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Physical and sensory quality of gluten-free spaghetti processed from amaranth flour and potato pulp
LWT - Food Science and Technology 65 (2016) 128e136
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Physical and sensory quality of gluten-free spaghetti processed from amaranth flour and potato pulp rcio Caliari a, *, Gilsimeire Morais Bastos a, Manoel Soares Soares Júnior a, Ma Andressa Louise de Araujo Pereira b, Carla Cristina de Morais b, Maria Raquel Hidalgo Campos b a b
s, Escola de Agronomia, Campus Samambaia, Rod. Goia ^nia/Nova Veneza, KM 0, 74690-900, Goia ^nia, Goia s, Brazil Universidade Federal de Goia s, Faculdade de Nutriça ~o, FANUT/UFG Rua 227 Qd. 68 s/n , Setor Leste Universita rio CEP, 74.605-080, Goia ^nia, Goia s, Brazil Universidade Federal de Goia
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 11 February 2015 Received in revised form 19 July 2015 Accepted 23 July 2015 Available online 29 July 2015
In the production of potato chips, potato pulp is usually lost with the tuber wash water released from the parenchyma cells after the potato is cut and before it is fried. The aim of this study was to evaluate the color and cooking quality of fresh spaghetti according to the concentration of dried potato pulp, extruded potato pulp, amaranth flour, as well as proximate composition, microbiological hazard, and sensory acceptance. Scanning electron micrographs of the spaghetti surface were taken. The addition of extruded potato pulp and amaranth flour helped produce a well-structured paste; all treatments produced firm, consistent strands with varied cooking characteristics. The combination of 65 g 100 g1 dried potato pulp, 10 g 100 g1 extruded potato pulp and 25 g 100 g1 amaranth flour provided fresh pasta with better color and cooking characteristics. A more yellowish color was achieved before cooking, as well as a lower optimum cooking time, less loss of solids to water, and higher yield compared to fresh commercial wheat flour spaghetti. Thus, it is possible to produce gluten-free pasta with good physical and sensory qualities similar to those of commercial products using residue from the production of potato chips and amaranth flour. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Solanum tuberosum L Pasta quality Cooking properties Texture Acceptance
1. Introduction The largest producers of pasta in 2011 were Italy, the USA, Brazil and Russia, with an approximate production of 7,700,000tons (ABIMA, 2012). Several studies have been conducted to find alternative sources to produce pasta by replacing the wheat (Chillo, Laverse, Falcone, & Del Nobile, 2008; Fiorda, Soares Júnior, Silva, Grosmann, & Souto, 2013). These studies are important because they may offer more food choices to people intolerant to gluten. Among the adverse reactions caused by wheat, celiac disease is the longest studied and best-known pathology. Classical celiac disease presents with signs and symptoms of malabsorption, diarrhoea, steatorrhoea, weight loss or growth failure is required (Ludvigsson et al., 2013). The more recently defined non-celiac
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G.M. Bastos), mssoaresjr@hotmail. com (M.S. Soares Júnior), [email protected] (M. Caliari), andressa_lap@hotmail. com (A.L. de Araujo Pereira), [email protected] (C.C. de Morais), raq7@ brturbo.com.br (M.R.H. Campos). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.07.067 0023-6438/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
gluten sensitivity presents with symptoms which are often indistinguishable from celiac disease. Diagnosis of celiac disease is based on serologic, molecular, and bioptic testing. The IgA antitransglutaminase (tTG) test is considered highly important, as it shows high sensitivity and specificity and its levels correlate to the degree of intestinal damage (Brusca, 2015). In the diagnosis of celiac disease, serum assays for anti-endomysium (EMA) and antitransglutaminase (anti-tTG) antibodies have excellent diagnostic accuracy (Brusca et al., 2011). In the past, the celiac disease was considered rare and as mainly affecting the pediatric population. Recently, this panorama has been changing, mainly due to the development of more sensitive and specific serological tests, which, besides favoring the early diagnosis, make possible the conduction of several screening inquiries in asymptomatic subjects whose results indicate that the real prevalence of celiac disease may be higher than 1% in different places (Bonamico, Nenna, Montuori, Luparia, Lara; Turchetti, Mennini, Lucantoni, Masotti, Magliocca, Culasso & Tiberti, 2011; Nenna et al., 2012). Lately, celiac disease has been diagnosed especially in a later phase of life, and the highest prevalence is
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found in female adults (Reilly & Green, 2012). Once the disease has been diagnosed, the treatment consists in abandoning of consumption of wheat, oat, barley and rye for the rest of one's life; that is a diet based on gluten-free food, must by adopted. Among raw materials considered suitable to be consumed by celiac population maize, rice sorghum, potato, amaranth as well as their starches, can be mentioned, which have been studied as potential substitutes of wheat in celiac product formulation (Fiorda nchez, 2014; Sandhu, Kaur, & et al., 2013; Osella, La Torre, & Sa Mukesh, 2010). However, replacement of wheat flour is not always advantageous because vegetable pasta made with alternative flours can break down and have high loss of solid content during cooking in water and an undesirable texture due to high adhesiveness. Proteins in raw materials other than wheat are unable to compose a structure similar to the gluten network (Pagani, 1986). Most Asian pasta or noodles consist of starch pasta produced from various plant sources. There has been a growing interest in the use of potato starch for the production of pasta and noodles, with several studies showing the possibility of obtaining high quality products (Kim, Wiesenborn, & Lorenzen, 1996; Sandhu et al., 2010; Singh, Singh, & Sodhi, 2002). However, no study has addressed the production of gluten-free fresh pasta with recovered material from the production of potato chips (potato pulp). Potato pulp is normally lost with tuber wash water; the starch and other substances are released from the parenchyma cells after the potatoes are cut and before they are fried (Dias, Oliveira, Campos, & Soares Júnior, 2014). In addition, interest in amaranth grain has grown because many studies show that it has good nutritional quality and contributes to improving the structure and the cooking quality of pasta (Fiorda et al., 2013). In this study, the physical (color) and technological quality (cooking test) of fresh pasta were examined according to the concentration of dried potato pulp (DPP), extruded potato pulp (EPP), and amaranth flour (AF), in addition to proximate composition, microbiological hazard, and sensory acceptance of spaghetti based on the best color and cooking features; additionally, the feasibility of using this effluent from the chips production process in the production of gluten-free fresh pasta was examined, theoretically because gluten level was not measured. 2. Material & methods 2.1. Raw materials and preparation of ingredients Wastewater samples from potato wash, cultivar Atlantic, were s collected from the company Cicopal Ltda., in Senador Canedo, Goia State, Brazil. During the processing of potato chips, the tubers were peeled, cut, and washed. The tuber wash water was collected directly from the disposal pipe using a woven polypropylene bag. By sedimentation, potato pulp was separated from the excess water. Soon thereafter, the wet potato pulp was taken to the laboratory and dried in a forced air oven at 60 C to 12% moisture, producing the dried potato pulp (DPP) in aggregates of approximately 5 mm in length. The DPP with 14 g 100 g1 moisture was used without grinding to obtain the extruded potato pulp (EPP). The extrusion was performed on a single screw thermoplastic extruder (Imbramaq, PQ~o Preto-SP, Brazil), with a 3:1 compression ratio, feed 30, Ribeira rate of 335 g min1, die opening of 4 mm diameter, screw speed of 381 rpm (90 Hz), smooth surface barrel, and temperatures at the first, second and third heating zone of the extruder of 30 C, 60 C and 75 C, respectively. The EPP was ground and passed through a 0.59 mm sieve. All dry ingredients used to produce the fresh pasta products were standardized using a 0.25 mm sieve. The amaranth ^nia, Goia s State, Brazil. flour was purchased at a local market in Goia
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2.2. Characterization of raw materials Digital potentiometer was used to measure pH (Hanna Instruments, HI9224, Singapore, China) according to the official method (AOAC, 2010). The water absorption index and water solubility index were obtained according to the method published by Anderson, Conway, Pfeifer, and Grif-Fn (1969). The instrumental color parameters (L*, a* and b*) were determined with a colorimeter (Color Quest II, Hunter Lab Reston, Canada), and the water activity (aw) was measured with an AquaLab CX-2 apparatus (Washington, USA). All analyses were performed in triplicate. 2.3. Pasta formulations and processing The response surface methodology and the simplex design were used to study the spaghetti formulations. Three dry components were used in the mixtures, i.e., DPP, EPP and amaranth flour (AF) (X1 þ X2 þ X3 ¼ 1 or 100%). The ingredients examined in the study were expressed in pseudo-components. Fresh spaghetti samples were formulated according to the experimental design shown in Table 1. In total, 18.8 mL water and 56 g fresh egg per 100 g mixture were added to all formulations. Initially, the dry ingredients were mixed manually, and then the egg and water were added. The mixtures were placed in a Pastaia extruder (Intalvisa, 6, Tatuí, Brazil) with a single screw, 1:1 compression ratio, and die opening of 1 mm circular holes. The samples were manually cut into pieces approximately 300 mm long and stored at a refrigeration temperature (5 ± 1 C). 2.4. Pasta color before cooking The instrumental color parameters were obtained by taking digital photographs of the spaghetti placed on Petri dishes 150 mm in diameter. Digital camera was used (Sony, DSC-S600, Manaus-AM, Brazil), and the camera lens positioned perpendicular to the surface of the product, at a distance of 200 mm, with the white balance set to daylight. A lighting system was used with two D65 sources falling on a 45 angle on the product placed on a white background. Digital images were processed using photo editing software (Microsoft Photo Editor 3.01, San Diego, USA). For each sample, 15 central areas (50 50 mm) were selected for color comparison. Each small fragment was saved in BMP format. Shortly thereafter, a SH 2.0 program (pixel by pixel color reading application) was used to convert Bitmap images to RGB mean color values. The data were
Table 1 Mixture design to study the effect of dried potato pulp flour (DPP), extruded potato pulp (EPP) and amaranth flour (AF) on the dependent variables in real proportions and in pseudo-components. Experiment
Proportion of the ingredients in ternary mixture Real concentrationa DPP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b
0.80 0.65 0.80 0.73 0.68 0.65 0.72 0.72 0.72
b
Pseudo-componenta b
EPP
AF
DPP (X1)
EPP (X2)
AF (X3)
0.07 0.17 0.10 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11
0.13 0.18 0.10 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.17 0.17 0.17
0.83 0.00 0.83 0.44 0.17 0.00 0.39 0.39 0.39
0.00 0.56 0.17 0.56 0.00 0.17 0.22 0.22 0.22
0.17 0.44 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.83 0.39 0.39 0.39
Source: Statsoft (2007). a X1 þ X2 þ X3 ¼ 1 or 100%. b g 100 g1.
