Planned approaches to business and school partnerships. Does it make a difference? The business perspective

Evaluation and Program Planning 55 (2016) 35–45

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Evaluation and Program Planning journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/evalprogplan

Planned approaches to business and school partnerships. Does it make a difference? The business perspective Kerry Lee a,*, John Hope a, Fatima Abdulghani b a b

Faculty of Education, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92601, Symonds Street, Auckland 1150, New Zealand Human Capital Development, Tamkeen, P.O. Box 18131, Tamkeen, Manama, Bahrain

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 4 December 2014 Received in revised form 27 October 2015 Accepted 17 November 2015 Available online 28 November 2015

In many countries, schools are encouraged to link with business to add authenticity to learning. The number of these business–school partnerships has shown a marked increase over the last twenty years. Traditionally researchers investigating these partnerships have focussed on the schools’ perspectives (Du, Bhattacharya, & Sen, 2010, pp. 32–33), however this New Zealand research has focused solely on the business perspective of established school partnerships. The study used a mixed methods approach utilising both online survey and semi-structured interviews. Ten out of the forty participating businesses surveyed used a brokering organisation as a way of developing and maintaining these partnerships and some developed rationales to support the partnership. This study investigated the value of using brokering organisations, rationales and designated staff to support business–school partnerships. Findings indicate that brokers and designated staff play a very effective role in enhancing business–school links, and more benefits are perceived when a rationale has been established. It is anticipated that these findings will support the development and success of business–school partnerships. ß 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Enterprise Broker Education Business Organisation School

1. Introduction In 1987 economic success was linked with the health of environment by the United Nation’s now famous Brundtland report (officially titled ‘‘Common Future’’ report) (WCED, 1987). Partnerships with business were seen as beneficial for students (Ballen & Moles, 1994). Thirty years later economic, social and environmental influences resulting from the Brundtland report were still evident in many nations. Social and environmental and economic pressures encourage companies to promote corporate social responsibility strategies (Steurer, Langer, Konrad, & Martinuzzi, 2005). Between 2002 and 2005 a new five-day entitlement for enterprise learning and work related learning was established (Davies, 2002). These were quickly included in the school inspection process of the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) (Asher, 2005). In 2008 over 300,000 English companies engaged with education through the government funded National Education Business Partnership Network (Mertkan, 2011). Businesses

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K. Lee), [email protected] (J. Hope), [email protected] (F. Abdulghani). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2015.11.002 0149-7189/ß 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

and communities are now seen as important sources of resources and expertise for schools (Lonsdale & Anderson, 2012; Sanders, 2001). The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report titled Learning for jobs (Hoeckel & Schwartz, 2010), the Wolf report (Wolf, 2011) and the Harvard School for Graduate Education’s document titled Pathways to prosperity (Symonds, Schwartz, & Ferguson, 2011) identified the need for business involvement in education. From 2013 it became a requirement that schools needed to increase their engagement with employers and to ensure that all young people were provided with work experience (Mann & Dawkins, 2014). In order for schools to make their own decisions they must have access to good quality evidence on what works and why it works (Mann & Dawkins, 2014, p. 5). Partnerships can be diverse and complex, resulting in research which often appears fragmented across various sectors such as business, economics, management and sociology (Carvalho & Franco, 2015). This research can be underpinned by a broad range of overlapping or disparate theories such as the Transaction Costs Theory (Williamson, 1981), Resource Dependency Theory (Pfeffer & Salancik, 2003), Organisational Learning Theory (Levinthal & March, 1993) Institutional Theory (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Powell & DiMaggio, 2012), Resource Dependency Theory (Davis &

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Cobb, 2010; Hillman, Withers, & Collins, 2009; Pfeffer & Salancik, 2003), Stakeholder Theory (Freeman, Harrison, Wicks, Parmar, & De Colle, 2010; Phillips, Freeman, & Wicks, 2003) and the Theory of Overlapping Spheres of Influence (Epstein & Sanders, 2000; Epstein, 1995). In many countries schools are strongly encouraged to ensure learning is situated, authentic and meaningful to both learner and context (Carvalho & Franco, 2015). As a way of connecting with communities of practice and mirroring the real world schools often develop business–school partnerships (Lanzi, 2007). ‘‘Highly effective schools have high levels of parent and community engagement. . . research makes quite clear, support from those beyond the school gates is an essential part of preparing learners for the twenty-first century’’ (Lonsdale & Anderson, 2012, p. 1). School partnerships with a community of practice can be achieved in many ways, either in person or virtually. Teachers can contact an expert to gain content or process knowledge, a general understanding of industry, or possibly to gain skills or general confidence. Teachers may also visit an expert hoping to gain resources to support children’s learning (Storper & Venables, 2004). This may be in the form of videos or photos which enable a process to be viewed without the time, logistics and health and safety issues commonly involved if a site visit is undertaken, or it may be via off-cuts, donations or technical support (Lanzi, 2007; Levinthal & March, 1993; Starbuck, 2001). These experts can provide advice to both teacher and students. They can assist with enterprise competitions (Mann & Dawkins, 2014) and assessment by providing feedback on the process and the solution. Some schools use experts to ‘judge’ solutions in either formal or informal settings e.g. a mock ‘Dragon’s Den’ (Lee, 2008). Another benefit of community and business links which is often overlooked is the passion and enthusiasm portrayed by these experts. They can make the mundane exciting whilst the noise and smell of an industry visit (often an assault to the senses) can leave long-lasting memories (Storper & Venables, 2004). Students can receive mentoring and tutoring (Mann & Dawkins, 2014; Sanders, 2001), undertake work experience placements to re-engage the pupil in learning, assist the pupil to research a specific assignment, assist enterprise learning, provide careers experience and support work related learning in general (Asher, 2005; Lonsdale et al., 2011; Mann & Dawkins, 2014; Sanders, 2003; Wolf, 2011). Businesses can assist students to gain 21st century skills (Sanders, 2003) as well as providing curriculum enrichment and real-world resources (including work-related learning qualifications) (Mann & Dawkins, 2014). For the purposes of this paper the term ‘business–school partnerships’ refers to ‘connections between businesses and schools that are forged to promote students’ social, emotional, physical and intellectual development’. This definition was adapted from the ‘school–community partnership’ definition provided by Sanders (2001). However achieving business–school partnerships is no small feat, and although teachers are generally supportive of business links, they are also keen to accept assistance (Carvalho & Franco, 2015; Davies, 2002). Urban schools are able to find financial support and resources from private enterprises much easier than their rural counterparts (Buasuwan & Thongthai, 2012; Carvalho & Franco, 2015). This difference has been attributed to a lack of co-ordination and lack of understanding by rural school staff on the methods for obtaining support (Buasuwan & Thongthai, 2012) and difficulties in sourcing, developing and sustaining business–school partnerships (Education Review Office, 1996). It is not just schools wanting to link with business, businesses too are often keen to support education initiatives as a way of addressing their social conscience and corporate responsibility (Carroll & Shabana, 2010; Du et al., 2010; Eweje & Palakshappa,

