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Single-Mother Families Erin Wood Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
Synonyms Caregiver; Matriarch; Single parent
Definition A family system headed by the female parent without the male parent physically in the home; male parent often offers little to no assistance in caregiving activities.
Introduction Single mothers have been present throughout human history. Today, single-mother families are one of the fastest growing demographics with approximately 9.5 million families in the United States being headed by single mothers (Afifi et al. 2006). Because of the prevalence of single mothers, many researchers have tried to understand why mothers might have to raise their child alone, and the effects single-mother families can have on mother and child well-being. Some explanations of single motherhood are traced to sexual strategies. As with many other species
where a mother has more parenting responsibilities, males might choose to mate with multiple women (Trivers 1972). As seen in birds, males might father multiple offspring with multiple partners, but will assist with rearing children with only one partner (Trivers 1972). Therefore, all other sexual partners who yield offspring will be left to care for their young without partner assistance. While sexual strategies can lead to singlemother families, countries like the United States have also seen an increase in the number of families headed by single mothers because of cultural shifts leading to an increased social acceptance of divorce and single parenthood (Afifi et al. 2006). However, while some mothers might become single parents because of divorce or partner absence, other mothers might have to raise children alone after the death of a partner or for other reasons. With increased interest in single-mother families, recent research has shown that it is important to make distinction between the causes of single motherhood because the cause for singlehood can have large influences on maternal and child outcomes ranging on maternal mental health, employment, and child behavioral development.
Causes of Single Motherhood and Its Effects on Mental Health and Employment Mothers and children in two-parent households typically have more advantageous outcomes than
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 T. K. Shackelford, V. A. Weekes-Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_1156-1
2
children in single-mother households. In twoparent households, having two caregivers allows for more resources to allocate and higher levels of parental investment across children (Trivers 1972). Not having a second caregiver in the household can create strains on resources for in single-mother families that can lead to deleterious outcomes for both the mother and her children (Biblarz and Gottainer 2000; Trivers 1972). Being a single mother can create emotional strains by increasing a mother’s likelihood of developing a psychological disorder and financial strains because the loss of a second income might make it harder for a mother to maintain the basic physical needs of her family. The absence or loss of a partner can create emotional strains which might limit a mother’s ability to care for her offspring. However, the cause of single motherhood can create distinct differences in the mental health of the mother. Comparing married, never-married, and separated/divorced mothers, Affifi et al. (2006) found that the cause for single motherhood can significantly influence a mother’s susceptibility to anxiety, mood, and externalizing disorders. Results found that separated/divorced mothers had significantly higher rates of anxiety, mood, and externalizing disorders than never-married mothers. Additionally, never-married mothers exhibited very similar rates of anxiety, mood, and externalizing behaviors as married mothers who also had significantly lower reported scores than separated/ divorced mothers (Afifi et al. 2006). These results could indicate that the social circumstances leading to separation or divorce might either place mothers at risk of developing psychopathology. However, because the present study does not examine the mental health of single mothers who are single due to partner death, this could potentially mean that other situational factors such as grief could further influence the mental health of mothers. The cause of single motherhood might not only influence a mother’s emotional wellbeing, but might also influence her ability to financially provide for her offspring. This could further cause emotional strain and distress for the mother. In western societies, research indicates evidence that it might be more financially
Single-Mother Families
advantageous for a mother to be widowed than to be divorced or never-married. In the United States, many widowed mothers are protected by financial statutes (such as Social Security) to provide some financial security for mothers and children after the death of her husband (Bilbarz and Gottainer 2000). In the case of divorced or nonmarried partners, the father might be instructed to pay child support, but this is not always guaranteed and can place single mothers and their children in financial jeopardy. While there might be some financial resources available for single mothers and their families, many single mothers, regardless of the reason why they are single, are required to enter the work force to provide for their families (Budig and England 2001). In a study comparing non-mothers to both married and non-married mothers, Budig and England (2001) found that while most mothers experience a 7% wage penalty per child, lifetime financial gain is seen to differ between married and non-married mothers. Reasons for the wage penalty across mothers could be due to extended leave to care for newborns, parttime work, and having to take more time off to care for sick offspring. However, for single or non-married mothers, the lifetime wage penalty is lower because she might have to work full time or forgo leave to ensure that she has the resources needed to provide for her family (Budig and England 2001). While the financial needs of the family might be met, long periods of maternal absence can have large influences on child outcome.