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converted into the CIELAB system, using an application (Munsell Conversion, Colorpro 4.01, USA). The evaluation of the color by scanned images was used because the software allows, through the pixels count to determine image of areas with irregular contours (Rom~ ao, Yamashita, Benasi, & Soares, 2006).
accompanied by tomato sauce. The appearance was judged under natural light, and other attributes were judged under red light.
2.5. Cooking properties
The best experimental pasta was compared to a commercial fresh spaghetti sample made with common wheat flour and of similar dimensions and cooking properties.
The cooking method described by Chang and Flores (2004) was used to determine cooking properties of the samples. In total, 10 g of sample was cooked in 140 mL boiling distilled water. The optimum cooking time was obtained by compressing the cooked product between two glass slides until the central axis disappeared at intervals of 30 s. The results were expressed in minutes. The mass increased (MI) was determined from the ratio of 10 g dry pasta and its mass after cooking, using the optimum cooking time of each sample. After the evaporation of 25 mL cooking water in a circulating air oven at 105 C to constant weight, the loss of solid (LS) was determined. 2.6. Statistical analysis The significance of the models generated for each response was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a significance level of 5% for all tests. The representation of the mixture system was constructed using a triangular graph with level curves for each dependent variable based on the fitted model. The polynomial models that fit the responses of optimum cooking time, loss of solids, mass increased and chroma b * were chosen as the best fresh pasta formulations based on the mixture components (DPP, EPP and AF) to obtain the most desirable spaghetti. The positive characteristics of the samples using the desirability test consisted of the following: a short optimum cooking time, small loss of solids, intermediate mass increase, and low b* chromaticity coordinate. Statistica 7.0 software (Statsoft, Statistica 7.0 for Windows, Tulsa, USA) was used to determine the experimental design, perform the statistical analysis and construct the graphs.
2.10. Comparison of the gluten-free pasta to commercial wheatbased products
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Physical characteristics of the dry ingredients The highest value of aw was found for the AF, and the lowest was found for DPP (Table 2); all were below the limit recommended to control microbial growth, which is 0.6. The AF was darker, reddish and yellowish compared to the EPP and DPP. The EPP had the lower value of L* and higher values of a* and b* compared to the DPP, which indicated a darkening of the product due to the extrusion process. The water absorption index and water solubility index analysis of DPP showed a 76.5% and 99.3% decrease compared to EPP, respectively. Thus, the extrusion significantly increased these parameters (starch gelatinization). These outcomes are often observed in extruded materials (Day & Swanson, 2013). The micrographs of AF flour indicated that the granules exhibited irregular polygonal shapes with lengths ranging from 2.2 to 3.6 106 m (Fig. 1A and B), which was different from the values reported in literature (1e3 106 m). The DPP and EPP can be observed in the micrographs of Fig. 1C and D, respectively. The grain size of the DPP starch ranged from 2.3 to 90 106 m, with a predominance of medium to large granules with irregular oval shape. The starch granules were intact, and there was a presence of non-starch particles, which consisted of small pieces of potato peel from processing. No granular structure was found in the EPP; it consisted of a compact and solid material resulting from the extrusion. 3.2. Color and cooking test
2.7. Scanning electron microscopy
2.8. Microbiological evaluation
The polynomial models for the optimum cooking time, mass increase, loss of solids and chromaticity coordinates a* and b* of fresh spaghetti prepared with different proportions of DPP, EPP and AF were significant (P 0.05) and had coefficients of determination (R2) greater than 0.96 (Table 3). The effects of the amounts of DPP, EPP and AF were significant for all the models analyzed. The interaction between DPP and AF was significant for models of optimum cooking time, mass increase, loss of solids and the b* color coordinate. However, the model for lightness (L*) was not
Following the techniques described by the American Public Health Association (APHA, 2001), Bacillus cereus, total and thermotolerant coliforms, yeasts and molds, sulfite-reducing clostridia and coagulase positive staphylococci were quantified before the sensory test, and a detection test for Salmonella sp was performed.
Table 2 Water activity, instrumental color parameters (L*, a* and b*), water absorption index and water solubility index of the dried potato pulp (DPP), extruded potato pulp (EPP) and amaranth flour (AF).a
A scanning electron microscope (Sputter Coater SCD-050, Scotia, USA) was used to take micrographs of the surface of the dry ingredients, experimental fresh spaghetti and commercial fresh spaghetti made from common wheat flour after being dried for 24 h in a circulating air oven at 60 C and kept in a desiccator until analyzed.
2.9. Sensory analysis The fresh spaghetti formulation selected in the desirability analysis was submitted to an acceptability test using a 9-point hedonic scale for appearance, texture, flavor and odor. Buying intention was evaluated using a 5-point scale among habitual pasta consumers. The tests were performed in a laboratory by eighty non-trained judges, consisting of 89% female and 11% male consumers, and 81% consumed fresh spaghetti at least every 15 days. Samples were served in individual booths in 25 g portions and
Property
DPP
EPP
Water activityb Luminosityb Chroma a*b Chroma b*b Water absorption indexc Water solubility indexd
0.15 ± 0.1 92.6 ± 1.6 0.07 ± 0.05 1.3 ± 0.1 2.0 0.67 ± 0.05
0.29 83.8 2.2 10.2 8.4 94.2
AF ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.15 1.7 0.1 0.5 0.2 1.8
0.4 59.6 3.2 29.2 e e
± ± ± ±
0.14 1.3 0.2 0.4
a Six samples of each raw material were evaluated and all analyzes were performed in triplicate. b Dimensionless. c [g of gel (g of dry matter)1]. d %.
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Fig. 1. Micrographs of flours obtained in a scanning electron microscope at different magnifications. Amaranth flour: (A) 750 (B) 2000. Dried potato pulp: (C) 650. Extrused potato pulp: (D) 350.
Table 3 Polynomial models, significance level (P), lack of fit (LF) and coefficient of determination (R2) for chroma a* and b*, optimum cooking time (OCT), mass increase (MI), loss of solids to cooking water (LS) of fresh spaghetti according to coded levels of dried potato pulp (x1), extruded potato pulp (x2) and amaranth flour (x3). Parameter a
a* b*a OCTb MIc LSc a b c
Model yi yi yi yi yi
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
3.33x1 þ 9.25x2 þ 5.63x3 e 11.46 1 2 e 12.66 2 3 41.53x1 þ 41.26x2 þ 39.45x3 e 6.42 1 2 þ 44.10 1 3 e 11.01 2 3 2.46x1 þ 6.69x2 þ 2.17x3 e 7.10 1 2 þ 12.08 1 3 e 5.86 2 3 64.13x1 þ 173.83x2 þ 115.98x3 e 141.81 1 2 e 245.83 1 3 e 163.67 2 22.81x1 e 13.15x2 e 9.92x3 þ 109.57 1 3 þ 84.37 2 3
3
P
LF
R2
0.000 0.001 0.003 0.018 0.003
0.041 0.014 0.052 0.000 0.265
0.98 0.99 0.99 0.96 0.97
Dimensionless. Min. (%).