2009). Businesses are becoming more accountable to the key stakeholder groups with their complex links and relationships (Steurer et al., 2005). As well as demonstrating their social corporate responsibility these partnerships may also include benefits such as an enhanced business reputation, promotion of the company image, increased profits and at times reduced costs (Large, 1997). Rationales for involvement with schools may include providing resources to successfully educate students, to prepare and provide the nation’s workforce with 21st century skills, for student well-being and to build and maintain healthy communities (Sanders, 2003). In 1994 the American School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA) was created to support and fund programmes which supported partnerships between business and education. In 1998 an American study investigated 327 businesses with established school links (Hoff, 2002). Some of the key findings from this study included the need to have a dedicated person to coordinate the partnership, for the schools to co-operatively develop partnership goals with the business, and to formally and regularly report back on progress. The study also suggested that schools and businesses should look beyond donations and equipment in order to develop partnerships which could have more significant influence on students’ achievement (Hoff, 2002). For many decades businesses in developed countries have established school partnerships with the desire to support education (Cramer & Landsmann, 1992). Given the social and economic importance of partnerships between education and business, it is essential to encourage the establishment of these links and ensure they are sustainable and long term. External agencies have taken the role of brokers in order to assist the development and sustainability of these partnerships. Either a school or business may initiate assistance from a broker. The role of a broker can be varied but generally entails mediating links between groups of people, including mediating any conflicting values and expectations between the groups (Hill et al., 2013). In the UK there has been a marked increase in the numbers of pupils working with training providers and sector skills groups which has resulted in a greater need for closer cooperation with employers and brokerage agencies (Asher, 2005). The majority of business–school partnership research has investigated the benefits to the school and its students, with minimal research investigating the benefits to the business. An Australian study by Figgis (1998) focused specifically on the benefits for businesses when linking with schools, however this research was restricted to student work-placements. Although this form of business–school partnership is common in high schools it is not the only approach and almost never occurs in primary (elementary) school. Minimal contemporary research has investigated alternative approaches into business–school partnerships. 2. The research context New Zealand education has undergone a great deal of recent change (Fancy, 2006; Lee, 2008). Many of these changes have been for economic as well as educational reasons (O’Neill, 1996). These changes began in 1993 when the New Zealand (NZ) Ministry of Education introduced a national curriculum framework (Ministry of Education, 1993a). This framework identified strong links between education, the economy and the workforce. The first page emphasised the priority placed on this with the statement ‘‘if we wish to progress as a nation and to enjoy a healthy prosperity in today’s and tomorrow’s competitive world economy, our education system must adapt to meet these challenges . . . We need a workforce which is increasingly highly skilled and adaptable’’ (Ministry of Education, 1993a, p. 1). The stated aim of learning was ‘‘to enable students to achieve their potential, to continue learning

K. Lee et al. / Evaluation and Program Planning 55 (2016) 35–45

throughout life, and to play a full part in our democratic society and in a competitive world economy’’ (Ministry of Education, 1993a, p. 1). To support these curriculum reforms the Ministry of Education published an information booklet titled ‘Working together: building partnerships between schools and enterprises’ (Ministry of Education, 1993b). This 24 pages booklet was designed to encourage schools to develop partnerships with community and businesses. ‘‘The primary aim of such partnerships was to enable students to leave school better informed, more confident, and able to contribute effectively to the future of New Zealand’s economy and society’’ (Ministry of Education, 1993b, p. 6). The booklet was developed for all levels of school but tended to focus on senior secondary (high school) students keen for work/vocational education and career preparation. It included suggestions for how partnerships could develop and what form they could take. Despite this initiative, subsequent research found that over 70% of NZ teachers reported that they rarely involved people from the community (Ministry of Education, 2006). A curriculum stocktake undertaken in 2000–2002 identified teachers’ concerns about the overcrowded curriculum and the limited time available for teaching (McGee et al., 2002). As a result of these findings a new curriculum was developed, in 2007, which was less prescriptive and enabled schools to address their community and learners’ needs in whatever way they felt appropriate (Ministry of Education, 2007). Similar to the publications produced when the 1993 curriculum framework was released, the 2007 curriculum was also accompanied by a supporting document which encouraged links with the community. This document was titled Thinking globally, New Zealand and the economic world (Years 1 to 12)(Ministry of Education, 2007). It was launched to encourage teachers to team with local organisations for them to learn about communities, organisations and societies, and to develop enterprising solutions to real problems (Mitchell, 2007). Possibly learning from the earlier attempt to encourage school business partnership, the Ministry also financially assisted organisations to support schools in this process. In order to sustain long-term business–school partnerships all parties need to feel they have benefited (Eweje & Palakshappa, 2009). For businesses that already link with schools and have always thought of their links in terms of ‘donations’ or ‘giveaways’, exploring benefits might help them recognise their achievements, and in turn help to sustain these links. This knowledge may also help schools to establish ‘win–win’ relationships with businesses and thus maximising the longevity of the link. 3. Methods Throughout this paper companies, businesses, industry, organisations and institutions will be referred to as ‘businesses’ and the organisation which assisted with these business–school partnerships will be referred to as the ‘brokering organisation’. The research fulfilled two key roles. Firstly it functioned as exploratory research (Davidson & Tolich, 2003) to discover whether businesses benefit from using organisations and designated staff members to assist with school partnerships, whether formalising these business–school partnerships with a rationale was perceived as worthwhile, and whether brokering organisations influence business–school partnerships. The research also played a descriptive role (Davidson & Tolich, 2003) by identifying and detailing these perceived benefits. This mixed method research involved using structured questionnaires as well as semi-structured interviews. Mixed methods research is a relatively new approach (Small, 2011) and involves