Single-Mother Households and Child Outcomes Household environment has a large influence on the developmental trajectory of children. Children who are raised by single mothers might have increased problem behaviors because of financial and emotional strains on the family. For some children of single mothers, this might lead to an increased influence of peer groups which can impact school performance and behavioral development (Steinberg 1987). The absence of the
Single-Mother Families
father in the household can also lead to biological changes in the child which can advance sexual maturation and lead to riskier sexual behaviors (Ellis et al. 2003). Academic performance can have a large influence on later life trajectory by providing individuals with opportunities for financial and social advancement. Children raised by single mothers are seen to have decreases in academic performance compared to children from two-parent families (Lee et al. 2007). However, this effect is different between male and female offspring. In a study comparing families of single mothers to single fathers, Lee et al. (2007) found that high maternal involvement increased academic achievement in male children for reading and English test scores, but for female children, high maternal involvement was related to decreased performance in reading, English, and math scores. The opposite results were found for children of single fathers. Lee et al. (2007) posit that this difference might be due to children viewing their highly involved same-sex parent more as a peer than a parent. This could lead to diminished authority of the mother regarding the academic performance of her female children. Though highly engaged single mother might have negative influences on female academic development, low parental involvement is typically shown to influence substance use and antisocial behavior in children (Kuntsche and Silbereisen 2004; Steinberg 1987). In a study of Swedish 9th graders, Kuntsche and Silbereisen (2004) found that adolescents raised in singleparent homes engaged in higher levels of substance use behaviors. The results of this study might be explained by the financial strains caused from single motherhood that can cause a mother to spend extended periods of time away from the home. Extended absences can lead to weakened parent–child relationships and the increased reliance on peers. Steinberg (1987) found that adolescents who were raised in single parent households rated that they were more likely to engage in negative behaviors with peers (e.g., vandalism, drinking). While this could be related to the reliance on peers, these behaviors can also be driven by the parenting style adopted by single
3
parents (Aunola and Nurmi 2005; Steinberg 1987). Single mothers are seen to engage in higher levels of high-control (often referred to as authoritarian) parenting styles (Kuntsche and Silbereisen 2004), and high-control behaviors are associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems for adolescents (Aunola and Nurmi 2005). Increased internalizing and externalizing behaviors place children at higher risk for engaging in antisocial behaviors. However, as with academic performance, research conducted by Steinberg (1987) and Kuntsche and Silbereisen (2004) indicate that there are sex differences in the outcomes for children of single mothers. Broadly, male children raised by single mothers are seen to engage in higher rates of externalizing behaviors than male children raised in two-parent households; females with highly involved mothers do not (Steinberg 1987; Kuntsche and Silbereisen 2004). Even though males engage in higher levels of risk-taking in general, males from single-mother homes still engaged in higher rates of risky behaviors than male children of two-parent families (Steinberg 1987). Being raised in a single-mother household might not only increase the risk for externalizing behaviors in children, but father absence is seen to accelerate pubertal development of female children and place them at higher risk for risky sexual behaviors and teenage pregnancy (Ellis et al. 2003; Quinlan 2003). In a cross-cultural longitudinal study, Ellis et al. (2003) found that females who had absent fathers had significantly earlier menarche, earlier first sexual experiences, and higher pregnancy rates than females of two-parent families. The results of this study found that these effects were magnified in female children who were in father-absent homes before they were 5 years of age – indicating that the timing of father absence might also be an important factor of development. However, when examining the effects of timing on internalizing and externalizing behaviors, timing was not a significant predictor, indicating that there might be alternate explanations for these increased behaviors in single-mother families (Ellis et al. 2003).
