Pleasure is the profit - The adoption of solar PV systems by households in Finland

Renewable Energy 133 (2019) 44e52

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Pleasure is the profit - The adoption of solar PV systems by households in Finland Sami Karjalainen*, Hannele Ahvenniemi VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, 02044, VTT, Finland

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 23 April 2018 Received in revised form 20 September 2018 Accepted 4 October 2018 Available online 5 October 2018

Decentralized energy production offers households considerable potential to support the attainment of climate targets. This study focuses on solar photovoltaic (PV) adoption in Finland, where the adoption of solar PV systems is still at a low level. The study asks how adopters have overcome the barriers to adopting solar PV systems. A special interest lies in the user experience of solar PV systems. Twenty-eight semi-structured interviews were conducted to obtain an understanding of the experiences of Finnish pioneer households. The results show that the adopters have overcome the barriers to adoption with the help of trustworthy information and advice from experts and from other adopters. The adopters are very satisfied with their PV plants even though economic profitability is not particularly good. The adopters actively monitor their energy production and are highly engaged in domestic energy matters. Many have enlarged their solar PV system or plan to do so, or are highly interested in upgrading their energy system with an electric car or advanced home automation. The adopters find pleasure in producing pollutionfree energy effortlessly and being able to deliver information about clean energy production to others through their own installations. © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Renewable energy Decentralized energy Early adopter Prosumer Energy citizen Barrier User experience

1. Introduction As the signs of global warming become increasingly evident, more actions to decrease environmental impacts by states, cities, companies as well as households are needed. In order to fight against climate change, the EU countries have committed to reach, by 2030, a 40% cut in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels, at least a 27% share of renewable energy consumption and at least 27% energy savings compared with the business-as-usual scenario [1]. In 2010 buildings accounted for circa 32% of global energy consumption and 19% of global greenhouse gas emissions [2]. Great potential to decrease energy consumption and related greenhouse gases of the built environment with help of new technologies and behavioural changes has been depicted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [2], but extensive measures are needed by all actors involved to reach the desired targets. Households hold considerable potential to support reaching these climate targets through the provision of decentralized energy

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: sami.karjalainen@vtt.fi (S. Karjalainen), hannele.ahvenniemi@ valvontakonsultit.fi (H. Ahvenniemi). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.10.011 0960-1481/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

production. Earlier research has also suggested that microgeneration technologies provide two types of benefits, known as the ‘double dividend’ effect: in addition to providing renewable energy they might also encourage households to change their energy consumption habits and save energy [3,4], although some studies have also suggested a low significance of the double dividend [5]. Progress towards cleaner energy production is taking place, and households and companies are increasingly implementing renewable energy systems, such as solar PV systems. However, the transition in Finland has been slow and solar PV energy production is still under 0.05% of total production of electricity [6]. The aim of this paper is to provide an understanding of the experiences of early adopters of solar PV systems by means of semi-structured interviews. Understanding the barriers that these households have encountered and their experiences after implementation may be useful for speeding up future implementations. 2. Background 2.1. Motivation and incentives to adopt microgeneration systems Balcombe et al. [7] studied the motivation and barriers to