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both qualitative and quantitative measures (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2011). Some researchers believe mixed methods are ‘the best of both worlds’. Questionnaires are viewed as an ‘‘objective research tool that can produce generalisable results because of large sample sizes’’ (Harris & Brown, 2010, p. 2), whilst interviews ‘‘provide contexts where participants can ask for clarification, elaborate on ideas, and explain perspectives in their own words’’ (Harris & Brown, 2010, p. 2). It must be noted that not all support the reliability and accuracy of this methodology (Cutler, Wallace, & Haines, 1988; Kendall, 2008). This method however, has been shown to be very effective if the qualitative data is analysed first on its own right and later used to illustrate and support quantitative findings (Harris & Brown, 2010). A mixed methods approach was used in a recently published study investigating the social dynamics of industry-school partnerships (Ehlen, van der Klink, & Boshuizen, 2015) and a mixed methods approach was therefore employed for this research. The quantitative aspects of this research (Mutch, 2005) utilised questionnaire responses to explore the business–school partnerships and their relationships with a brokering organisation. This took a positivist (value free) approach (Neuman, 2003) in order to identify any pre-existing patterns or trends. The qualitative aspects of the research involved documenting descriptive accounts of the perceived benefits for the businesses. ‘‘In qualitative descriptive research, a few people (in some cases, only one person) may be asked many questions or allowed to tell their own stories in their own ways. The aim is to illuminate the experience or understanding for others’’ (Mutch, 2005, p. 43). This interpretive approach (Neuman, 2003) investigated how businesses interacted with schools. In New Zealand brokering organisations exist to support partnerships between business and schools. Identifying businesses that use these organisations was achieved with the help of the brokering organisations themselves. At a national education conference seven brokering organisations showed interest in supporting research devoted to business–school partnerships. Four were randomly chosen to act as a third party. This involved including an invitation to participate in the research in their monthly newsletters. These newsletters were emailed to members with established business–school links and included a web-link to the online survey, a participant information sheet and a consent form. In this way the brokering organisation was unaware of who volunteered to be involved in the study. From the 500 businesses that received newsletters from these four brokering organisations, 40 responded volunteering to participate and complete the anonymous 10–15 min online survey. This survey utilised a variety of open and closed questions to investigate the role of brokering organisations, the use of a rationale and designated staff member for education partnerships and the perceived benefits. The questions were adapted from telephone interview questions used in an Australian study investigating the benefits to businesses through work–placement partnerships (Figgis, 1998). The first six questions investigated the participants’ backgrounds and provided the business demographics. The next six questions investigated the business–school link, whether a rationale for this link had been developed and the motivation for the link. The next six likert-based questions investigated specific benefits to the business, whilst the remaining four questions focussed on the generalised perceptions of the partnership. On the completion of the survey participants were invited to take part in one-on-one semi-structured interviews. Nine participants volunteered to be interviewed, five of which were randomly selected and participated in a 90 min semi-structured interview. The interview consisted of seven questions focussing on benefits, constraints and sustainability of business–school

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partnerships. The interviews were audio-recorded and later transcribed and checked for accuracy. After data collection findings from the open ended questions in the on-line questionnaire provided quantitative evidence of patterns amongst participants (Kendall, 2008). After this initial review quantitative data sets were analysed using statistical tests including, Mann–Whitney U tests, Chi Square tests and Fisher’s Exact Probability tests. When comparing only two independent groups, a Mann–Whitney U test was performed to test for differences in responses. Chi-square tests for independence were also conducted to explore the relationships between groups (categorical variables). When chi-square test assumptions were not met, Fisher’s Exact Probability test was used instead, as suggested by Pallant (2011). Interviews were transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. Qualitative interview data was reviewed independently and later compared with quantitative findings (Kendall, 2008). This involved finding a pattern in the data which described and organised the observations, which in turn helped with its interpretation (Yin, 2003). Data from interviews are presented in two ways. First, transcripts were coded based on interview questions, then quotes are used to support quantitative data findings. These are reported as (I, #) and (S, #), where (I) represents interviewee, (S) represents survey participant, and (#) represents the number allocated to the interviewee or survey participant in the study (1–40 survey participants, 1–5 interview participants). For example (I, 20) represents the interview response from participant number 20. Secondly, interview data were also used to establish findings based purely on interview responses. This was achieved by creating categories where data was grouped under an umbrella term that enabled them to be regarded as ‘of the same type’. Tallies and percentages were worked out to support findings and investigate the ideas and issues being addressed (Yin, 2003). Data gathering and analysis was undertaken only after approval was gained from the university ethics committee and fully informed consent received from participants. Both brokering organisations and participants were given assurance that their relationships with each other would not be affected by their participation or non-participation in this study. 3.1. Participants Descriptive data were gathered to provide information on the characteristics of the sample of both survey and the interview participants. As a way of setting the scene this section will initially provide a brief background of the participants and the organisations they represent. Participants represented a wide range of businesses. Almost two-thirds (63%) belonged to New Zealand based (National) businesses. A large proportion of the participants belonged to the Business Trade/Banking/Financial Services sector (40%), whilst the remaining participants were divided evenly amongst the Manufacturing/Construction sector, Computer/IT/Telecommunications sector and the Educational/Governmental and other services sector as shown in Fig. 1. This data is reflective of the general mix of New Zealand industry (Statistics New Zealand, 2013). The majority of participants were from management positions. CEOs were represented by 11(28%) of the participants, 5(13%) were owners/directors, 17(43%) were managers/leaders, 4(10%) were in public relations positions and 3(8%) were Human Resources personnel. Participants were also grouped according to the size (number of employees) in the business. Employees represented an even spread of company sizes, with 14 (35%) from small business (0–49