4
Conclusions Single-mother families are one of the fastest growing demographics in society today. Even though single-mother families account for a growing number of families, research indicates that there are significant difficulties and stressors which can affect mothers and their offspring financially, emotionally, and physically. As shown in the research, coming from a single-mother household can place a child at specific risk for many negative outcomes. Further, research examining the timing of father absence on behavioral development might help with the understanding of the developmental outcomes of children raised by single mothers. With that in mind, it is clear that there are certain advantages afforded to offspring of twoparent families, and because the number of singlemother families is increasing, more research needs to be conducted to understand the preventative measures that can be taken to reduce the disparity in outcomes between children of twoparent families and single-mother households.
Cross-References ▶ Maternal Role: Parent Influences; Puberty in Girls
References Afifi, T. O., Cox, B. J., & Enns, M. W. (2006). Mental health profiles among married, never-married, and
Single-Mother Families separated/divorced mothers in a nationally representative sample. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(2), 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00127-005-0005-3. Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2005). The role of parenting styles in children’s problem behavior. Child Development, 76(6), 1144–1159. 009-3920/2005/7606-0002. Biblarz, T. J., & Gottainer, G. (2000). Family structure and children’s success: A comparison of widowed and divorced single-mother families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(2), 533–548. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1741-3737.2000.00533.x. Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204–225. Ellis, B. J., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Ferguson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., Pettit, G. S., & Woodward, L. (2003). Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? Child Development, 74(3), 801–821. 0009-3920/2003/74030010. Kuntsche, E. N., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2004). Parental closeness and adolescent substance use in single and two-parent families in Switzerland. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 63(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1024/ 1421-0185.63.2.85. Lee, S. M., Kushner, J., & Cho, S. H. (2007). Effects of parent’s gender, child’s gender, and parental involvement on the academic achievement of adolescents in single parent families. Sex Roles, 56, 149–157. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9157-1. Quinlan, R. J. (2003). Father absence, parental care, and female reproductive development. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 376–390. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00039-4. Steinberg, L. (1987). Single parents, stepparents, and the susceptibility of adolescents to antisocial peer pressure. Child Development, 58, 269–275. 0009-3920/87/58010020801.00J. Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection (Vol. 136, p. 179). Cambridge: Biological Laboratories, Harvard University.
Single-Mother Families Erin Wood Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
Synonyms Caregiver; Matriarch; Single parent
Definition A family system headed by the female parent without the male parent physically in the home; male parent often offers little to no assistance in caregiving activities.
Introduction Single mothers have been present throughout human history. Today, single-mother families are one of the fastest growing demographics with approximately 9.5 million families in the United States being headed by single mothers (Afifi et al. 2006). Because of the prevalence of single mothers, many researchers have tried to understand why mothers might have to raise their child alone, and the effects single-mother families can have on mother and child well-being. Some explanations of single motherhood are traced to sexual strategies. As with many other species
where a mother has more parenting responsibilities, males might choose to mate with multiple women (Trivers 1972). As seen in birds, males might father multiple offspring with multiple partners, but will assist with rearing children with only one partner (Trivers 1972). Therefore, all other sexual partners who yield offspring will be left to care for their young without partner assistance. While sexual strategies can lead to singlemother families, countries like the United States have also seen an increase in the number of families headed by single mothers because of cultural shifts leading to an increased social acceptance of divorce and single parenthood (Afifi et al. 2006). However, while some mothers might become single parents because of divorce or partner absence, other mothers might have to raise children alone after the death of a partner or for other reasons. With increased interest in single-mother families, recent research has shown that it is important to make distinction between the causes of single motherhood because the cause for singlehood can have large influences on maternal and child outcomes ranging on maternal mental health, employment, and child behavioral development.