significant. There was a significant lack of fit in models for mass increase, and color coordinates a* and b*; however, they were considered irrelevant due to their low experimental error mean square values. In the experimental study, fresh spaghetti showed chroma a* values between 2.90 and 5.36 (Fig. 2A). The lower values of chroma a* occurred inside the area between points 3, c, d and e in formulations of fresh spaghetti with 75e80 g 100 g1 (highest concentrations) DPP, 9e14 g 100 g1 EPP and 10e13 g 100 g1 AF. The highest value for the chroma a* was recorded in the area between points 5, a and b in spaghetti with 68e69 g 100 g1 DPP, 7 and 8 g 100 g1 EPP and 24e25 g 100 g1 AF. Because the amount of AF was increased in the formulations the red color value of the spaghetti increased because dry AF had a redder. The chroma b* value of fresh spaghetti ranged between 41.6 and 48.9. Fig. 2B shows the area defined by points a, b and c, which consist of the formulations corresponding to higher values of chroma b*. Thus, the most yellow spaghetti was obtained from higher concentrations of DPP (71e78 g 100 g1), a minimum of EPP (7e9 g 100 g1) and from intermediate to high levels of AF (15e22 g 100 g1). In general, the optimum cooking time of fresh spaghetti was low and varied from 2 to 4 min Chang and Flores (2004) developed
fresh pasta using different proportions of durum wheat semolina and common wheat flour and observed that the optimum cooking time ranged between 5 and 6 min, which was longer than in this study. Lower optimum cooking times (below 3 min) were verified on the contour graph, which are the two areas marked by black lines (Fig. 2C) between points 6, a and b. Thus, lower values of optimum cooking time were achieved in the fresh spaghetti with a formulation of 65e66 g 100 g1 DPP, 9e13 g 100 g1 EPP and 22e25 g 100 g1 AF, as well as in the area close to experimental point 3, with a formulation of 74e80 g 100 g1 DPP, 9e16 g 100 g1 EPP and 10e11 g 100 g1 AF. The mass increase of fresh spaghetti ranged from 32.7 % to 111.5 %. The mass increase depended on the cooking time, the shape of the pasta, and the source and protein content, which hydrate and absorb water when the pasta is mixed, significantly influencing this parameter (Ormenese, Faria, Gomes, & Yotsuyanagi, 2001). The lowest mass increase (below 40%) is shown in the chart inside the area defined by the black line between the c, d and e points (Fig. 2D), while the highest values (>100%) are shown by experimental points 6, 2, a and b. Therefore, the lowest values of mass increase were verified in fresh pasta formulations consisting of 73e77 g 100 g1 DPP, 7e9 g 100 g1 EPP and 16e20 g 100 g1 AF; the highest values of mass increase were found in the formulations
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Fig. 2. (A) chroma a*, (B) chroma b*, (C) Optimum cooking time (OCT) (min), (D) mass increase (MI) (g 100 g1) and (E) loss of solids (LS) (g 100 g1) as a function of the proportions of dried potato pulp (DPP), extruded potato pulp waste (EPP) and amaranth flour (AF) in the formulations of fresh spaghetti.
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Fig. 3. Surface micrographs of fresh spaghetti, with the potato pulp flour, extruded potato pulp, and amaranth flour, respectively in the formulations: (A) 80:7:13 (FS1); (B) 65:17:18 (FS2); (C) 80:10:10 (FS3); (D) 73:17:100 (FS4); (E) FS5 (68:7:25); (F) FS6 (65:10:25); (G) FS7 (72:11:17); and (H) commercial fresh spaghetti of wheat flour. The length of the scale bar is 50 mm.
with concentrations of 65e67 g 100 g1 DPP, 9e17 g 100 g1 EPP and 16e25 g 100 g1 AF. The loss of solids of fresh spaghetti varied from 3.8 to 34.8 g 100 g1. Three out of seven experiments showed loss of solids values of up to 6 g 100 g1, which was considered very good cooking quality by Hummel (1966). The highest values of loss of solids (>30 g 100 g1) were found in the area between points 1, d and c (Fig. 2E). Thus, there was a tendency toward higher values of loss of solids in fresh spaghetti formulated with higher levels of DPP (between 72 and 80 g 100 g1), lower EPP (7e10 g 100 g1) and intermediate to high levels of AF (13e21 g 100 g1). The highest loss
of solids occurred near experimental point 1. This was also one of the experiments that showed a higher optimum cooking time (4 min), which showed that starch granules near the surface may have absorbed a great deal of water. According to Kim and Wiesenborn (1996), this makes the surface pastier, resulting in loss of firmness and solids during cooking, and increases the adhesiveness in chewing. The lower loss of solids samples (<10%) were between points a, b and 4, and 6, e and f (Fig. 2E). Thus, the lower loss of solids values were observed in the formulations with 71e75 g 100 g1 DPP, 15e17 g 100 g1 EPP and 10e12 g 100 g1 AF, and with 65e67 g 100 g1 DPP, 8e14 g 100 g1 EPP and 21e25 g
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Table 4 Color and cooking quality of the selected fresh spaghetti (FS6), formulated with 65 g 100 g1 dried potato pulp (DPP), 10 g 100 g1 extruded potato pulp (EPP) and 25 g 100 g1 amaranth flour (AF), and fresh spaghetti of wheat flour (FSW).a Property Optimum cooking time Mass increasec Loss of solidsc Luminosityd Chroma a*d Chroma b*d
b
FS6
FSW
2.0 96.2 ± 1.3 3.8 60.3 ± 1.2 4.4 ± 0.1 41.6 ± 0.6
2.3 55.6 ± 1.2 12.4 73.5 ± 1.8 1.5 ± 0.1 12.1 ± 0.3
a Six samples of each fresh pasta were evaluated and all analyzes were performed in triplicate. b Min. c (%). d Dimensionless.
100 g1 AF. In general, a lower loss of solids value was observed when the amount of EPP or AF increased in the fresh pasta. Moreover, the presence of EPP may have improved fluidity of the pasta through the extruder, leading to a more stable matrix and less damaged protein-starch network. All the fresh spaghetti showed good cooking characteristics, which was most likely due to the presence of ovalbumin; like gluten (Alamprese, Iametti, Rossi, & Bergonzi, 2005), ovalbumin may have interacted with AF proteins and with the pregelatinized starch of EPP, reinforcing the protein network and delaying the swelling and gelatinization of starch during cooking, resulting in better performance. An inverse proportional relationship between the mass increase ~, Kuri, and and loss of solids is observed in Fig. 2D and E. Tudorica Brennan (2002) also detected this behavior and reported that the uneven distribution of water within the matrix of the pasta due to competitive hydration of the fiber, led to less swelling of the starch granules; consequently, the loss of solids in cooking increased due to the breakdown of the starch-protein network. In the experimental spaghetti, the larger amounts of DPP in the formulation determined the lowest mass increase and higher loss of solids values. This was because the DPP absorbed less water than the EPP and combined with the least amount of AF, which had less protein and did not form a starch protein network sufficient to prevent starch leaching. With higher concentrations of DPP, the fresh spaghetti 1 (FS1) and 3 (FS3) showed more exposed granular structures that were less involved in EPP (Fig. 3A and C). In FS2, which had the largest concentration of EPP and an AF close to the maximum value (18 g 100 g1), the granules appeared more covered by gelatinized starch, and the pasta showed some perforations on the surface. The FS4 sample also had gelatinized starch on the granules and had holes; however, compared to FS2, FS4 had more holes (Fig. 3D). The micrographs of FS2 and FS4 reinforced the importance of AF on the
quality of the pasta; when the level of AF decreased from 18 to 10 g 100 g1 and the EPP was kept constant at 17 g 100 g1 EPP, the structure was affected and there was not enough EPP to create a regular, compact, and fused surface with a network strong enough to involve the starch granules (Fig. 3B and D, respectively). Fresh spaghetti with larger amounts of AF (FS5 and FS6) had a more uniform surface, in which the starch granules were covered by a dense and compact network formed by pregelatinized flour, amaranth proteins and egg protein (albumen) (Fig. 3E and F). In FS6, the incorporation of 10 g 100 g1 EPP improved the appearance of the pasta, making it more homogenous, and the granules were covered by a more continuous matrix. Sample FS7 had an intermediate concentration of AF (17 g 100 g1) and low concentration of EPP (11 g 100 g1) and had a more irregular surface compared to FS2. In general, whenever the amount of AF or EPP was reduced, there was a trend toward increased exposure of starch granules (Fig. 3G and B). Commercial fresh spaghetti made with wheat flour (Fig. 3H) showed cracks, unlike spaghetti formulated with DPP, EPP and AF, which did not have this characteristic at 300 magnification. This finding indicated that the network of experimental spaghetti had better resistance to drying (this analysis was performed using dry samples), suggesting the potential application of these raw materials to the production of dry pasta. Fig. 3H shows that the wheat flour granules were smaller than the DPP granules. High relief starch granules were observed; however, these granules seemed to be covered by a film most likely formed by the network of gluten, egg proteins and/or lipids, which were added to the formulation and listed in the commercial pasta label. Chen, Schols, and Voragen (2003) demonstrated that the size of the starch granule has a relationship with the processing and quality of the pasta. The results of the LS in cooking showed that small size fractions (<20 106 m) provided pasta with minor losses. There was a predominance of medium and large granules in the potato pulp; however, the starch granules of the AF were very small, and the flour of this pseudo-cereal had a carbohydrate content of approximately 64 g 100 g1 (data unpublished). The micrographs indicated that spaghetti with the maximum value of AF (25 g 100 g1) showed the best formed structure. The smaller grain size of the AF starch most likely favored the production of these pastas, especially the FS6, which had the lowest loss of solids; in contrast, the FS1 with higher content of DPP showed the highest loss of solids in cooking. Lower values of optimum cooking time and loss of solids are quality characteristics that were used to select the most desirable fresh spaghetti. The choice of intermediate values of mass increase and lower chroma b* values were set by comparing the values of the experimental design to those obtained for wheat flour fresh spaghetti (Table 4). The diagram of the desirability test indicated
Fig. 4. Fresh spaghetti of potato pulp, dried and extruded, and amaranth flour, (A) raw and (B) cooked, served in the sensory analysis.
