Plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter on Beirut beaches, 1977–1988

Environmental Pollution 71 (1991) 17-30

Plastic Pellets, Tar, and Megalitter on Beirut Beaches, 1977-1988

J. G. S h i b e r U.K.-P.C.C., One Bert T. Combs Drive, Prestonsburg, Kentucky 41653, USA

& J. M. Barrales-Rienda Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia de Polimeros, 28006 Madrid, Spain (Received 22 July 1990; accepted 7 November 1990)

A BS TRA C T In the spring o f l988,five beaches along the coast of Beirut were surveyed for the presence of plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter--a follow-up to the studies conducted on the coast of Lebanon in 1977 for plastic pellet and tar occurrence, and in 1978for containers and other megalitter on Beirut beaches. Plastic pellets were more abundant than they were in 1977 on three beaches and less so on two. Tar, however, seemed to occur much more abundantly on all five beaches. Megalitter, chiefly plastic but also paper, metal, and glass, had increased greatly compared with that seen 10 years ago. As in 1977, the unrestricted waste disposal practices of the plastic manufacturers, plus the possible loss of cargo .from ships loading and unloading ran' materials, are the most likely sources of plastic pellets. The abundance of tar is not surprising, considering that the Mediterranean Sea is tar-polluted and that two oil terminals occur on Lebanon's coast. Further, local gas stations frequently dump oil and grease onto the beaches, and numerous fires have occurred at coastal refineries over the past 10-15 years. All of these factors are likeO' to contribute to the presence of tar on the beaches. The main source of the vast quantities of megalitter on the beaches is undoubtedly the Lebanese people themselves, due to numerous population 17 Environ. Pollut. 0269-7491/91/$0350 © 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England. Printed in Great Britain

18

J. G. Shiber, J. M. Barrales-Rienda shifts and the lack of order and regulatory enforcement as a result of the civil chaos in the country. In addition, the ships docking or waiting for days, and sometimes weeks, to get into the Lebanese ports probably affect the abundance of megalitter (and tar) on the beaches.

INTRODUCTION Plastic pellets, or spherules, can be found on nearly every beach in the world (Clark, 1986). Tar also is common on beaches, especially those in proximity to oil shipping lanes and oil loading activities (Burns et al., 1982; Shiber, 1989). The presence of tar, plastic pellets and fragments, and larger plastic objects at sea constitutes a major hazard for various marine animals. It is estimated that every year these materials kill as many as 1 000 000 seabirds and 100 000 sea mammals which either swallow tar and small plastic items, or become entangled in larger plastic items, such as six-pack rings, fishing gear, and strapping materials (Shea, 1988). Plastic pellets and fragments are particularly harmful to seabird chicks, which ingest them during feeding and are unable to regurgitate them (Fry et al., 1987); adult seabirds can also be affected negatively by ingesting small plastics (Conant, 1984; Schrey & Vauk, 1987; Ryan et al., 1988). Furthermore, seabirds ingest tar balls (van Franeker, 1985) which cause various physiological abnormalities (Clark, 1986). Whereas some marine mammals such as seals and sea lions seem to be prone to entanglement by plastics (Balazs, 1979; Cawthorn, 1985; Fowler, 1987; Stewart & Yochem, 1987), others such as whales and dolphins ingest plastics as well (Wehle & Coleman, 1983; Mate, 1985). Among reptiles, sea turtles are often found dead with an abundance of tar pellets, plastic beads (Carr, 1987) or other plastic items (Balazs, 1985) in their stomachs. In fact, it is believed that plastic ingestion and entanglement, along with ingestion of tar and crude oil, are playing a significant role in inhibiting population recoveries of sea turtles (Carr, 1986). The Mediterranean Sea is chronically polluted by tar balls and oil, which has reduced fish populations in numerous areas and has tainted some fish and bivalves so that they are unmarketable (Clark, 1986). In the central Mediterranean, loggerhead turtles are suffering from ingesting crude oil and tar balls, as well as metal and plastic litter (Gramentz, 1988), and in the eastern Mediterranean an abundance of floating plastic litter is reported to occur (Morris, 1980; McCoy, 1988). Yet, with all this known about the area, little work has been done on Mediterranean beaches regarding the occurrence of tar, plastics, and other litter. This is unfortunate, since beach surveys may be very useful in measuring the rates of loss of debris from the

Plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter on Beirut beaches

19

ocean (Dahlberg & Day, 1985), and they are an economical way of assessing types and sources of litter, as well as trends in its accumulation (Merrell, 1985). Moreover, beach surveys of tar are considered to be useful for monitoring the severity of petroleum pollution in adjacent coastal waters (Burns et al., 1982; Knap et al., 1986; Shiber, 1989). In the summer of 1977, nineteen beaches on the coast of Lebanon were surveyed for the presence of plastic pellets, at which time pellets were found quite commonly on all beaches (Shiber, 1979). Various other types of plastic, tar, and megalitter were observed simultaneously, but their abundance was not reported at the time. In the summer of 1978, students at the American University of Beirut collected and classified megalitter (mainly containers larger than 2.5cm in diameter) from the beaches of Beirut, as well as recorded their observations on the occurrence of smaller litter that was too abundant to collect; their data are summarized herein. The present study was undertaken as an extension of the work done in 1977 and 1978, to determine what changes had occurred over the past 11 years with respect to the abundance of plastic pellets, megalitter, and tar on Beirut's beaches.

METHODS The beaches reinvestigated after about a decade for the presence of plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter were those in the Beirut area (Fig. 1), as the political situation would not allow safe access to the entire coast. They were the American University of Beirut (AUB) beach, referred to as station No. 1, 'Bain Militaire' (station No. 2), Ramlet-el-Baida (No. 3), Ouza'i (No. 4), and Khald6 (No. 5). Station numbers 1 and 2 were rocky, whereas numbers 3, 4, and 5 were sandy beaches. The five study area beaches were surveyed on foot during March and April of 1988. On each of the rocky beaches, two areas measuring approximately 150 m 2 each and roughly equidistant from one another were examined. On each of the sandy beaches, three sampling areas measuring approximately 300 m 2 each and roughly equidistant from one another also were examined. Each study area included the zone between the low and high water marks. Station No. 1 was checked three times, but the other stations were each checked on one occasion only. Representative samples of plastic pellets were collected by hand from each study area and put in small plastic vials for later analysis in the laboratory. No tar was collected, but its frequency of occurrence was noted and its abundance was estimated according to the number of tar lumps seen (i.e. balls or semi-liquid blobs of 2 c m or more in diameter). Hence, the

20

J. G. Shiber, J. M . Barrales-Rienda

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w

\ X

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~Tabarja

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BEIRUT

I

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)

-

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~idon

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.,Z <3 ~)A¢ bJ ~

rr~

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"~'.Pipeline "-. -->. "'""

/.- / 0 I

SYRIA 10 kin I I

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The coast of Lebanon with the blocked area enlarged to show the approximate locations of the beaches that were investigated for the presence of plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter in the spring of 1988. (1: AUB beach; 2: 'Bain Militaire'; 3: Ramlet-el-Baida; 4: Ouza'i; 5: K h a l d 6 . ) The oil pipelines in northern and southern Lebanon, as indicated by the dotted lines, terminate on the coast where the refineries and terminals are located. Fig. I.

abundance of both plastic pellets and tar was categorized according to the following criteria: pellets collected (or tar lumps sighted) per sampling area: less than 10 = rare; 10-20 = common; > 2 0 - - abundant. Visual observations as to the types and abundance of megalitter (trash items larger than 2 cm in length) were simultaneously made at each location. After the pellets were counted and measured, they were sorted out according to color and textural differences. Representatives of those collected are shown in Fig. 2. Sixteen visually different pellets which were most typical of the pellets seen on all beaches were analyzed for their polymer content by infrared spectrophotometry at the Instituto de Plastico y Caucho in Madrid, Spain.

Plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter on Beirut beaches

Fig. 2.

21

Representative samples of plastic pellets collected from five beaches on the coast of Lebanon in the spring of 1988. (Photograph by M. Abul-Khoudoud.)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pellets Table 1 summarizes the collections and observations made, and Table 2 presents the results of the pellet analysis. As indicated in Table 1, only on the third visit were any plastic pellets found at station No. 1, the day after a very severe rainstorm and strong wave activity. No plastic pellets were found at station No. 2 in the present study, but at stations Nos 3, 4, and 5 the pellets were more a b u n d a n t and generally were bigger than were those seen at the same beaches in the earlier study (Shiber, 1979). They measured 2-6 m m in diameter and 2-6 m m in height, with an average size of 4.1 m m × 3.2 mm. Most pellets were opaque white and amber, but m a n y were clear. The rest were of various other colors (e.g. yellow, orange, black, green, turquoise); some pellets were just tiny plastic fragments. At Ramlet-el-Baida (No. 3), Ouza'i (No. 4), and Khald~ (No. 5), there were m a n y opaque greenish-white pellets and a few semi-clear yellow and orange pellets, all of which were not seen in the earlier study. Fifteen per cent of the pellets collected had tar on the surface. As Table 2 shows, 82% of the pellets were composed of polyethylene, with the majority of these being low density polyethylene. Pellets of polyethylene

a

Ramlet-eI-Baida

(5)

A s s t a t i o n No. 4; 17% had tar on them.

Amber, opaque white, clear, greenishwhite; many small pieces, some very weathered; 12% with tar on them.

Amber, opaque, white, clear, greenish white, other colors; 14% had tar on them.

Amber, opaque white and clear; 17% had tar on them.

Description o f pellets b

a

a

a

c a

Tar ~

As station No. 4.

Tar balls and soft lumps, much styrofoam and megalitter o f all sorts, especially plastic.

Tar in form of soft lumps or balls, much megalitter, especially plastic.

Rocky area with very small patch of sand and pebbles; near main sewage duct; all types of megalitter present.

After 3-day rainstorm. Two days after severe seastorm; plenty of pebbles and broken glass (beer & soda bottles). Rough sea after unstable weather; much broken glass, many pebbles; much megalitter.

Remarks~observations

a r = rare; c = common; a = abundant; + = present. b Most pellets appeared to have been cylindrical at one time and measured 2-6 mm in diameter.

Khald6

(4)

a

none

(2) 'Bain Militaire'

Ouza'i

r

3rd

(3)

none none

(1) A U B 1st visit 2nd

Station number Plastic and location pellets a

+

+

+

+

+

Megalitter ~

TABLE 1 The Occurrence of Plastic Pellets, Tar, and Megalitter on Five Beaches on the Coast of Beirut, Lebanon, in Spring 1988

t,~ t.o

Plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter on Beirut beaches

23

TABLE 2

Polymer Type. Percentage (%), and Description of Pellets Collected from Five Beaches on the Coast of Beirut, Lebanon, in Spring 1988 Polymer

Polyethylene low density

high density Polypropylene Ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA) a Polystyrene Classical maleate resin: natural resin acid-maleic anhydride adduct; yellowish resin.

%

Description

81

Semi-clear, off-white; grayish, flat, "weathered'; light, medium and dark amber, both opaque and semi-clear; yellow, semi-clear; black, opaque. Solid white, opaque; yellowish, 'weathered', opaque; solid green. Clear. Greenish-white, opaque. Orange, semi-clear. Large yellow, semi-clear.