Causes of Single Motherhood and Its Effects on Mental Health and Employment Mothers and children in two-parent households typically have more advantageous outcomes than
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 T. K. Shackelford, V. A. Weekes-Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_1156-1
2
children in single-mother households. In twoparent households, having two caregivers allows for more resources to allocate and higher levels of parental investment across children (Trivers 1972). Not having a second caregiver in the household can create strains on resources for in single-mother families that can lead to deleterious outcomes for both the mother and her children (Biblarz and Gottainer 2000; Trivers 1972). Being a single mother can create emotional strains by increasing a mother’s likelihood of developing a psychological disorder and financial strains because the loss of a second income might make it harder for a mother to maintain the basic physical needs of her family. The absence or loss of a partner can create emotional strains which might limit a mother’s ability to care for her offspring. However, the cause of single motherhood can create distinct differences in the mental health of the mother. Comparing married, never-married, and separated/divorced mothers, Affifi et al. (2006) found that the cause for single motherhood can significantly influence a mother’s susceptibility to anxiety, mood, and externalizing disorders. Results found that separated/divorced mothers had significantly higher rates of anxiety, mood, and externalizing disorders than never-married mothers. Additionally, never-married mothers exhibited very similar rates of anxiety, mood, and externalizing behaviors as married mothers who also had significantly lower reported scores than separated/ divorced mothers (Afifi et al. 2006). These results could indicate that the social circumstances leading to separation or divorce might either place mothers at risk of developing psychopathology. However, because the present study does not examine the mental health of single mothers who are single due to partner death, this could potentially mean that other situational factors such as grief could further influence the mental health of mothers. The cause of single motherhood might not only influence a mother’s emotional wellbeing, but might also influence her ability to financially provide for her offspring. This could further cause emotional strain and distress for the mother. In western societies, research indicates evidence that it might be more financially
Single-Mother Families
advantageous for a mother to be widowed than to be divorced or never-married. In the United States, many widowed mothers are protected by financial statutes (such as Social Security) to provide some financial security for mothers and children after the death of her husband (Bilbarz and Gottainer 2000). In the case of divorced or nonmarried partners, the father might be instructed to pay child support, but this is not always guaranteed and can place single mothers and their children in financial jeopardy. While there might be some financial resources available for single mothers and their families, many single mothers, regardless of the reason why they are single, are required to enter the work force to provide for their families (Budig and England 2001). In a study comparing non-mothers to both married and non-married mothers, Budig and England (2001) found that while most mothers experience a 7% wage penalty per child, lifetime financial gain is seen to differ between married and non-married mothers. Reasons for the wage penalty across mothers could be due to extended leave to care for newborns, parttime work, and having to take more time off to care for sick offspring. However, for single or non-married mothers, the lifetime wage penalty is lower because she might have to work full time or forgo leave to ensure that she has the resources needed to provide for her family (Budig and England 2001). While the financial needs of the family might be met, long periods of maternal absence can have large influences on child outcome.
Single-Mother Households and Child Outcomes Household environment has a large influence on the developmental trajectory of children. Children who are raised by single mothers might have increased problem behaviors because of financial and emotional strains on the family. For some children of single mothers, this might lead to an increased influence of peer groups which can impact school performance and behavioral development (Steinberg 1987). The absence of the
Single-Mother Families
father in the household can also lead to biological changes in the child which can advance sexual maturation and lead to riskier sexual behaviors (Ellis et al. 2003). Academic performance can have a large influence on later life trajectory by providing individuals with opportunities for financial and social advancement. Children raised by single mothers are seen to have decreases in academic performance compared to children from two-parent families (Lee et al. 2007). However, this effect is different between male and female offspring. In a study comparing families of single mothers to single fathers, Lee et al. (2007) found that high maternal involvement increased academic achievement in male children for reading and English test scores, but for female children, high maternal involvement was related to decreased performance in reading, English, and math scores. The opposite results were found for children of single fathers. Lee et al. (2007) posit that this difference might be due to children viewing their highly involved same-sex parent more as a peer than a parent. This could lead to diminished authority of the mother regarding the academic performance of her female children. Though highly engaged single mother might have negative influences on female academic development, low parental involvement is typically shown to influence substance use and antisocial behavior in children (Kuntsche and Silbereisen 2004; Steinberg 1987). In a study of Swedish 9th graders, Kuntsche and Silbereisen (2004) found that adolescents raised in singleparent homes engaged in higher levels of substance use behaviors. The results of this study might be explained by the financial strains caused from single motherhood that can cause a mother to spend extended periods of time away from the home. Extended absences can lead to weakened parent–child relationships and the increased reliance on peers. Steinberg (1987) found that adolescents who were raised in single parent households rated that they were more likely to engage in negative behaviors with peers (e.g., vandalism, drinking). While this could be related to the reliance on peers, these behaviors can also be driven by the parenting style adopted by single