G.M. Bastos et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 65 (2016) 128e136
that the most suitable formulation consisted of 66.5 g 100 g1 DPP, 9.5 g 100 g1 EPP and 24 g 100 g1 AF. Thus, FS6 was considered the most desirable sample because of its ranking on the desirability test, that is, a proportion of 65:10:25 of the components listed above, respectively. Using a scanning electron microscopy, FS6 showed a better surface, which confirmed the results of the desirability test (Fig. 3F). Significant differences were found between selected fresh spaghetti (FS6) and fresh wheat flour spaghetti for all instrumental color and cooking characteristics evaluated (Table 4). The optimum cooking time was 13% lower in FS6 than in fresh wheat flour spaghetti, which favored a rapid preparation of FS6. The mass increase of FS6 was 73% higher than that of the fresh wheat flour spaghetti, which contributed to a higher yield after cooking. The loss of solids of FS6 was 70% lower compared to fresh wheat flour spaghetti. The FS6 was darker, yellower and redder than the fresh wheat flour spaghetti (Table 4). A more yellow color in fresh pasta is commonly considered an important quality attribute for the product (Carini, Vittadini, Curti, & Antoniazzi, 2009). Chillo et al. (2008) examined the quality of three types of gluten-free spaghetti made from amaranth flour and emulsifier, and with the addition of quinoa, beans and chickpeas. They observed that the optimum cooking time and loss of solids for the formulations mixed with equal amounts of amaranth were 6 min for quinoa (11.4 g 100 g1), 7.5 min for beans (11.4 g 100 g1) and 7 min for chickpeas (9.2 g 100 g1). All of these reported values much higher than those found in the study reported herein, demonstrating the superior quality of the FS6 sample. 3.3. Microbiological analysis The raw FS6 samples had counts below allowable limits for B. cereus, total and thermo-tolerant coliforms, sulphite-reducing clostridia, coagulase-positive staphylococci, yeasts and molds, and Salmonella sp was absent, indicating adequate sanitary quality of raw materials. These data were compliant with the Good Manufacturing Practices before, during and after processing; thus, the FS6 samples were microbiologically fit for a consumption product in accordance with current health legislation in Brasil (2001). 3.4. Sensory analysis The FS6 samples received mean scores above 8.1 for all attributes evaluated, corresponding to the interval between “like very much” and “extremely like”, above the minimum value of six for acceptance of fresh pasta, which corresponded to “like slightly”. Approval rates of 97.5%, 92.5%, 88.75% and 90% were registered for appearance, aroma, flavor and texture, respectively. These scores were recorded by the judges that indicated scores above 7 for the attributes evaluated; these data indicated that FS6 received an excellent acceptability rating. The FS6 showed uniform yellow color and thickness, smoothness, slip, and a shiny surface, without roughness before and after cooking. Other than the good taste and odor, the product retained its shape without showing cracks, breaks, or disintegration during cooking; the product also exhibited a firm texture (“al dente”), non-sticky surface, low solids loss and shorter cooking time. All of these characteristics were observed during the cooking tests, in sensory analysis and in the micrograph images (Figs. 2e4). The study determining intention to purchase the product showed that 34% “possibly would buy” and 55% “definitely would buy” FS6. None of the panelists said they would not buy the FS6. During the sensory test, observations were written down on the evaluation form with very positive remarks regarding the FS6 samples, and nearly all of the panelists consumed the entire
135
product. Some panelists found the FS6 to be very similar in texture, appearance and flavor to the fresh wheat flour spaghetti. The quality of FS6 was similar to or higher than that in other studies, and it is believed that industrial production could further improve its quality, including the development of different shapes and thicknesses. This study presented a new possibility of producing gluten-free fresh pasta based on agribusiness recovered product. It is important from a commercial standpoint given the aspects related to the sustainability of the industry, the prospective growth in the fresh pasta market and the absence of similar products on the market for consumers, especially those allergic to gluten. 4. Conclusions The addition of extruded potato pulp and amaranth flour to dried potato pulp allowed the production of well-structured fresh pasta. All of the formulations produced firm and consistent strands with varied cooking characteristics. The combination of 65 g 100 g1 dried potato pulp, 10 g 100 g1 pregelatinized flour of potato pulp and 25 g 100 g1 amaranth flour produced spaghetti with high sensory acceptance and purchase intention because of better visual quality and cooking characteristics compared to fresh wheat flour spaghetti. It is feasible to use by-products from the production of potato chips to produce fresh pasta. Acknowledgment The authors are grateful to CAPES, CNPq and FAPEG for the financial support and scholarship, and Cicopal Industry by the partnership. References A.O.A.C. (2010). Association of official analytical chemists (United States of America). Official methods of analysis (18th ed.). Washington D.C: AOAC. ~o Brasileira das Indústrias de Massas Alimentícias. www. ABIMA. (2012). Associaça abima.com.br (accessed 24.06.13.). Alamprese, C., Iametti, S., Rossi, M., & Bergonzi, D. (2005). Role of pasteurization treatments on rheological and protein structural characteristics of fresh egg pasta. European Food Research and Technology, 221, 759e767. Anderson, R. A., Conway, H. F., Pfeifer, V. F., & Grif-Fn, L. J. (1969). Gelatinization of corn grift by roll and extrusion cook. Cereal Science Today, 14, 4e11. APHA. (2001). American public health association. Compendium of methods for the microbiological examination of foods (4th ed., p. 676). Washington: APHA. Bonamico, M., Nenna, R., Montuori, M., Luparia, R. P. L., Turchetti, A., Mennini, M., et al. (2011). First salivary screening of celiac disease by detection of antitransglutaminase autoantibody radioimmunoassay in 5000 Italian primary schoolchildren. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition, 52, 17e20. ^ncia Sanita ria. Resoluça ~o RDC nº 12 de 02 de Brasil. (2001). Ag^ encia Nacional de Vigila cnico sobre padro ~es microbiolo gicos para alijaneiro de 2001. Regulamento te mentos www.e-legis.bvs.br (accessed 22.06.13.). Brusca, I. (2015). Overview of biomarkers for diagnosis and monitoring of celiac disease. Advances in Clinical Chemistry, 68, 1e55. Brusca, I., Carroccio, A., Tonutti, E., Tozzoli, R., Barrale, Sarullo, F. M., et al. (2011). The old and new tests for celiac disease: which is the best test combination to diagnose celiac disease in pediatric patients? Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, 26, 111e117. Carini, E., Vittadini, E., Curti, E., & Antoniazzi, F. (2009). Effects of different shaping modes on physico-chemical properties and water status of fresh pasta. Journal of Food Engineering, 93, 400e406. Chang, Y. K., & Flores, H. E. M. (2004). Quality of fresh pastas obtained from blends of durum wheat semolina (T. durum L.) and wheat flour (T. aestivum L. Food Science and Technology, 24, 487e493. Chen, Z., Schols, H. A., & Voragen, A. G. J. (2003). Physicochemical properties of starches obtained from three varieties of chinese sweet potatoes. Journal of Food Science, 68, 431e437. Chillo, S., Laverse, J., Falcone, P. M., & Del Nobile, M. A. (2008). Quality of spaghetti in base amaranthus wholemeal flour added with quinoa, broad bean and chick pea. Journal of Food Engineering, 84, 101e107. Day, L., & Swanson, B. G. (2013). Functionality of protein-fortified extrudates. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 12, 546e564. Dias, T. L., Oliveira, T. F., Campos, M. R. H., & Soares Júnior, M. S. (2014). Utilization of residual pulp of potato in snacks as prospect of reducing environmental impact. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, 18, 225e230. Fiorda, F. A., Soares, M. S., Da Silva, F. A., Grosmann, M. V. E., & Souto, L. R. F. (2013).
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Microestructure, texture and colour of gluten-free pasta made with amaranth flour, cassava starch and cassava bagasse. Food Science and Technology e Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 54, 132e138. Hummel, C. (1966). Macaroni products: Manufacture processing and packing (2nd ed.). London: Food Trade. Kim, Y. S., & Wiesenborn, D. P. (1996). Starch noodle quality as related to potato genotypes. Journal of Food Science, 61, 248e252. Kim, Y. S., Wiesenborn, D. P., & Lorenzen, J. H. P. (1996). Berglund: suitability of edible bean and potato starches for starch noodles. Cereal Chemistry, 73, 302e308. Ludvigsson, J. F., Leffler, D. A., Bai, J. C., Biagi, F., Fasano, A., Green, P. H. R., et al. (2013). The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms. Gut, 62, 43e52. Nenna, R., Tiberti, C., Petrarca, L., Lucantoni, F., Mennini, M., Luparia, R. P., et al. (2012). The celiac iceberg: a characterization of the disease in primary school children. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition, 56, 416e421. Ormenese, R. C. S. C., Faria, E. V., Gomes, C. R., & Yotsuyanagi, K. (2001). Non-conventional pasta made from rice-sensory profile and acceptability. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 4, 67e74. nchez, H., & M. de, La Torre (2014). Safe foods for celiac people. Food Osella, C., Sa and Nutrition Sciences, 5, 787e800.