1 14 2 1 1

With a co-polymer of 2-4% vinyl acetate and 2-3% talc.

were of frequent occurrence in 1977 as well (Shiber, 1979), although no percentages were determined at the time. The most c o m m o n type of pellet found on the beaches of Kuwait and Spain also were composed of polyethylene'(Shiber, 1982, 1987, 1989). The polyethylene pellets included the off-white opaque, all shades of amber, and a few pellets of different colors. The clear pellets (14% of the total) were made up of polypropylene, and the greenish-white opaque pellets (2% of total) were of ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA). Only the semi-clear orange pellets (1% of total) were of polystyrene. The few large yellow, semi-clear 'beads' collected (1% of total) were made up of a classical maleate resin that is used for flexographic printing inks. There does not appear to be any other study in the literature that deals with abundance of plastic pellets on Lebanese beaches (or any other eastern Mediterranean beaches) besides the work done in 1977 (Shiber, 1979). At that time, many small plastic factories operated near the coast, and some admitted dumping their waste products directly onto beaches. Judging from the increased use of plastic products in the Lebanon over the past decade, it is likely that many of these factories are still operational and that even more may have been established since 1977. It would be difficult, however, to determine the exact number and locations of these factories, because of the present lack of control in the country due to the continuing civil unrest. Pellets also could be lost from inland plastic factories, either accidentally or through normal waste disposal practices, via rivers to the sea (Pruter,

24

J. G. Shiber, J. M. Barrales-Rienda

1987), with the pellets eventually being washed ashore. About fifteen major rivers empty directly into the Mediterranean from Lebanon, and several small (individual and family) plastics factories function in make-shift shacks or run-down rooms along some of those rivers. By what means the raw materials (i.e. plastic pellets) are brought to Lebanon is not clear, but since the war and the frequent closing of the airport, most supplies come into the country by sea. The ships dock outside of the commercial ports and all along the coast, at minor fishing ports and various other spots that seem to provide temporary safety for docking. Smaller boats then are used to unload the cargo and bring it ashore. Cargo loss en r o u t e and in loading and unloading is always a possibility, and this procedure might increase the chances of loss. Hence, any accidents in unloading pellets would likely affect their abundance on the beaches. Tar

Table 1 shows that tar was c o m m o n at station No. 2 and on the first visit to station No. 1 (rocky beaches) and abundant on the second and third visits to station No. 1. Tar was most abundant at stations Nos 3, 4, and 5 (sandy beaches). It is more than likely that one reason the rocky beaches had less tar was because of the strong wave action against the rocks and heavy rains that commonly occur in the winter months. Being narrower than the sandy beaches the rocky beaches often become inundated during storms. On the sandy beaches the tar mainly occurred in soft, viscous blobs, possibly indicating their recent introduction to the beaches, but there were many hardened tar balls as well. Tar was found almost everywhere, smeared on rocks, in sand, and frequently on the multi-various megalitter scattered all over. Lebanon has two oil terminals and refineries. One is located in southern Lebanon, near Sidon, and the other is in the north, near Tripoli (Fig. 1). During the 1950s and 1960s, when tanker traffic was especially heavy along the coast of Lebanon, oil spills were c o m m o n and ships often would deballast offshore, resulting in great accumulations ofoil in the coastal water and tar on the beaches which not only created a nuisance, but also an environmental danger of which few were aware. Regulatory agencies in the region were non-existent. Then with the emergence of such organizations as the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), Mediterranean countries, including Lebanon, began the process of trying to clean up their coastal areas. When Ahmad (1972) surveyed thirty-five Lebanese beaches in 1971 for the occurrence of various pollutants, only twelve had tar on them. The few which had tar in abundance were located in proximity to the oil refinery in the north (Fig. 1). The Beirut area beaches were reported to have