3
parents (Aunola and Nurmi 2005; Steinberg 1987). Single mothers are seen to engage in higher levels of high-control (often referred to as authoritarian) parenting styles (Kuntsche and Silbereisen 2004), and high-control behaviors are associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems for adolescents (Aunola and Nurmi 2005). Increased internalizing and externalizing behaviors place children at higher risk for engaging in antisocial behaviors. However, as with academic performance, research conducted by Steinberg (1987) and Kuntsche and Silbereisen (2004) indicate that there are sex differences in the outcomes for children of single mothers. Broadly, male children raised by single mothers are seen to engage in higher rates of externalizing behaviors than male children raised in two-parent households; females with highly involved mothers do not (Steinberg 1987; Kuntsche and Silbereisen 2004). Even though males engage in higher levels of risk-taking in general, males from single-mother homes still engaged in higher rates of risky behaviors than male children of two-parent families (Steinberg 1987). Being raised in a single-mother household might not only increase the risk for externalizing behaviors in children, but father absence is seen to accelerate pubertal development of female children and place them at higher risk for risky sexual behaviors and teenage pregnancy (Ellis et al. 2003; Quinlan 2003). In a cross-cultural longitudinal study, Ellis et al. (2003) found that females who had absent fathers had significantly earlier menarche, earlier first sexual experiences, and higher pregnancy rates than females of two-parent families. The results of this study found that these effects were magnified in female children who were in father-absent homes before they were 5 years of age – indicating that the timing of father absence might also be an important factor of development. However, when examining the effects of timing on internalizing and externalizing behaviors, timing was not a significant predictor, indicating that there might be alternate explanations for these increased behaviors in single-mother families (Ellis et al. 2003).
4
Conclusions Single-mother families are one of the fastest growing demographics in society today. Even though single-mother families account for a growing number of families, research indicates that there are significant difficulties and stressors which can affect mothers and their offspring financially, emotionally, and physically. As shown in the research, coming from a single-mother household can place a child at specific risk for many negative outcomes. Further, research examining the timing of father absence on behavioral development might help with the understanding of the developmental outcomes of children raised by single mothers. With that in mind, it is clear that there are certain advantages afforded to offspring of twoparent families, and because the number of singlemother families is increasing, more research needs to be conducted to understand the preventative measures that can be taken to reduce the disparity in outcomes between children of twoparent families and single-mother households.
Cross-References ▶ Maternal Role: Parent Influences; Puberty in Girls
References Afifi, T. O., Cox, B. J., & Enns, M. W. (2006). Mental health profiles among married, never-married, and
Single-Mother Families separated/divorced mothers in a nationally representative sample. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(2), 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00127-005-0005-3. Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2005). The role of parenting styles in children’s problem behavior. Child Development, 76(6), 1144–1159. 009-3920/2005/7606-0002. Biblarz, T. J., & Gottainer, G. (2000). Family structure and children’s success: A comparison of widowed and divorced single-mother families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(2), 533–548. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1741-3737.2000.00533.x. Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204–225. Ellis, B. J., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Ferguson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., Pettit, G. S., & Woodward, L. (2003). Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? Child Development, 74(3), 801–821. 0009-3920/2003/74030010. Kuntsche, E. N., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2004). Parental closeness and adolescent substance use in single and two-parent families in Switzerland. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 63(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1024/ 1421-0185.63.2.85. Lee, S. M., Kushner, J., & Cho, S. H. (2007). Effects of parent’s gender, child’s gender, and parental involvement on the academic achievement of adolescents in single parent families. Sex Roles, 56, 149–157. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9157-1. Quinlan, R. J. (2003). Father absence, parental care, and female reproductive development. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 376–390. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00039-4. Steinberg, L. (1987). Single parents, stepparents, and the susceptibility of adolescents to antisocial peer pressure. Child Development, 58, 269–275. 0009-3920/87/58010020801.00J. Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection (Vol. 136, p. 179). Cambridge: Biological Laboratories, Harvard University.