Pagani, M. A. (1986). Pasta products from conventional raw materials. In C. MERCIER, & C. CANTARELLI (Eds.), Pasta and extrusion cooked foods: some technological and nutritional aspects (pp. 53e68). Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd. Reilly, N. R., & Green, P. H. (2012). Epidemiology and clinical presentations of celiac disease. Seminars in Immunopathology, 34, 473e478. Rom~ ao, R. B. M., Yamashita, F., Benasi, M. T., & Soares, J. H. (2006). Scientific note e method for the evaluation of crystallization in hard candies using digitalized imaging. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 9, 151e155. Sandhu, K. S., Kaur, M., & Mukesh. (2010). Studies on noodle quality of potato and rice starches and their blends in relation to their physicochemical, pasting and gel textural properties. Food Science and Technology e Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 43, 1289e1293. Singh, N., Singh, J., & Sodhi, N. S. (2002). Morphological, thermal, rheological and noodle-making properties of potato and corn starch. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 82, 1376e1383. Statsoft, Inc. CD Room. Statsoft. (2007). STATISTICA 7.0 for windows computer program manual (Tulsa). Tudoric~ a, C. M., Kuri, V., & Brennan, C. S. (2002). Nutritional and physicochemical characteristics of dietary fiber en-riched pasta. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 347e356.
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Physical and sensory quality of gluten-free spaghetti processed from amaranth flour and potato pulp rcio Caliari a, *, Gilsimeire Morais Bastos a, Manoel Soares Soares Júnior a, Ma Andressa Louise de Araujo Pereira b, Carla Cristina de Morais b, Maria Raquel Hidalgo Campos b a b
s, Escola de Agronomia, Campus Samambaia, Rod. Goia ^nia/Nova Veneza, KM 0, 74690-900, Goia ^nia, Goia s, Brazil Universidade Federal de Goia s, Faculdade de Nutriça ~o, FANUT/UFG Rua 227 Qd. 68 s/n , Setor Leste Universita rio CEP, 74.605-080, Goia ^nia, Goia s, Brazil Universidade Federal de Goia
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 11 February 2015 Received in revised form 19 July 2015 Accepted 23 July 2015 Available online 29 July 2015
In the production of potato chips, potato pulp is usually lost with the tuber wash water released from the parenchyma cells after the potato is cut and before it is fried. The aim of this study was to evaluate the color and cooking quality of fresh spaghetti according to the concentration of dried potato pulp, extruded potato pulp, amaranth flour, as well as proximate composition, microbiological hazard, and sensory acceptance. Scanning electron micrographs of the spaghetti surface were taken. The addition of extruded potato pulp and amaranth flour helped produce a well-structured paste; all treatments produced firm, consistent strands with varied cooking characteristics. The combination of 65 g 100 g1 dried potato pulp, 10 g 100 g1 extruded potato pulp and 25 g 100 g1 amaranth flour provided fresh pasta with better color and cooking characteristics. A more yellowish color was achieved before cooking, as well as a lower optimum cooking time, less loss of solids to water, and higher yield compared to fresh commercial wheat flour spaghetti. Thus, it is possible to produce gluten-free pasta with good physical and sensory qualities similar to those of commercial products using residue from the production of potato chips and amaranth flour. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Solanum tuberosum L Pasta quality Cooking properties Texture Acceptance
1. Introduction The largest producers of pasta in 2011 were Italy, the USA, Brazil and Russia, with an approximate production of 7,700,000tons (ABIMA, 2012). Several studies have been conducted to find alternative sources to produce pasta by replacing the wheat (Chillo, Laverse, Falcone, & Del Nobile, 2008; Fiorda, Soares Júnior, Silva, Grosmann, & Souto, 2013). These studies are important because they may offer more food choices to people intolerant to gluten. Among the adverse reactions caused by wheat, celiac disease is the longest studied and best-known pathology. Classical celiac disease presents with signs and symptoms of malabsorption, diarrhoea, steatorrhoea, weight loss or growth failure is required (Ludvigsson et al., 2013). The more recently defined non-celiac
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G.M. Bastos), mssoaresjr@hotmail. com (M.S. Soares Júnior), [email protected] (M. Caliari), andressa_lap@hotmail. com (A.L. de Araujo Pereira), [email protected] (C.C. de Morais), raq7@ brturbo.com.br (M.R.H. Campos). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.07.067 0023-6438/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
gluten sensitivity presents with symptoms which are often indistinguishable from celiac disease. Diagnosis of celiac disease is based on serologic, molecular, and bioptic testing. The IgA antitransglutaminase (tTG) test is considered highly important, as it shows high sensitivity and specificity and its levels correlate to the degree of intestinal damage (Brusca, 2015). In the diagnosis of celiac disease, serum assays for anti-endomysium (EMA) and antitransglutaminase (anti-tTG) antibodies have excellent diagnostic accuracy (Brusca et al., 2011). In the past, the celiac disease was considered rare and as mainly affecting the pediatric population. Recently, this panorama has been changing, mainly due to the development of more sensitive and specific serological tests, which, besides favoring the early diagnosis, make possible the conduction of several screening inquiries in asymptomatic subjects whose results indicate that the real prevalence of celiac disease may be higher than 1% in different places (Bonamico, Nenna, Montuori, Luparia, Lara; Turchetti, Mennini, Lucantoni, Masotti, Magliocca, Culasso & Tiberti, 2011; Nenna et al., 2012). Lately, celiac disease has been diagnosed especially in a later phase of life, and the highest prevalence is
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found in female adults (Reilly & Green, 2012). Once the disease has been diagnosed, the treatment consists in abandoning of consumption of wheat, oat, barley and rye for the rest of one's life; that is a diet based on gluten-free food, must by adopted. Among raw materials considered suitable to be consumed by celiac population maize, rice sorghum, potato, amaranth as well as their starches, can be mentioned, which have been studied as potential substitutes of wheat in celiac product formulation (Fiorda nchez, 2014; Sandhu, Kaur, & et al., 2013; Osella, La Torre, & Sa Mukesh, 2010). However, replacement of wheat flour is not always advantageous because vegetable pasta made with alternative flours can break down and have high loss of solid content during cooking in water and an undesirable texture due to high adhesiveness. Proteins in raw materials other than wheat are unable to compose a structure similar to the gluten network (Pagani, 1986). Most Asian pasta or noodles consist of starch pasta produced from various plant sources. There has been a growing interest in the use of potato starch for the production of pasta and noodles, with several studies showing the possibility of obtaining high quality products (Kim, Wiesenborn, & Lorenzen, 1996; Sandhu et al., 2010; Singh, Singh, & Sodhi, 2002). However, no study has addressed the production of gluten-free fresh pasta with recovered material from the production of potato chips (potato pulp). Potato pulp is normally lost with tuber wash water; the starch and other substances are released from the parenchyma cells after the potatoes are cut and before they are fried (Dias, Oliveira, Campos, & Soares Júnior, 2014). In addition, interest in amaranth grain has grown because many studies show that it has good nutritional quality and contributes to improving the structure and the cooking quality of pasta (Fiorda et al., 2013). In this study, the physical (color) and technological quality (cooking test) of fresh pasta were examined according to the concentration of dried potato pulp (DPP), extruded potato pulp (EPP), and amaranth flour (AF), in addition to proximate composition, microbiological hazard, and sensory acceptance of spaghetti based on the best color and cooking features; additionally, the feasibility of using this effluent from the chips production process in the production of gluten-free fresh pasta was examined, theoretically because gluten level was not measured. 2. Material & methods 2.1. Raw materials and preparation of ingredients Wastewater samples from potato wash, cultivar Atlantic, were s collected from the company Cicopal Ltda., in Senador Canedo, Goia State, Brazil. During the processing of potato chips, the tubers were peeled, cut, and washed. The tuber wash water was collected directly from the disposal pipe using a woven polypropylene bag. By sedimentation, potato pulp was separated from the excess water. Soon thereafter, the wet potato pulp was taken to the laboratory and dried in a forced air oven at 60 C to 12% moisture, producing the dried potato pulp (DPP) in aggregates of approximately 5 mm in length. The DPP with 14 g 100 g1 moisture was used without grinding to obtain the extruded potato pulp (EPP). The extrusion was performed on a single screw thermoplastic extruder (Imbramaq, PQ~o Preto-SP, Brazil), with a 3:1 compression ratio, feed 30, Ribeira rate of 335 g min1, die opening of 4 mm diameter, screw speed of 381 rpm (90 Hz), smooth surface barrel, and temperatures at the first, second and third heating zone of the extruder of 30 C, 60 C and 75 C, respectively. The EPP was ground and passed through a 0.59 mm sieve. All dry ingredients used to produce the fresh pasta products were standardized using a 0.25 mm sieve. The amaranth ^nia, Goia s State, Brazil. flour was purchased at a local market in Goia