Plastic pellets, tar, and megaliner on Beirut beaches

25

only small amounts of tar 'patches'. In 1977, however, after the civil war had been in progress for 2-3 years, tarry lumps were a frequent occurrence on nineteen Lebanese beaches, including those of Beirut, and many of the plastic pellets that were collected at the time had tar on them (Shiber, 1979). Now, over a decade later, the occurrence of tar on the beaches of the Beirut area has further increased. The continuing civil chaos in Lebanon has made enforcement of any laws pertaining to the protection of its coastal area nearly impossible, so the fact that tar is once again abundant is not surprising. Aside from the activity of the aforementioned oil terminals, activities of oil terminals farther to the north, in Syria and Turkey, may be a source of tar on Beirut's beaches. In addition, the numerous refinery fires during the war here, as well as the dumping of oil and grease waste from local gasoline stations right into the coastal waters (Shiber, 1980), could be affecting tar abundance. Further, all of the ships mentioned earlier which dock offshore and wait for days and sometimes weeks to unload or load goods undoubtedly contribute to some degree to the problem of tar on the beaches by pumping bilges into the sea. Not long ago, a 2 km stretch of eastern Mediterranean beach about 50 km north of Tel-Aviv was reported to have a drastic reduction of tar between 1975 and 1985 (Golik & Rosenberg, 1987). Unlike the beaches surveyed in the present work, that beach was chosen for study because of the lack of human activity on it. The monitoring data were collected from six aerial photographs, because the authors felt that the measurement of tar in the field is too time-consuming and difficult. It is believed here, however, that monitoring the occurrence of beach tar by foot may be more informative. Much of the tar usually is concealed from aerial photography and often is found hidden under rocks, megalitter, driftwood, or is covered by thin layers of sand, especially after winter storms.

Megalitter During the course of the present study, megalitter was found on all five beaches (Table 1). It appeared to be much more abundant than it was in the summer of 1978, when discarded containers of all sizes were collected twice a week for a month from a 3km length of beach along Beirut's coastal Corniche Boulevard. The area covered then included stations Nos 1, 2, and 3 of the present study. Smaller litter also was seen at that time and observations as to its occurrence were recorded. The containers were sorted according to type (e.g. metal, plastic, glass, paper), were counted, and then further were sorted to the country of fabrication. At that time, most of the metal containers (mainly beer cans) were made outside Lebanon (70%

26

J. G. Shiber, J. M. Barrales-Rienda

TABLE 3 Containers Found on Beirut Beaches in Summer 1978 Description

Total collected

% o f total collected

Metal." beer cans (1593). juice cans (213), food and soda cans (27), aerosol cans (14), peanut cans (18), motor oil cans (4), milk cans (l), batteries (16). Plastic: mineral and spring water bottles (645), cups (304), bags (54), shampoo, suntan oil, detergent, and lemon juice containers (52). Paper: dairy product containers (208), cigarette boxes (241), candy and gum wrappers (91), juice boxes (34), food boxes (11), envelopes (7), newspapers (7), tissue boxes (4). Glass: soda, beer bottles (141), ketchup and mustard containers (12), mirrors (1).

1 886

51%

1 055

29%

603

16 %

154

4%

European, 9% North American), as were the glass containers, which were mainly soft drink bottles (89% North American, 2% European). Fifty-four per cent of the paper containers were made in Lebanon, but the rest (mainly cigarette boxes) were made in North America (41%) and Europe (5%). The plastic containers were chiefly from Lebanon (82%); the remaining 18% were, once again, from either North America (14%) or Europe (4%). Table 3 itemizes the containers found in 1978 and their abundance in total. Not included in the table, but of significance with respect to the vast quantities seen on the beaches during the times of collection, were smaller items such as paper and plastic straws, wooden and plastic ice-cream sticks and spoons, styrofoam cups, match boxes, toilet paper rolls, sanitary napkins, tampons, disposable diapers, condoms, remains of food and burned materials, cigarette butts and plastic cigar tips, broken glass, and spent disposable lighters and warfare materials (e.g. bullet shells, empty cartridges). In the present work, all of the items mentioned above, plus many more newer 'inventions', were seen on all beaches. Although metal containers were still very abundant (beer cans appeared to be mainly of North American origin this time), items made of plastic were by far more numerous. Among the most commonly seen plastics were fruit juice, ketchup, and mustard containers, small 'espresso' coffee cups, and bottle caps. As in 1978, mineral water bottles of all sizes, but especially of the pint and l-liter, were the most abundant of the plastic containers on the beaches. No less than 1-2 bottles-