Fig. 1. Industry sector the business participants stated they represented.

employees), 14 (35%) from medium businesses (50–499 employees) and 12 (30%) from large businesses (500+ employees). Contact with schools was relatively infrequent with just under three-quarters of the businesses (73%) contacting schools once a month or less. Half linked with schools on a monthly basis (50%) while 23% connected annually, 20% weekly and only 8% connected with schools on a daily basis. The survey participants represented a range of roles and businesses. These included HR manager, CEO, regional director, senior business manager and business advisor, whilst the companies ranged from a small family owned business to a multinational company. 4. Findings The following findings detail analysis investigating the use of brokers in establishing the partnerships with schools, the importance and use of a rationale for school partnerships and the business’ perceptions of the partnerships. 4.1. Use of a rationale for partnerships with schools Almost three quarters (n = 28, 70%) of the participants had formalised the business–school partnership with the creation of a rationale. The following quantitative analysis compares the responses of businesses that had, and had not developed a rationale for the six-likert questions relating to benefits to the business. A Mann–Whitney U test was utilised to assess how businesses differed between those with and without a rationale, in terms of their perceived benefits to the business’ image/reputation, community networks and advertisements. A significant difference was identified in the perceived benefits to the public image and reputation of the business between the two groups, with a large effect size (r = 0.477) U = 74, z = 3.017, p = 0.003. Businesses that developed a rationale believed that linking with schools was more beneficial than those without a rationale, as recorded by the higher overall Mean Rank as shown in Table 1. This was also reinforced by one of the interview participants who suggested that by linking with schools ‘‘it puts our brand into schools which frankly, when people start young with the brand, it is more likely to create a higher brand loyalty’’ (I, 5). The second significant difference between those businesses with and without rationales was in their perceived benefits of community networks with schools, with a large effect size being found (r = 0.577), U = 56, z = 3.527, p < 0.001. Those businesses that developed a rationale perceived greater benefits from forming community networks than those without a rationale as evidenced by a higher overall mean ranking score in Table 2. One participant

K. Lee et al. / Evaluation and Program Planning 55 (2016) 35–45 Table 1 Association between having a rationale and the benefits perceived to business’ reputation/image. Does your organisation have a clear rationale/vision for their business–school links? How beneficial is the business–school link for your organisation’s reputation/image to link with schools?

Yes No Total

N

Mean rank

28 12 40

23.9 12.7

Table 2 Association between having a rationale and the benefits perceived to business’ community networks. Does your organisation have a clear rationale/vision for their business–school links? How beneficial is the business–school link for your organisation in terms of forming networks within the community to link with schools?

Yes No Total

N

Mean rank

28 12 40

24.5 11.2

explaining ‘‘to me, it’s actually a lot about volunteer type of working, we don’t have to do this, but we choose to do it, because we want to be involved in the community’’ (I, 5). A third significant difference was evident between those businesses with, and without rationales, related to businesses’ perception of the general benefits to employees from linking with schools U = 84.5, z = 2.590, p = 0.01, with a medium effect size (r = 0.409). Those businesses with a rationale believed their employees gained more benefits from the partnership than those companies without a rationale as demonstrated in Table 3. Businesses with a staff member designated to support the business–school partnership were significantly less likely to have a rationale (mean rank = 19) than businesses without a designated staff member (mean rank = 21), U = 126, p = 0.01, with a medium effect of r = 0.4. No significant differences were identified with regard to the benefits to the business’ advertising and employees’ communication/public-speaking and teamwork skills between those businesses with and without a rationale. This research only involved comparisons between those businesses with and without rationales. It is important to note that the content and purpose for the rationale development was outside the scope of this research study. 4.2. Utilising a designated staff to support business–school partnerships Nearly half of these businesses (n = 19, 48%) reported that a staff member had a designated role of co-ordinating the partnership between the business and school/s. The survey data was used via SPSS to investigate whether responses between those businesses with a designated staff member groups and those without. There

Table 3 Association between having a rationale and the general benefits perceived to employees. Does your organisation have a clear rationale/vision for their business–school linking? In general, how beneficial is the business– school link for your organisation’s employees to link with schools?

N

Yes No Total

28 12 40

Mean rank

23.5 13.5

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were significant differences between the two groups on numerous questions. Significantly more businesses, with staff members designated to supporting the business–school partnership, felt their organisation assisted them with the partnerships (mean rank = 19) than businesses without designated staff members (mean rank = 21), U = 121, p = 0.01, with a medium effect of r = 0.4. Businesses with a designated staff member supporting the business–school partnership linked with fewer schools (mean rank = 19) than businesses without a designated staff member (mean rank = 21), U = 67, p = 0 < 0.001, with a large effect of r = 0.6. No significant differences were found between businesses with and without designated staff members supporting the business– school partnerships with regards to perceived benefits to the organisation’s advertising and forming networks within the community as shown in Table 4. However those businesses with a designated staff member supporting the business–school partnership believed their organisation’s reputation benefited more (mean rank = 21) than businesses without a designated staff member (mean rank = 19), U = 117, p = 0.02, with a medium effect of r = 0.4. Businesses with a designated staff member to support the business–school partnership believed there were more benefits to employees team work skills (mean rank = 21) than those without designated staff members (mean rank = 19), U = 116, p = 0.02, with a medium effect of r = 0.4. Whilst businesses with staff members designated to supporting the business–school partnership also believed there were more benefits to employees public speaking and communication skills (mean rank = 21) than those without designated staff members (mean rank = 19), U = 119, p = 0.03, with a medium effect of r = 0.3, as shown in Table 4. 4.3. Use of a broker for partnerships with schools Ten out of the forty participants (25%) we strongly in favour of using a brokering organisation. Using SPSS the data from these 10 respondents’ were separated from those who were less enthusiastic about brokering organisations, to investigate whether responses between these groups differed significantly. There was no significant difference between the two groups on all questions. One of the three survey questions relating the use of a brokering organisation was open-ended and enabled ‘‘the full richness and complexity of the views held by the respondent’’ (Denscombe, 2003, p. 156). Only the 10 enthusiastic survey participants (25%) responded to this question elaborating on the ‘‘ways this/these organisations contributed to the benefits gained from your [their] business–school link’’. Responses included; coordinating programmes, providing financial and operational support, reminding businesses to give back to the community, assisting with the development of the partnership, bringing students and mentors together, reminding everyone about important dates and tasks they needed to be undertaken, keeping all involved updated with the progress of student projects and ensuring that the goals of business–school links were attained. One survey participant summed up their views by stating, ‘‘brokering organisations facilitate an efficient and successful way to connect and deliver value’’ (S, 17). These survey findings aligned with findings from the semistructured interviews. One interviewee summed up their views about the merits of a brokering organisation by saying; Brokering organisations are the perfect example of how we stay connected. They keep us in the loop with the things that are going on. And then when specific event dates pop up, you know we are all busy people, we go like hey we are involved. So it is the little things like that that keeps us in the loop, especially like