129
2.2. Characterization of raw materials Digital potentiometer was used to measure pH (Hanna Instruments, HI9224, Singapore, China) according to the official method (AOAC, 2010). The water absorption index and water solubility index were obtained according to the method published by Anderson, Conway, Pfeifer, and Grif-Fn (1969). The instrumental color parameters (L*, a* and b*) were determined with a colorimeter (Color Quest II, Hunter Lab Reston, Canada), and the water activity (aw) was measured with an AquaLab CX-2 apparatus (Washington, USA). All analyses were performed in triplicate. 2.3. Pasta formulations and processing The response surface methodology and the simplex design were used to study the spaghetti formulations. Three dry components were used in the mixtures, i.e., DPP, EPP and amaranth flour (AF) (X1 þ X2 þ X3 ¼ 1 or 100%). The ingredients examined in the study were expressed in pseudo-components. Fresh spaghetti samples were formulated according to the experimental design shown in Table 1. In total, 18.8 mL water and 56 g fresh egg per 100 g mixture were added to all formulations. Initially, the dry ingredients were mixed manually, and then the egg and water were added. The mixtures were placed in a Pastaia extruder (Intalvisa, 6, Tatuí, Brazil) with a single screw, 1:1 compression ratio, and die opening of 1 mm circular holes. The samples were manually cut into pieces approximately 300 mm long and stored at a refrigeration temperature (5 ± 1 C). 2.4. Pasta color before cooking The instrumental color parameters were obtained by taking digital photographs of the spaghetti placed on Petri dishes 150 mm in diameter. Digital camera was used (Sony, DSC-S600, Manaus-AM, Brazil), and the camera lens positioned perpendicular to the surface of the product, at a distance of 200 mm, with the white balance set to daylight. A lighting system was used with two D65 sources falling on a 45 angle on the product placed on a white background. Digital images were processed using photo editing software (Microsoft Photo Editor 3.01, San Diego, USA). For each sample, 15 central areas (50 50 mm) were selected for color comparison. Each small fragment was saved in BMP format. Shortly thereafter, a SH 2.0 program (pixel by pixel color reading application) was used to convert Bitmap images to RGB mean color values. The data were
Table 1 Mixture design to study the effect of dried potato pulp flour (DPP), extruded potato pulp (EPP) and amaranth flour (AF) on the dependent variables in real proportions and in pseudo-components. Experiment
Proportion of the ingredients in ternary mixture Real concentrationa DPP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b
0.80 0.65 0.80 0.73 0.68 0.65 0.72 0.72 0.72
b
Pseudo-componenta b
EPP
AF
DPP (X1)
EPP (X2)
AF (X3)
0.07 0.17 0.10 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11
0.13 0.18 0.10 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.17 0.17 0.17
0.83 0.00 0.83 0.44 0.17 0.00 0.39 0.39 0.39
0.00 0.56 0.17 0.56 0.00 0.17 0.22 0.22 0.22
0.17 0.44 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.83 0.39 0.39 0.39
Source: Statsoft (2007). a X1 þ X2 þ X3 ¼ 1 or 100%. b g 100 g1.
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converted into the CIELAB system, using an application (Munsell Conversion, Colorpro 4.01, USA). The evaluation of the color by scanned images was used because the software allows, through the pixels count to determine image of areas with irregular contours (Rom~ ao, Yamashita, Benasi, & Soares, 2006).
accompanied by tomato sauce. The appearance was judged under natural light, and other attributes were judged under red light.
2.5. Cooking properties
The best experimental pasta was compared to a commercial fresh spaghetti sample made with common wheat flour and of similar dimensions and cooking properties.
The cooking method described by Chang and Flores (2004) was used to determine cooking properties of the samples. In total, 10 g of sample was cooked in 140 mL boiling distilled water. The optimum cooking time was obtained by compressing the cooked product between two glass slides until the central axis disappeared at intervals of 30 s. The results were expressed in minutes. The mass increased (MI) was determined from the ratio of 10 g dry pasta and its mass after cooking, using the optimum cooking time of each sample. After the evaporation of 25 mL cooking water in a circulating air oven at 105 C to constant weight, the loss of solid (LS) was determined. 2.6. Statistical analysis The significance of the models generated for each response was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a significance level of 5% for all tests. The representation of the mixture system was constructed using a triangular graph with level curves for each dependent variable based on the fitted model. The polynomial models that fit the responses of optimum cooking time, loss of solids, mass increased and chroma b * were chosen as the best fresh pasta formulations based on the mixture components (DPP, EPP and AF) to obtain the most desirable spaghetti. The positive characteristics of the samples using the desirability test consisted of the following: a short optimum cooking time, small loss of solids, intermediate mass increase, and low b* chromaticity coordinate. Statistica 7.0 software (Statsoft, Statistica 7.0 for Windows, Tulsa, USA) was used to determine the experimental design, perform the statistical analysis and construct the graphs.
2.10. Comparison of the gluten-free pasta to commercial wheatbased products
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Physical characteristics of the dry ingredients The highest value of aw was found for the AF, and the lowest was found for DPP (Table 2); all were below the limit recommended to control microbial growth, which is 0.6. The AF was darker, reddish and yellowish compared to the EPP and DPP. The EPP had the lower value of L* and higher values of a* and b* compared to the DPP, which indicated a darkening of the product due to the extrusion process. The water absorption index and water solubility index analysis of DPP showed a 76.5% and 99.3% decrease compared to EPP, respectively. Thus, the extrusion significantly increased these parameters (starch gelatinization). These outcomes are often observed in extruded materials (Day & Swanson, 2013). The micrographs of AF flour indicated that the granules exhibited irregular polygonal shapes with lengths ranging from 2.2 to 3.6 106 m (Fig. 1A and B), which was different from the values reported in literature (1e3 106 m). The DPP and EPP can be observed in the micrographs of Fig. 1C and D, respectively. The grain size of the DPP starch ranged from 2.3 to 90 106 m, with a predominance of medium to large granules with irregular oval shape. The starch granules were intact, and there was a presence of non-starch particles, which consisted of small pieces of potato peel from processing. No granular structure was found in the EPP; it consisted of a compact and solid material resulting from the extrusion. 3.2. Color and cooking test
2.7. Scanning electron microscopy
2.8. Microbiological evaluation
The polynomial models for the optimum cooking time, mass increase, loss of solids and chromaticity coordinates a* and b* of fresh spaghetti prepared with different proportions of DPP, EPP and AF were significant (P 0.05) and had coefficients of determination (R2) greater than 0.96 (Table 3). The effects of the amounts of DPP, EPP and AF were significant for all the models analyzed. The interaction between DPP and AF was significant for models of optimum cooking time, mass increase, loss of solids and the b* color coordinate. However, the model for lightness (L*) was not
Following the techniques described by the American Public Health Association (APHA, 2001), Bacillus cereus, total and thermotolerant coliforms, yeasts and molds, sulfite-reducing clostridia and coagulase positive staphylococci were quantified before the sensory test, and a detection test for Salmonella sp was performed.
Table 2 Water activity, instrumental color parameters (L*, a* and b*), water absorption index and water solubility index of the dried potato pulp (DPP), extruded potato pulp (EPP) and amaranth flour (AF).a
A scanning electron microscope (Sputter Coater SCD-050, Scotia, USA) was used to take micrographs of the surface of the dry ingredients, experimental fresh spaghetti and commercial fresh spaghetti made from common wheat flour after being dried for 24 h in a circulating air oven at 60 C and kept in a desiccator until analyzed.
2.9. Sensory analysis The fresh spaghetti formulation selected in the desirability analysis was submitted to an acceptability test using a 9-point hedonic scale for appearance, texture, flavor and odor. Buying intention was evaluated using a 5-point scale among habitual pasta consumers. The tests were performed in a laboratory by eighty non-trained judges, consisting of 89% female and 11% male consumers, and 81% consumed fresh spaghetti at least every 15 days. Samples were served in individual booths in 25 g portions and
Property
DPP
EPP
Water activityb Luminosityb Chroma a*b Chroma b*b Water absorption indexc Water solubility indexd
0.15 ± 0.1 92.6 ± 1.6 0.07 ± 0.05 1.3 ± 0.1 2.0 0.67 ± 0.05
0.29 83.8 2.2 10.2 8.4 94.2
AF ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.15 1.7 0.1 0.5 0.2 1.8
0.4 59.6 3.2 29.2 e e
± ± ± ±
0.14 1.3 0.2 0.4
a Six samples of each raw material were evaluated and all analyzes were performed in triplicate. b Dimensionless. c [g of gel (g of dry matter)1]. d %.
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Fig. 1. Micrographs of flours obtained in a scanning electron microscope at different magnifications. Amaranth flour: (A) 750 (B) 2000. Dried potato pulp: (C) 650. Extrused potato pulp: (D) 350.