Plastic pellets, tar, and rnegalitter on Beirut beaches

27

seen on the sandy Ramlet-el-Baida beach (station No. 3) and the rocky Manara (Lighthouse) beach area, near station No. 2. Also seen were scores of plastic bags floating in the sea up to approximately 200 m offshore at these locations, especially in the southern part of station No. 3, where caf~-restaurants and high-rise apartment buildings are the main contributors. Other items that occurred commonly on the five beaches were batteries, plastic ball-point pens, disposable plastic shavers, cosmetic containers (e.g. for creams, lotions, hairspray, shaving cream, toothpaste and deodorants), household containers (e.g. for bleach, detergents, aerosol sprays, and other cleansers), disposable medical litter (primarily syringes and small drug and vaccine containers), plastic shoes, sandals, and thongs, packaging materials (e.g. trays, plates, cellophane), fishing materials (plastic or nylon mesh, threads, lines), and plastic milk containers. In short, just about anything can be found on Beirut's beaches these days, even broken televisions, refrigerators, and parts of demolished or burned-out cars of all makes. Also, at station No. 1 and its southern extension there was so much broken and granulated glass amidst the pebbles (Table 1), that one could almost refer to it as a 'glassy beach', rather than a rocky beach. Ahmad (1972) reported plastic and other megalitter on approximately half of the beaches he surveyed along the entire coast of Lebanon. Those beaches in the Beirut area and southward had what he termed as 'small quantities', with the exception of one Beirut beach where a 'moderate quantity' of plastic bottles and dishes were seen. The largest quantities of plastic and other debris were found north of Beirut from the refuse dump to Byblos, and then further north, from the Tripoli oil terminal to the northernmost border town of EI-Arida. Needless to say, the occurrence of megalitter, especially plastic megalitter, has increased steadily on at least five Lebanese beaches since Ahmad's report. Judging from the abundance and nature of the items seen in this study, one can only conclude that the main source of the megalitter on the beaches is the Lebanese people themselves. There was never much control over waste disposal practices of people or businesses in Lebanon, nor was any serious and practical effort made towards public understanding through effective education. The eruption of fighting in various parts of the country over the past 15 years has made matters worse by causing numerous population shifts from one part of Lebanon to another. In their temporary displacement, people seem to have lost interest in keeping their surroundings clean, so trash and garbage are thrown everywhere. Furthermore, whenever there is any respite in the fighting, hundreds of people rush down to the seaside boulevard where there are scores of make-shift shops selling snacks, grocery items, and clothing, among other things. With the lack of control m 2 were

28

J. G. Shiber, J. M. Barrales-Rienda

and regular serious garbage pick-up, most of the waste of vendors and consumers alike winds up on the beaches. Even when the street cleaners are able to sweep the streets and sidewalks, they usually wind up dumping the trash onto the beaches! There must be a lot of waste also being thrown into the sea from all the ships bringing supplies to Lebanon, which, as mentioned earlier, spend longer than usual docked offshore until they can unload safely. It is likely that much of that waste eventually gets washed ashore onto Lebanese beaches. International agreements such as the M A R P O L Treaty, which prohibits ships from dumping garbage, particularly plastics, at sea are almost impossible for Lebanese officials to enforce under the present circumstances and, doubtless, the crews of these waiting ships know it and take advantage of that fact. In addition, wave activity and currents, coupled with severe thunder and sea storms that are often quite strong, probably transport megalitter from one beach to another, and bring in 'new', additional megalitter from beaches of other countries as well as from other vessels operating in the eastern Mediterranean. It has been estimated that nearly half a million plastic containers alone are dumped into the world's oceans by shipping vessels every day (Horseman, 1985) and in the eastern Mediterranean, the type of floating megalitter that has been reported to be m o s t c o m m o n is plastic (Morris, 1980; McCoy, 1988).