K. Lee et al. / Evaluation and Program Planning 55 (2016) 35–45

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Table 4 Differences in school links between those businesses with and without designated staff members.

Test statisticsa Mann–Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Exact Sig. [2 * (1 tailed Sig.)] a b

How beneficial is it for your organisation’s reputation/ image to link with schools?

How beneficial is it for your organisation in terms of forming networks within the community to link with schools?

How beneficial is it for your organisation’s advertising to link with schools?

In general, how beneficial is it for your organisation’s members to link with schools?

How beneficial are business–school links in terms of improving employees’ public speaking and communication skills?

How beneficial are business–school links in terms of improving employee’s teamwork skills?

117.000 348.000 2.429 .015 .025b

139.500 370.500 1.734 .083 .105b

171.500 402.500 .776 .437 .452b

113.000 344.000 2.462 .014 .019b

119.000 350.000 2.244 .025 .029b

116.000 347.000 2.317 .021 .023b

Grouping variable: Does your business have a member/s with a clearly designated role for co-ordinating business–school links? Not corrected for ties.

last year when we were with 15 or more schools across NorthShore and West Auckland, it was pretty amazing. (I, 5) Interviewed participants suggested that brokering organisations enabled businesses to overcome most of the constraints they faced when linking with schools. For businesses that linked with schools by providing work placements and mentoring programmes, brokering organisations were found to play an important role by recruiting students from schools and placing them into businesses. In this case, brokering organisations ensured that the selection was made fairly across schools with standard, clear selection criteria; therefore the best candidates were placed into businesses. This resulted in businesses spending less time having to coordinate the programme with schools and having clear communication with all parties involved. 4.4. Partnership findings Three open-ended survey questions provided an opportunity for participants to explain their business–school partnerships. These questions investigated the motivation for forming the links, improvements as a result of the link, and the long-term benefits as a result of the link. These questions were placed evenly throughout the questionnaire. The respondents did not appear to differentiate between these questions and for this reason responses have been combined in the following section. Themes from both survey and interview were identified throughout these responses and have been stated below. Three quarters of the survey participants stated their preference to employ a student who had already worked in their organisation (as shown in Table 5). This enabled the business to see if the student was genuinely interested in the job and its sector. Eleven (27%) of the survey participants, suggested that they were motivated to link with schools to develop a pool of future employees, business people, entrepreneurs and apprentices. Interview responses also supported this notion of linking with schools to identify potential employees. One of the interview participants stated, ‘‘students learn how things work here and then

Table 5 The preference of businesses to employ a student from the school/s they have linked with. Would you prefer employing a student from the school/s you have links with?

N

Percentage (%)

Yes No Total

30 10 40

75 25 100

they decide that they don’t like the sort of work we do here or that they would rather do something else. We see that as a success ‘cause they found out what they don’t like so they are more likely to find what they do like’’ (I, 2). Another stated ‘‘when a business works with a student, it gives us the ‘try before you buy’ experience and sometimes it is a success and other times the business decides that they do not mind having the person for a fixed/part time job, but not for a long-term basis’’ (I, 2). Yet another stated; we are not only looking at future employees, but future leaders inside our bank- future branch managers and future area managers. Anyone can apply for a job and get employed as teller or a customer service representative (CSR) or any front desk type of roles. But through linking with schools, what we are looking at, is for people to experience all of those things very quickly within 12 months and put them in defined leadership strengths so it is quite something separate. (I, 4) Rather than looking at the partnership as a way of identifying future employees, some participants viewed the partnership as a way of developing employable individuals. One interviewee stated; The education system is supposed to be turning out useful citizens and people that can take part in society and the only way you can actually be a useful citizen is by supporting yourself and supporting your family and the only way you are going to do that is by getting a job. There is no other way in one’s society. So I think this sort of broadens the view of the schools when they start getting students going out to various industries and coming back and talking about this and sort of realize what a bigger world is out there. (I, 2) This was supported by another participant who stated; We have to realise that not every student graduating from high school is going to go university. That is the reality of it. Not every student is capable of or has any intention of going to university. And we need to be realistic about that and offer them other options. If we at least offer them that as an option we will have less people on the unemployment benefit. You know, people will become more employable. Surely, they must do if they have work experience. Rather than going out cold from schools. We are teaching them the roles, teaching them the basics, what is required. Surely we must be benefiting, not just the students and the businesses, but the community at large, by offering students education and a different option from the academic pathway because it does not suit everyone. (I, 1) Some businesses established partnerships to help disadvantaged children and communities. One participant stated they ‘‘help poorly funded infrastructural needs of the schools we link with