Table 3 Polynomial models, significance level (P), lack of fit (LF) and coefficient of determination (R2) for chroma a* and b*, optimum cooking time (OCT), mass increase (MI), loss of solids to cooking water (LS) of fresh spaghetti according to coded levels of dried potato pulp (x1), extruded potato pulp (x2) and amaranth flour (x3). Parameter a
a* b*a OCTb MIc LSc a b c
Model yi yi yi yi yi
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
3.33x1 þ 9.25x2 þ 5.63x3 e 11.46 1 2 e 12.66 2 3 41.53x1 þ 41.26x2 þ 39.45x3 e 6.42 1 2 þ 44.10 1 3 e 11.01 2 3 2.46x1 þ 6.69x2 þ 2.17x3 e 7.10 1 2 þ 12.08 1 3 e 5.86 2 3 64.13x1 þ 173.83x2 þ 115.98x3 e 141.81 1 2 e 245.83 1 3 e 163.67 2 22.81x1 e 13.15x2 e 9.92x3 þ 109.57 1 3 þ 84.37 2 3
3
P
LF
R2
0.000 0.001 0.003 0.018 0.003
0.041 0.014 0.052 0.000 0.265
0.98 0.99 0.99 0.96 0.97
Dimensionless. Min. (%).
significant. There was a significant lack of fit in models for mass increase, and color coordinates a* and b*; however, they were considered irrelevant due to their low experimental error mean square values. In the experimental study, fresh spaghetti showed chroma a* values between 2.90 and 5.36 (Fig. 2A). The lower values of chroma a* occurred inside the area between points 3, c, d and e in formulations of fresh spaghetti with 75e80 g 100 g1 (highest concentrations) DPP, 9e14 g 100 g1 EPP and 10e13 g 100 g1 AF. The highest value for the chroma a* was recorded in the area between points 5, a and b in spaghetti with 68e69 g 100 g1 DPP, 7 and 8 g 100 g1 EPP and 24e25 g 100 g1 AF. Because the amount of AF was increased in the formulations the red color value of the spaghetti increased because dry AF had a redder. The chroma b* value of fresh spaghetti ranged between 41.6 and 48.9. Fig. 2B shows the area defined by points a, b and c, which consist of the formulations corresponding to higher values of chroma b*. Thus, the most yellow spaghetti was obtained from higher concentrations of DPP (71e78 g 100 g1), a minimum of EPP (7e9 g 100 g1) and from intermediate to high levels of AF (15e22 g 100 g1). In general, the optimum cooking time of fresh spaghetti was low and varied from 2 to 4 min Chang and Flores (2004) developed
fresh pasta using different proportions of durum wheat semolina and common wheat flour and observed that the optimum cooking time ranged between 5 and 6 min, which was longer than in this study. Lower optimum cooking times (below 3 min) were verified on the contour graph, which are the two areas marked by black lines (Fig. 2C) between points 6, a and b. Thus, lower values of optimum cooking time were achieved in the fresh spaghetti with a formulation of 65e66 g 100 g1 DPP, 9e13 g 100 g1 EPP and 22e25 g 100 g1 AF, as well as in the area close to experimental point 3, with a formulation of 74e80 g 100 g1 DPP, 9e16 g 100 g1 EPP and 10e11 g 100 g1 AF. The mass increase of fresh spaghetti ranged from 32.7 % to 111.5 %. The mass increase depended on the cooking time, the shape of the pasta, and the source and protein content, which hydrate and absorb water when the pasta is mixed, significantly influencing this parameter (Ormenese, Faria, Gomes, & Yotsuyanagi, 2001). The lowest mass increase (below 40%) is shown in the chart inside the area defined by the black line between the c, d and e points (Fig. 2D), while the highest values (>100%) are shown by experimental points 6, 2, a and b. Therefore, the lowest values of mass increase were verified in fresh pasta formulations consisting of 73e77 g 100 g1 DPP, 7e9 g 100 g1 EPP and 16e20 g 100 g1 AF; the highest values of mass increase were found in the formulations
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Fig. 2. (A) chroma a*, (B) chroma b*, (C) Optimum cooking time (OCT) (min), (D) mass increase (MI) (g 100 g1) and (E) loss of solids (LS) (g 100 g1) as a function of the proportions of dried potato pulp (DPP), extruded potato pulp waste (EPP) and amaranth flour (AF) in the formulations of fresh spaghetti.
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Fig. 3. Surface micrographs of fresh spaghetti, with the potato pulp flour, extruded potato pulp, and amaranth flour, respectively in the formulations: (A) 80:7:13 (FS1); (B) 65:17:18 (FS2); (C) 80:10:10 (FS3); (D) 73:17:100 (FS4); (E) FS5 (68:7:25); (F) FS6 (65:10:25); (G) FS7 (72:11:17); and (H) commercial fresh spaghetti of wheat flour. The length of the scale bar is 50 mm.
with concentrations of 65e67 g 100 g1 DPP, 9e17 g 100 g1 EPP and 16e25 g 100 g1 AF. The loss of solids of fresh spaghetti varied from 3.8 to 34.8 g 100 g1. Three out of seven experiments showed loss of solids values of up to 6 g 100 g1, which was considered very good cooking quality by Hummel (1966). The highest values of loss of solids (>30 g 100 g1) were found in the area between points 1, d and c (Fig. 2E). Thus, there was a tendency toward higher values of loss of solids in fresh spaghetti formulated with higher levels of DPP (between 72 and 80 g 100 g1), lower EPP (7e10 g 100 g1) and intermediate to high levels of AF (13e21 g 100 g1). The highest loss
of solids occurred near experimental point 1. This was also one of the experiments that showed a higher optimum cooking time (4 min), which showed that starch granules near the surface may have absorbed a great deal of water. According to Kim and Wiesenborn (1996), this makes the surface pastier, resulting in loss of firmness and solids during cooking, and increases the adhesiveness in chewing. The lower loss of solids samples (<10%) were between points a, b and 4, and 6, e and f (Fig. 2E). Thus, the lower loss of solids values were observed in the formulations with 71e75 g 100 g1 DPP, 15e17 g 100 g1 EPP and 10e12 g 100 g1 AF, and with 65e67 g 100 g1 DPP, 8e14 g 100 g1 EPP and 21e25 g
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Table 4 Color and cooking quality of the selected fresh spaghetti (FS6), formulated with 65 g 100 g1 dried potato pulp (DPP), 10 g 100 g1 extruded potato pulp (EPP) and 25 g 100 g1 amaranth flour (AF), and fresh spaghetti of wheat flour (FSW).a Property Optimum cooking time Mass increasec Loss of solidsc Luminosityd Chroma a*d Chroma b*d
b
FS6
FSW
2.0 96.2 ± 1.3 3.8 60.3 ± 1.2 4.4 ± 0.1 41.6 ± 0.6
2.3 55.6 ± 1.2 12.4 73.5 ± 1.8 1.5 ± 0.1 12.1 ± 0.3
a Six samples of each fresh pasta were evaluated and all analyzes were performed in triplicate. b Min. c (%). d Dimensionless.
100 g1 AF. In general, a lower loss of solids value was observed when the amount of EPP or AF increased in the fresh pasta. Moreover, the presence of EPP may have improved fluidity of the pasta through the extruder, leading to a more stable matrix and less damaged protein-starch network. All the fresh spaghetti showed good cooking characteristics, which was most likely due to the presence of ovalbumin; like gluten (Alamprese, Iametti, Rossi, & Bergonzi, 2005), ovalbumin may have interacted with AF proteins and with the pregelatinized starch of EPP, reinforcing the protein network and delaying the swelling and gelatinization of starch during cooking, resulting in better performance. An inverse proportional relationship between the mass increase ~, Kuri, and and loss of solids is observed in Fig. 2D and E. Tudorica Brennan (2002) also detected this behavior and reported that the uneven distribution of water within the matrix of the pasta due to competitive hydration of the fiber, led to less swelling of the starch granules; consequently, the loss of solids in cooking increased due to the breakdown of the starch-protein network. In the experimental spaghetti, the larger amounts of DPP in the formulation determined the lowest mass increase and higher loss of solids values. This was because the DPP absorbed less water than the EPP and combined with the least amount of AF, which had less protein and did not form a starch protein network sufficient to prevent starch leaching. With higher concentrations of DPP, the fresh spaghetti 1 (FS1) and 3 (FS3) showed more exposed granular structures that were less involved in EPP (Fig. 3A and C). In FS2, which had the largest concentration of EPP and an AF close to the maximum value (18 g 100 g1), the granules appeared more covered by gelatinized starch, and the pasta showed some perforations on the surface. The FS4 sample also had gelatinized starch on the granules and had holes; however, compared to FS2, FS4 had more holes (Fig. 3D). The micrographs of FS2 and FS4 reinforced the importance of AF on the
quality of the pasta; when the level of AF decreased from 18 to 10 g 100 g1 and the EPP was kept constant at 17 g 100 g1 EPP, the structure was affected and there was not enough EPP to create a regular, compact, and fused surface with a network strong enough to involve the starch granules (Fig. 3B and D, respectively). Fresh spaghetti with larger amounts of AF (FS5 and FS6) had a more uniform surface, in which the starch granules were covered by a dense and compact network formed by pregelatinized flour, amaranth proteins and egg protein (albumen) (Fig. 3E and F). In FS6, the incorporation of 10 g 100 g1 EPP improved the appearance of the pasta, making it more homogenous, and the granules were covered by a more continuous matrix. Sample FS7 had an intermediate concentration of AF (17 g 100 g1) and low concentration of EPP (11 g 100 g1) and had a more irregular surface compared to FS2. In general, whenever the amount of AF or EPP was reduced, there was a trend toward increased exposure of starch granules (Fig. 3G and B). Commercial fresh spaghetti made with wheat flour (Fig. 3H) showed cracks, unlike spaghetti formulated with DPP, EPP and AF, which did not have this characteristic at 300 magnification. This finding indicated that the network of experimental spaghetti had better resistance to drying (this analysis was performed using dry samples), suggesting the potential application of these raw materials to the production of dry pasta. Fig. 3H shows that the wheat flour granules were smaller than the DPP granules. High relief starch granules were observed; however, these granules seemed to be covered by a film most likely formed by the network of gluten, egg proteins and/or lipids, which were added to the formulation and listed in the commercial pasta label. Chen, Schols, and Voragen (2003) demonstrated that the size of the starch granule has a relationship with the processing and quality of the pasta. The results of the LS in cooking showed that small size fractions (<20 106 m) provided pasta with minor losses. There was a predominance of medium and large granules in the potato pulp; however, the starch granules of the AF were very small, and the flour of this pseudo-cereal had a carbohydrate content of approximately 64 g 100 g1 (data unpublished). The micrographs indicated that spaghetti with the maximum value of AF (25 g 100 g1) showed the best formed structure. The smaller grain size of the AF starch most likely favored the production of these pastas, especially the FS6, which had the lowest loss of solids; in contrast, the FS1 with higher content of DPP showed the highest loss of solids in cooking. Lower values of optimum cooking time and loss of solids are quality characteristics that were used to select the most desirable fresh spaghetti. The choice of intermediate values of mass increase and lower chroma b* values were set by comparing the values of the experimental design to those obtained for wheat flour fresh spaghetti (Table 4). The diagram of the desirability test indicated
Fig. 4. Fresh spaghetti of potato pulp, dried and extruded, and amaranth flour, (A) raw and (B) cooked, served in the sensory analysis.
