifies increased attention to improved productivity from animals in small farm systems. 9.8. Interdisciplinary research and investments A strong systems approach and interdisciplinarity is required to interpret the contribution of the many components that are identified through detailed analyses of the needs and constraints. These in turn enable the formulation of programmes that are needsled, including institutional and structural commitment to the programmes. Given the complexity and diversity of farming systems in Asia, a more holistic focus is necessary that will enable technological and policy interventions. Associated with these is the need for increased funding for research (Alston et al., 1998; Hazell and Haddad, 2001; Pardey and Beintema, 2001), so as to realise maximum efficiency in the use of the natural resources to achieve quantum jumps in productivity, potential impacts on sustainable production systems, and improved livelihoods of the poor. Increased public investments and incentives for private investments are both necessary.

10. Evolving scenarios and future of animal production systems There is no doubt that the intensive non-ruminant sectors will continue to supply the major share of animal proteins despite recent setbacks of virus

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infections. However, crop–animal systems are likely to become increasingly important. Two possible scenarios for the future of crop–animal systems have been indicated in developing countries (Steinfeld et al., 1997). One is where market forces and technological requirements force the systems to grow in unit size and to specialise. This would present fewer opportunities for on-farm crop and animal integration. The second possibility, as a result of continuing human population pressures, leads to decreasing farm sizes to the point where the system disintegrates (involution). Large ruminants can no longer be maintained on the farm, the nutrient and farm power balance runs into a widening deficit and disinvestment occurs as natural resources degrade. With the disappearance of the resourceenhancing role of animals the environmental balance

can be disrupted. In Asia, the highland areas of Indonesia (Java) and Nepal, where high human population densities are traditionally sustained by complex mixed farming systems, are examples where this process is likely to occur. It is suggested that crop–animal systems will see continued intensification and important growth in the future, and that smallholder mixed farms will remain predominant in Asia for some time to come (Devendra, 2002). Together with the larger contribution from non-ruminants in the formers, increased productivity from the latter can further increase the supplies of animal proteins. Animals, in addition to production, will continue to enhance the natural resources base. The environmental and economic stability of the mixed farming system will make it the prime focus

Table 6 Summary of livestock systems, priority production systems and major issues across regions (Devendra et al., 2005) Type of livestock systems

1. Landless

2. Crop-based mixed

Priority production system

4. Range-based

Major issues WANA

LAC

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/ / /

/ / /

/ /

/ /

/ / /

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

! Cattle

/

/

/

! Goat and sheep production

/

/

/

/

/

/

! Peri-urban/urban dairy production ! Peri-urban/urban poultry and ! Pig production ! Feedlot (cattle or small ruminants) ! Goat and sheep production ! Integrated systems with ! Annual crops (ruminants) and non-ruminants plus fish) integrated systems with perennial crops (ruminants) ! Beef and dairy production ! Goat and sheep production

3. Agro-pastoralist

Regions

! Sheep and goat production

Asia

SSA

/

/

/

/

/

/

CA

/

. Surface water contamination . Zoonosis . Waste disposal . Nutrient flows . Overgrazing . Food–feed systems . All year round feeding systems . Nutrient flows/soil fertility . Productivity enhancement . Intensification and specialization . Overgrazing . Feed supplies/drought strategies . Property regimes . Overgrazing . Trypanosomiasis . Drought strategies . Overgrazing Property regimes . Marketing

(i) SSA — Sub-Saharan Africa, CA — Central Asia, WANA — West Asia and North Africa, LAC — Latin America and the Caribbean. (ii) / indicates that both the production systems and animal species are the most important within the region. (iii) Major issues inter alia are those that currently merit R and D attention. Across regions, the issues are broadly similar as is the case with dairying. (iv) Dairy production includes buffaloes and cattle especially in Asia.

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for continuing transfer of technology and development. Important interactions between cropping and animal production are currently under-exploited, but provide exciting possibilities for technological change in the future. Significant productivity gains and increased animal protein supplies can be achieved by further enhancing nutrient and energy flows between the crop and livestock components. Comparisons of crop–animal systems in Asia with West Africa and Latin America also point out to the fact that these systems are potentially important in the future (Devendra and Pezo, 2004). However, the development of sustainable and productive crop–animal systems in the future will require an increased commitment to interdisciplinary research with a farming systems perspective that can focus on whole-farm situations and priority AEZs. The evolving scenarios will simultaneously need to address several major issues such as nutrient flows, waste disposal, overgrazing, all year round feeding systems, zoonosis and policy issues. These and other aspects across livestock systems and priority production systems are highlighted in Table 6.

11. Conclusions Accelerating the contribution from animal production systems in Asia stems from the inability of the component industries to supply the projected human demand for animal products. The implications are the need for improved systems and also increased efficiency in NRM. While the non-ruminant poultry and pig industries will continue to make the major contribution, particular emphasis is required for crop– animal systems to realise potential increases in the overall protein supply. The prerequisites for this are vigorous interdisciplinary research and development, increased investments. and institutional commitment. These and other issues constitute the major challenges for improved animal production systems in the future.

Acknowledgement I wish to acknowledge the assistance of CABI for use of the database, without which the review will not have been completed.

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