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through donated materials’’ (S, 25). Another participant stated ‘‘we sense some kind of increasing sort of urbanization and we have found that a lot of families don’t have garages and workshops and that sort of stuff, and a lot of kids are not getting exposure to tools and making stuff or even just playing with them in the backyard because they live in smaller houses’’ (I, 2). There were many other reasons for establishing business– school partnerships. Six survey participants (15%) mentioned helping teachers and students to understand business opportunities, stimulate student interest in particular areas, and encouraging them to have positive opinions about their career pathways. One of these survey participants suggested ‘‘better financial management for students so that when they are exposed to the real world, they seriously consider making impromptu financial decisions that affect their financial future’’ (S, 5). Analysis of the interview data identified that other benefits were gained as a result of business–school partnerships. These included personal satisfaction achieved from passing on information and the sense of pride in seeing students succeed, as well as that ‘‘a number of staff showed higher enthusiasm for work’’ (I, 2). Other benefits of business–school partnerships stated by only one person (survey or interviews) has been listed in Table 6. A clear majority of the interview participants (80%) explained that the business–school partnership was a result of a close relationship with a school staff member. This un-expected result identified that businesses linked with schools when an employee had a family member on the school staff. The final survey question was open-ended and investigated the possible constraints or problems a business faced when linking with schools. Nine (23%) survey participants mentioned schools’ unwillingness to develop business–school partnerships. They attributed this to schools’ negative attitudes towards trade subjects and resistance to emphasise trades over core academic subjects. One of the interviewees reinforced this constraint, indicating that; Things can’t be done in isolation, what is done in schools over here and work over there, we’re all part of society. We learn all of that stuff, so we evidently end up at work. That’s the only way you are going to provide for yourself and your family, by being independent and by getting a job! So schools and society have got to get away from the idea that profit is a dirty word and business is nasty and this sort of stuff and realize that the wealth of a nation comes from businesses, it doesn’t come from the government, and it doesn’t come from schools unless you have an educated population, then business can thrive. One depends on the other and the better they understand each other, the better for all. (I, 1) Four out of five interviewees considered the main constraint on business–school partnerships was the disconnection between the business community and the educational community. One of the participants described the education sector as a whole to be;

Table 6 List of additional benefits perceived by businesses from school partnerships. Additional benefits for business–school partnerships 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Greater understanding of ethnic diversity and challenges. Awareness of local employment opportunities and link to local supply labour (jobs within the region), less outsourcing of employees. Source talents, those who have the ambition and desire. Easy transition for both students and businesses because they are trained and know how things work. Work ready individuals with a better understanding of work ethics, tidiness, time reporting, presenting well, showing respect etc. Encourage the pipeline of talent through all occupations. Be a part of growing the next generation of business leaders. Higher efficiency as a result of the connections made.

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Very inner-focused, very detached from reality, teachers by their nature are very caring people; they don’t operate in an environment of having their performance being measured. So they are really in a bubble, which is very detached from what it is likely to be in the business world. I guess that’s my theory. Therefore, leading to lack of communication between different stakeholders making it harder for them to go about it. (I, 4) Seven survey participants (18%) suggested time was a constraint for business, schools and all the other stakeholders involved. Five participants (13%) suggested funding constraints, one believed scalability to be a constraint (inability to measure outcomes according to a scale), another identified student accountability issues (such as not showing up for work), whilst another suggested lack of tangible benefits from linking with schools as one of the main constraints they face. Two of the participants believed smaller businesses were constrained in their ability to engage in these partnerships. One interview participant stated ‘‘It is hard to find someone who can assign time for coordination and communication with schools. This is especially true if there was lack of an HR type of resource person, who can go out and facilitate and coordinate with schools and 80% of businesses in New Zealand are SMEs’’ (I, 2). Whilst another stated; We are a bigger organisation. We have a large number of employees which doesn’t matter if we are not getting full production, not getting full production out of one person, it doesn’t cost us very much. But for a smaller businesses, it does make a difference if they are not getting a good return on their investment. (I, 4) Continuity of teachers was another identified constraint of establishing and maintaining business–school partnerships. One participant stated; A specific teacher drives that particular interest and if they go, then you lose that continuity and I’ve seen it happen so many times in different areas where it’s driven by a personality. And it’s risky. But I don’t know how you can get around that. Cause it happens wide across the board. If that person is gone, it would be interesting to the see the numbers coming in the next year, and if the new person would be able to continue that drive. It is difficult but it happens right across the board. (I, 1) Two out of five interviewees mentioned the difficulty working with students and the safety issues when risks were evident. One participant described having students on site: ‘‘this is an industrial site so you gotta be a bit careful about letting people play with things cause you can kill yourself quite easily (laughs)!’’ (I, 2). Whilst another suggested that; It depends on the program that you put students through. And it also depends on the nature of job you are putting them into. Say like if you put them into heavy industry, yes it is probably risky because they can kill themselves! But in finance, it is much easier. (I, 4) A participant suggested a three-step method to eliminate the constraints of students’ attitude, responsibility and quality of work. Firstly, ensure that program are set up appropriately with a clear structure. Secondly, risks can be eliminated with the size of the businesses: the larger the organisation, the more likely it is to have an employee with spare time to work with students and schools. Thirdly, simply send students back, for example, stop linking with the school if things go wrong. Interview participants were asked about strategies to sustain the business–school partnership. All agreed that clear structure, frequent communication between parties involved and coordination were the best strategies used to overcome constraints. Two

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emphasised further the need for a clear structure which enabled everyone to know what is expected from them and what the anticipated goals were. All five also agreed there was a need to spread the word on the benefits achieved from these partnerships to all parties involved. They thought everyone needed to add value to the relationship for a win–win situation. They thought this not only ensured sustainability, but also encouraged other businesses and schools to create these links. Two participants (40%) mentioned the importance of funding. Besides having an external coordinator (referring organisation), the findings also suggested that partnerships were sustained when students enjoyed and benefited from their business–school partnership experience. If this occurred the students then told their friends and families which added to the sustainability of the partnership. This results section has identified the influence of a partnership rationale, a designated staff member to support the business– school partnership, and the benefits and constraints of brokering organisations, and business–school partnerships. This following section will discuss the key issues identified above. 5. Discussion 5.1. Rationale Considering desired outcomes prior to the development of the business–school partnership can help businesses isolate the goal and purpose of the relationship with the school. ‘‘The success of such partnerships is largely determined by how thoughtfully these partnerships are planned and with whose input’’ (Sanders, 2003, p. 165). Identifying issues or goals and defining the focus and scope of the relationship are some of the key steps for building successful business partnerships (Billett, Ovens, Clemans, & Seddon, 2007; Ehlen et al., 2015; Hoff, 2002; Hopkins & Wendel, 1997; Sanders, 2001). Developing a rational is one way to identify and establish the intended partnership goals (Sanders, 2003). In order to develop a rationale the business is required to decide what they would like to accomplish from the partnership and the expectations of both parties. These are then relatively easy to assess. These rationales formalise the partnership; remind both parties of their expectations, the end goal, and also that these benefits are not a matter of ‘good luck’ (Figgis, 1998). The results from this study identified that businesses with a rationale believed it was beneficial for the organisation to form networks with the school and its community. Whether this was because they gained more or whether they were better able to recognise the benefit of these community networks, is unclear. As a significant difference was noted between businesses with and without a rationale and their perception of benefits from forming community partnerships with schools, the formation of a rationale seems a more likely way to sustain such links. Employees in businesses with a rationale were perceived to gain more than those in businesses without a rationale. Whether these employees did actually gain more or whether the businesses were simply more aware and focussed on the gains as a result of the rationale is also unclear. By having a rationale the employee benefits may have been planned and deliberate. An example of a planned benefit offered by the school could be access to the school’s physical and human resources, including workshops and other events hosted at and by the school (Education Review Office, 1996). Findings from this study revealed that businesses with a staff member designated to supporting the business–school partnership were significantly less likely to have a rationale than businesses without a designated staff member. The reasons for this were outside of the scope of this research. Further investigation is required before conclusions can be drawn as to whether the