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that the most suitable formulation consisted of 66.5 g 100 g1 DPP, 9.5 g 100 g1 EPP and 24 g 100 g1 AF. Thus, FS6 was considered the most desirable sample because of its ranking on the desirability test, that is, a proportion of 65:10:25 of the components listed above, respectively. Using a scanning electron microscopy, FS6 showed a better surface, which confirmed the results of the desirability test (Fig. 3F). Significant differences were found between selected fresh spaghetti (FS6) and fresh wheat flour spaghetti for all instrumental color and cooking characteristics evaluated (Table 4). The optimum cooking time was 13% lower in FS6 than in fresh wheat flour spaghetti, which favored a rapid preparation of FS6. The mass increase of FS6 was 73% higher than that of the fresh wheat flour spaghetti, which contributed to a higher yield after cooking. The loss of solids of FS6 was 70% lower compared to fresh wheat flour spaghetti. The FS6 was darker, yellower and redder than the fresh wheat flour spaghetti (Table 4). A more yellow color in fresh pasta is commonly considered an important quality attribute for the product (Carini, Vittadini, Curti, & Antoniazzi, 2009). Chillo et al. (2008) examined the quality of three types of gluten-free spaghetti made from amaranth flour and emulsifier, and with the addition of quinoa, beans and chickpeas. They observed that the optimum cooking time and loss of solids for the formulations mixed with equal amounts of amaranth were 6 min for quinoa (11.4 g 100 g1), 7.5 min for beans (11.4 g 100 g1) and 7 min for chickpeas (9.2 g 100 g1). All of these reported values much higher than those found in the study reported herein, demonstrating the superior quality of the FS6 sample. 3.3. Microbiological analysis The raw FS6 samples had counts below allowable limits for B. cereus, total and thermo-tolerant coliforms, sulphite-reducing clostridia, coagulase-positive staphylococci, yeasts and molds, and Salmonella sp was absent, indicating adequate sanitary quality of raw materials. These data were compliant with the Good Manufacturing Practices before, during and after processing; thus, the FS6 samples were microbiologically fit for a consumption product in accordance with current health legislation in Brasil (2001). 3.4. Sensory analysis The FS6 samples received mean scores above 8.1 for all attributes evaluated, corresponding to the interval between “like very much” and “extremely like”, above the minimum value of six for acceptance of fresh pasta, which corresponded to “like slightly”. Approval rates of 97.5%, 92.5%, 88.75% and 90% were registered for appearance, aroma, flavor and texture, respectively. These scores were recorded by the judges that indicated scores above 7 for the attributes evaluated; these data indicated that FS6 received an excellent acceptability rating. The FS6 showed uniform yellow color and thickness, smoothness, slip, and a shiny surface, without roughness before and after cooking. Other than the good taste and odor, the product retained its shape without showing cracks, breaks, or disintegration during cooking; the product also exhibited a firm texture (“al dente”), non-sticky surface, low solids loss and shorter cooking time. All of these characteristics were observed during the cooking tests, in sensory analysis and in the micrograph images (Figs. 2e4). The study determining intention to purchase the product showed that 34% “possibly would buy” and 55% “definitely would buy” FS6. None of the panelists said they would not buy the FS6. During the sensory test, observations were written down on the evaluation form with very positive remarks regarding the FS6 samples, and nearly all of the panelists consumed the entire
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product. Some panelists found the FS6 to be very similar in texture, appearance and flavor to the fresh wheat flour spaghetti. The quality of FS6 was similar to or higher than that in other studies, and it is believed that industrial production could further improve its quality, including the development of different shapes and thicknesses. This study presented a new possibility of producing gluten-free fresh pasta based on agribusiness recovered product. It is important from a commercial standpoint given the aspects related to the sustainability of the industry, the prospective growth in the fresh pasta market and the absence of similar products on the market for consumers, especially those allergic to gluten. 4. Conclusions The addition of extruded potato pulp and amaranth flour to dried potato pulp allowed the production of well-structured fresh pasta. All of the formulations produced firm and consistent strands with varied cooking characteristics. The combination of 65 g 100 g1 dried potato pulp, 10 g 100 g1 pregelatinized flour of potato pulp and 25 g 100 g1 amaranth flour produced spaghetti with high sensory acceptance and purchase intention because of better visual quality and cooking characteristics compared to fresh wheat flour spaghetti. It is feasible to use by-products from the production of potato chips to produce fresh pasta. Acknowledgment The authors are grateful to CAPES, CNPq and FAPEG for the financial support and scholarship, and Cicopal Industry by the partnership. References A.O.A.C. (2010). Association of official analytical chemists (United States of America). Official methods of analysis (18th ed.). Washington D.C: AOAC. ~o Brasileira das Indústrias de Massas Alimentícias. www. ABIMA. (2012). Associaça abima.com.br (accessed 24.06.13.). Alamprese, C., Iametti, S., Rossi, M., & Bergonzi, D. (2005). Role of pasteurization treatments on rheological and protein structural characteristics of fresh egg pasta. European Food Research and Technology, 221, 759e767. Anderson, R. A., Conway, H. F., Pfeifer, V. F., & Grif-Fn, L. J. (1969). Gelatinization of corn grift by roll and extrusion cook. Cereal Science Today, 14, 4e11. APHA. (2001). American public health association. Compendium of methods for the microbiological examination of foods (4th ed., p. 676). Washington: APHA. Bonamico, M., Nenna, R., Montuori, M., Luparia, R. P. L., Turchetti, A., Mennini, M., et al. (2011). First salivary screening of celiac disease by detection of antitransglutaminase autoantibody radioimmunoassay in 5000 Italian primary schoolchildren. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition, 52, 17e20. ^ncia Sanita ria. Resoluça ~o RDC nº 12 de 02 de Brasil. (2001). Ag^ encia Nacional de Vigila cnico sobre padro ~es microbiolo gicos para alijaneiro de 2001. Regulamento te mentos www.e-legis.bvs.br (accessed 22.06.13.). Brusca, I. (2015). Overview of biomarkers for diagnosis and monitoring of celiac disease. Advances in Clinical Chemistry, 68, 1e55. Brusca, I., Carroccio, A., Tonutti, E., Tozzoli, R., Barrale, Sarullo, F. M., et al. (2011). The old and new tests for celiac disease: which is the best test combination to diagnose celiac disease in pediatric patients? Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, 26, 111e117. Carini, E., Vittadini, E., Curti, E., & Antoniazzi, F. (2009). Effects of different shaping modes on physico-chemical properties and water status of fresh pasta. Journal of Food Engineering, 93, 400e406. Chang, Y. K., & Flores, H. E. M. (2004). Quality of fresh pastas obtained from blends of durum wheat semolina (T. durum L.) and wheat flour (T. aestivum L. Food Science and Technology, 24, 487e493. Chen, Z., Schols, H. A., & Voragen, A. G. J. (2003). Physicochemical properties of starches obtained from three varieties of chinese sweet potatoes. Journal of Food Science, 68, 431e437. Chillo, S., Laverse, J., Falcone, P. M., & Del Nobile, M. A. (2008). Quality of spaghetti in base amaranthus wholemeal flour added with quinoa, broad bean and chick pea. Journal of Food Engineering, 84, 101e107. Day, L., & Swanson, B. G. (2013). Functionality of protein-fortified extrudates. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 12, 546e564. Dias, T. L., Oliveira, T. F., Campos, M. R. H., & Soares Júnior, M. S. (2014). Utilization of residual pulp of potato in snacks as prospect of reducing environmental impact. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, 18, 225e230. Fiorda, F. A., Soares, M. S., Da Silva, F. A., Grosmann, M. V. E., & Souto, L. R. F. (2013).
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