CONCLUSIONS From the sampling done, the occurrence of plastic pellets on Ramlet-elBaida, Ouza'i, and Khald~ beaches appears to have increased, while the occurrence of pellets on AUB beach and 'Bain Militaire' appears to have decreased since the 1977 survey of Lebanese beaches. The pellets most likely emanate from the numerous plastics factories operating along the coast and from cargo loss e n route. The abundance of tar and megalitter on five Lebanese beaches has greatly increased over the past decade. Most of the megalitter was made of plastic, although metal cans, glass, and paper products were very common. The megalitter appeared to be of local origin, but some also may have come from cargo ships that dock offshore for long periods of time. The ships may be contributing to the occurrence of tar on the beaches as well, by pumping bilges into the coastal water. Coastal oil refinery fires during the war, and regular refinery activities, plus the dumping of oil and grease onto the beaches by local gas stations are other possible sources of the beach tar. When one considers the civil unrest that has plagued Lebanon for the past 15 years, it can be easily understood how the beaches could be in this

Plastic pellets, tar, and megalitter on Beirut beaches

29

unfortunate condition. As soon as some semblance of normality is eventually regained in the country, another more rigorous, expansive, and all-comprehensive survey of this type would be needed along the entire coast, to include impact studies of the local biota. Furthermore, immediate measures to clean up the beaches and coastal waters to meet minimal sanitary standards for h u m a n health should be undertaken at that time, and new regulations (national, regional, and international) governing waste and garbage disposal practices should be set up and strictly enforced if there is to be hope for the once very beautiful and much respected coastal environment of Lebanon.

REFERENCES Ahmad, M. (1972). Marine pollution by oil and municipal wastes along the coast of Lebanon. Master's Thesis, American University of Beirut, Lebanon. Balazs, G. H. (1979). Synthetic debris observed on a Hawaiian monk seal. Elepaio, 40(3), 43-4. Balazs, G. H. (1985). Impact of ocean debris on marine turtles: Entanglement and ingestion. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 27-29 November 1984, Honolulu, Hawaii, ed. R. S. Shomura & H. O. Yoshida. US Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS, NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-54, pp. 387-429. Burns, I. A., Villeneuve, J. P., Anderlini, V. C. & Fowler, S. W. (1982). Survey of tar, hydrocarbon and metal pollution in the coastal waters of Oman. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 13, 240-7. Carr, A. (1986). Rips, FADS, and little loggerheads. BioScience, 36, 92-100. Carr, A. (1987). Impact of nondegradable marine debris on the ecology and survival outlook of sea turtles. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 18(6B), 352-6. Cawthorn, M. W. (1985). Entanglement in, and ingestion of, plastic litter by marine mammals, sharks, and turtles in New Zealand waters. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 27-29 November 1984, Honolulu, Hawaii, ed. R. S. Shomura & H. O. Yoshida. US Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-TM-NMFS-SWFC-54, pp. 336-43. Clark, R. B. (1986). Marine Pollution. Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 215 pp. Conant, S. (1984). Man-made debris and marine wildlife in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Elepaio, 44, 87-88. Dahlberg, M. L. & Day, R. H. (1985). Observations of man-made objects on the surface of the North Pacific Ocean. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 27-29 November 1984, Honolulu, Hawaii, ed. R. S. Shomura & H. O. Yoshida. US Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. M~mo. NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-54, pp. 198-212. Fowler, C. W. (1987). Marine debris and northern fur seals: A case study. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 18(6B), 326-35. Fry, D. M., Feffer, S. I. & Sileo, L. (1987). Ingestion of plastic debris by Laysan albatrosses and wedge-tailed shearwaters in the Hawaiian Islands. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 18(6B), 339-43.

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