justification for this is because both were seen to play similar roles. More significant benefits were identified for the inclusion of a delegated support staff member than for the establishment of a rationale as outlined below. 5.2. Utilising a designated staff to support business–school partnerships Partnerships require face-to-face contact (Storper & Venables, 2002, 2004) which may explain why nearly half of the businesses reported having a staff member designated to the role of coordinating the partnership between the business and school/s. This resulted in significantly more staff feeling that their organisation was supporting and assisting them with the partnerships than businesses without designated staff members. Businesses with a designated staff member to support the business–school partnership believed there were more benefits to employees’ team work skills and public speaking and communication skills than those without designated staff members. They also believed their organisation’s reputation benefited more than businesses without a designated staff member. These benefits may result from the staff member’s ability to develop a trusting environment, by being seen as the person accessible and responsible for the success of the link. Trust has been found to be a key component for the success of partnerships (Billett et al., 2007; Ehlen et al., 2015; Flynn, Pillay, & Watters, 2014; Storper & Venables, 2004). Maintaining these links once this dedicated staff member leaves the organisation can have a negative impact on the partnership and needs to be addressed when considering long-term sustainability (Lonsdale et al., 2011). Businesses with a designated staff member supporting the business–school partnership linked with significantly fewer schools than businesses without a designated staff member. Why this was the case, again was outside the scope of this research project. One possible reason may be related to secondary finding linking business–school partnerships with family members. If there is a staff member responsible for these links other staff members may not want to be seen as stepping out of line and therefore may not initiate discussions about possible future links with other schools. 5.3. Use of brokers Monitoring and coordinating achievement outputs becomes increasingly complex when learning is occurring in a variety of ways, however the need for coordination of a partnership is paramount (Asher, 2005; Sanders, 2001, 2003). In terms of sustaining business–school partnerships, brokering organisations appear to play a crucial role in reinforcing the benefits of the links (Asher, 2005; Hill et al., 2013). They provide structure for responsibilities and roles, spreading the word about business– school partnerships, and familiarising different members of the community with the concept. Brokers can ensure continuity and communication They ensure that all parties are clear about the focus of work placements and can provide guidance to schools and employers to assist them to understand and comply with all legislation relating to safety, risk assessment and child protection issues (Asher, 2005). Brokers in this study were seen to assist with coordination, meeting goals, reminding the business to give back to the community, keeping both parties in touch with progress, ensuring the business is informed about wider issues and providing timely reminders. The results of this study suggest that brokering organisations could assist in reaching as wide a sector of the community as possible. This has been found to be useful for smaller businesses and schools in rural areas, which were shown by the Education Review Office (1996) to have fewer opportunities in establishing business–school links.

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These findings on New Zealand school-community links align with studies contextualised in other countries. The Australian study undertaken by Figgis (1998) claimed that the best relationships come from those with the most structured placements, a finding supported by this more recent study. Brokering organisations provide structure, therefore it can be inferred that with brokering organisations, successful partnerships between businesses and schools are more likely to flourish and be sustained. 5.4. Partnership findings The number of business–school partnerships has dramatically increased (Hoff, 2002; Hopkins & Wendel, 1997; Sanders, 2003) and yet still little is known about why businesses willingly volunteer (Ehlen et al., 2015) and what they gain from these partnerships (Carvalho & Franco, 2015; Hoff, 2002). Ehlen and colleagues (2015) found both intended (knowledge products) and incidental outcomes from partnerships with schools. The findings from this study identified benefits to the business as well as the employees. Recruitment is a key reason why many businesses are motivated to link with schools (Lonsdale et al., 2011). Participants commented on sourcing talent and identifying those who had the ambition and desire. American research has identified the ‘pay-off’ for businesses who participate in school-work-programmes is ‘the development of firm-specific human capital capabilities that may contribute to competitive advantage’ (Linnehan & De Carolis, 2005, p. 535). Some of the participants in this New Zealand study referred to the possible employability of the students, with 75% preferring to employ a student who had already worked in their organisation. These student work-placements increased employability and gave the student the opportunity to explore an industry before committing themselves to it, whether through pursuing a degree, or getting a permanent job in its field (Paisey & Paisey, 2010). While Paisey and Paisey (2010) specifically studied students undertaking accounting work-placements, participants of this study had similar views. Figgis (1998) suggested that businesses employ students who have previously worked with the organisation because it saves them time and money in terms of have to; advertise for vacancies, go through the process of recruitment, interviewing and training new employees. Some businesses in the study looked more holistically at the students’ education. They felt they were developing employable individuals and the next generation of business leaders. They were giving both life skills (understanding of work ethics, tidiness, time reporting, presenting well and showing respect) and career skills by stimulating student interest in particular areas, and encouraging them to have positive opinions about their career pathways. In doing so they provided an easy transition for both students and businesses because they are trained and know how things work. Some businesses identified how their staff also personally benefited from school partnerships. These staff members gained a sense of pride in seeing students’ succeed, often resulting in staff showing an increased enthusiasm for work. This personal satisfaction which employees feel when working with students might be intangible, but is very highly valued (Figgis, 1998; Lonsdale et al., 2011). These findings are also supported by Branco and Rodrigues (2006)’s research, which found employees exhibit higher motivation and commitment when a firm has community partnerships. Previous research has identified three key strategies to foster business–school partnerships (Hopkins & Wendel, 1997; Nasworthy & Rood, 1990). These strategies include promoting a shared understandings of the partnership goals, planning open communication and evaluating the partnership to help it to grow and be

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effective. All interview participants agreed that clear structure, frequent communication between parties involved and coordination were the best strategies to foster the partnership and to overcome constraints. These findings support similar research based on partnerships and alliances (Asher, 2005; Babiak & Thibault, 2008; Sanders, 2001; Schreiner, Kale, & Corsten, 2009). The benefits from business–school partnerships are evident when reflecting on the statistic that almost all participants (95%) indicated that they would encourage other businesses to form partnerships with schools. This study mainly focused on the benefits to businesses of developing and sustaining business– school partnerships. However acknowledging constraints faced by businesses is as important as acknowledging the benefits. Time, safety issues, negativity and the disconnection between the business and school community were all seen as possible constraints on the success of a partnership. Businesses need to be aware of these constraints and the ways to overcome them, as well as establishing an understanding of the other possible benefits including social gains. 5.5. How can a business or school utilise this knowledge? Most business–school partnerships involved links with family members who were also on the staff. This is particularly common in rural or remote communities, where the students’ parents and the spouses of staff are often employed in local companies (Flynn et al., 2014). An employer wishing to develop these links may best investigate which employees have family members in the education or industry sector. Continuity of staff was another identified constraint of establishing and maintaining business–school partnerships. This finding is common to all professional development cases and not just related to business–school partnerships (Renwick & Gray, 2001). When an employee leaves the business, their particular skills and contacts leave the business with them. Planning for succession could involve a second person shadowing the experienced person responsible for the link. This may reduce the risk of the loss of the link if/and when the key person leaves the institution. An implication here would be for a brokering agency to minimise these risks and support this mentoring process. They can form the bridge between the two organisations and help ensure some consistency and navigate administrative dilemmas.

6. Conclusion A business–school partnership is a process and not an event (Sanders, 2003). Findings from this study have highlighted the value of planning for a successful partnership and have identified that the overall perception of businesses involved in these partnerships is very positive. Although constraints were identified the ‘‘feel good’’ factor derived from the altruistic nature of the partnership more than countered these. To assist with planning for success, the findings identified the value of organisations which broker the link between business and the school. These broker organisations expand the business profile, bring people together, overcome constraints and help sustain these important links. A staff member designated to supporting the partnership is another factor which influences its perceived success and value (Hoff, 2002). The development of a rationale assisted with the understanding of the goals of the partnership. Organisations with rationales were more positive about the benefits for their image, community networks and employees (Sanders, 2003). Transparency about motives, expectations, level of satisfaction and long-term goals for partnerships assist with the development of long-lasting,

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meaningful relationship that make a systemic impact on educational success (Hoff, 2002). The results of this study suggest that providing students with authentic life and business skills not only ensures a stronger work force but also provides enterprising attitudes and skills. Bringing the business and education sectors together enables students to learn how to take charge of themselves, be autonomous and resourceful. Businesses enabling students to learn in an authentic context support the development of skills, aspirations and attitudes needed to succeed in life after school. Whether or not these students get jobs in their organisation is immaterial in many cases, the partnership experiences help develop an employable workforce. Dryfoos (1998) highlighted the need for quality data to describe how successful community connections were developed and implemented. In 2001 Sanders repeated this call stating ‘‘further quantitative research on factors that facilitate and hinder schoolcommunity connections also would inform policy and practice’’ (pp. 32–33). Whilst in 2002 Hoff was more specific stating that the business perspective of business–school partnerships had been ignored. In order for schools to develop long-lasting, meaningful partnerships that have a systemic impact on education success they need to know the motives, expectations, levels of satisfaction and long-term goals for any partnerships. This research has heeded these calls and the results highlight the value added by the inclusion of a brokering agency, designated staff member and rationale for the partnership. Formally sharing the load can make a difference. Acknowledgements Finding time to write a paper whilst working fulltime is no easy task, let alone when the authors live in different countries. The authors would like to acknowledge the Faculty of Education at the University of Auckland, for providing research and study leave to assist with this process.

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Dr Kerry Lee Kerry’s research is focused on innovation in education. Kerry has been involved in the development of and research into enterprise education, entrepreneurship, partnerships, sustainability, technology education and digital literacy. Her findings have been published in 13 international journals and she has authored or coauthored 7 book chapters. Prior to becoming a researcher and tertiary lecturer Kerry taught in low socio-economic primary schools.

Dr John Hope John’s professional background is teaching in New Zealand primary, intermediate and secondary schools. He left school teaching after some years as the principal of New Zealand’s largest primary school; a school featuring nationally recognised programmes for gifted students and an international reputation for use of ICT. Later in his career John became a school inspector and curriculum writer and was seconded to the University of Auckland as Director Primary Teacher Education to establish initial teacher education programmes. Following successful establishment of teacher education programmes, other University of Auckland appointments followed, including Director of the University of Auckland Principals Centre, and Associate Dean (International) positions in two faculties. He currently directs several overseas twinning degree programmes, coordinates international activity within the Faculty of Education and has university-wide international responsibilities.

Fatima AbdulGhani is currently working as a Field Monitoring Officer at Tamkeen, Kingdom of Bahrain. Fatima comes from a background in Education and Research where she majored in Education and Economics (Bachelors) and topped it with a Masters in Enterprise Education and investigating links between Businesses and Schools. While studying at the University of Auckland, she has also worked as a research assistant and a tutor at the university. Currently, she is coordinating a number of projects around the kingdom that aim at training and employing Bahrainis, developing opportunities for the private sector, which has a pivotal role to play as the engine of growth and productivity in Bahrain.