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microgeneration uptake of UK households, and the results of their survey indicated ‘saving or earning money from the installation’, ‘increasing household independence’ and ‘protecting against future energy costs’ to be the most important motivations. Environmental benefits were considered half as important as these in decision making, and this motivation was much more important to households who had adopted microgeneration, than those who had not and did not intend to. Also Mahapatra and Gustavsson [8] note that economic aspects and functional reliability are the most important factors when Swedish households consider changing their heating system. Similarly, a door-to-door questionnaire survey among solar energy adopters in Shandong province, China, reveals that convenience and economic reasons are the most important factors in adopting a solar water heater, whereas environmental protection and durability are not as important [9]. Somewhat different results were found by a Dutch survey of more than 2000 households, which suggested that the most important drivers of households' intentions to generate their own energy are environmental concerns, affinity with technology and energy and the reputation of electricity companies, whereas surprisingly, financial motives are not important [5]. Similarly, interviews with Swedish households (both adopters and nonadopters) reveal that the main motives for adopting microgeneration systems are environmental concerns; adopting gave households a better conscience, or it was more symbolic, ‘a way to demonstrate an ecological lifestyle’. In some cases also a ‘protest against the system’ and the monopolistic behaviour of the energy companies served as a motivation [10]. The effectiveness of government interventions in promoting solar PV systems has been indicated in several studies (e.g. Refs. [11,12]). An adequate feed-in tariff policy (German Renewable Energy Sources Act) has been identified as one of the main reasons for the astonishing growth of PV system installations in Germany (e.g. Refs. [13,14]). In the US, cash incentives (e.g. rebates and grants) lead to significantly higher adoption of solar PV systems than tax incentives [12]. A study by Kwan [11], also from the US, indicates that after level of solar insolation, price of electricity and amount of available financial incentives are the most important factors influencing households’ adoption of solar PV systems. 2.2. Barriers to adopting microgeneration systems An in-depth literature review of barriers regarding PV systems by Karakaya and Sriwannawit [15] suggests that even as PV systems become more competitive, several barriers however hinder wider adoption of PV systems in both low- and high-income economies. Based on a review of 33 publications regarding countries from around the world (not involving Finland), the authors divide the barriers into four groups: sociotechnical, management, economic and policy barriers, as presented below. Sociotechnical barriers ▪ Low quality standards for PV systems in certain countries can lead to a high level of dissatisfaction with performance; ▪ Lack of knowledge can be a barrier to adopting a PV system; this applies also to the supply side [16]: architects and planners have insufficient knowledge about PV systems and do not offer them to potential adopters; ▪ Perceived complexity of interaction between people and PV systems can be a barrier, and improper use can affect performance; perceived complexity of the technology may also influence willingness to adopt a PV system; ▪ Perceived complexity of solar PV technology; ▪ Negatively perceived attributes of PV systems, e.g. low battery storage and low power capability, among potential adopters;

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▪ Inadequate installation space, particularly in urban areas. Management barriers ▪ Lack of appropriate financial schemes for low-income markets where the cost of a PV system can be prohibitively high; ▪ Weak after-sales services in rural areas; can lead to disuse of installed systems; ▪ Ineffective marketing and education campaigns. Economic barriers ▪ High cost of PV systems compared to other available energy sources; ▪ Long payback period; ▪ High cost of maintenance of PV technology in low-income areas. Policy barriers ▪ Ineffective policy measures: PV systems are often not economically profitable without government support. Many countries have a variety of policy measures available to support renewable energy. ▪ Removal of government support: in some cases, support policies have been removed causing a shock effect in the market. ▪ Policy support for other energy sources can be a barrier to the adoption of PV systems. Economic factors are often considered the most significant barriers to adopting microgeneration systems. High initial (and repair) costs and long payback time have been considered the most significant barriers by UK households [4] and by experts in Hong Kong [17]. UK residents responding to another survey study named financial barriers such as ‘high capital costs’, ‘not earning or saving enough money’ and ‘the risk of losing money if they moved home’ as the most prominent barriers. Similarly, high cost and low production efficiency were considered the main hindrances to adoption of microgeneration systems in Sweden, along with concerns about causing annoyance for neighbours and difficulties finding an appropriate site [10]. Difficulty obtaining reliable information also ranked high in the UK despite several strategies to improve information provision [7]. When asked whether adopters of microgeneration systems in the UK would choose to install again after knowing the consequences, 90% responded that they would either probably or definitely adopt system [7]. Some wind turbine adopters had encountered performance problems, specifically lack of wind due to unsuitable location of installation. Some adopters of PV systems had experienced problems installing the system, although in some cases the reason might have been the rush to install before feed-in tariffs were cut [7]. The microgeneration heat technology (ground source heat pumps and solar thermal hot water) adopters who responded to the survey by Caird and Roy [4] were generally very satisfied with their choice. However, less than half of the adopters thought that the level of saved energy costs was as high as expected. Also, not all experiences had been positive; more than half of the adopters had required unexpected modifications to their existing heating system. One of the barriers to adoption is the perceived complexity of microgeneration systems. Karakaya and Sriwannawit [15] concluded in their review that perceived complexity of userePV system interaction can hinder adoption. Baborska-Narozny et al. [18] found that users had problems understanding the controls of PV systems. Balcombe et al. [19] report that perceived increase in

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maintenance requirements is a barrier to adoption. There seems also to be dissatisfaction with the feedback that the systems provide. Caird and Roy [4] studied adopters of microgeneration systems in the UK and found that less than half were satisfied with the feedback they received from the system. There was greater dissatisfaction with system control feedback than any other studied aspects (appearance, reliability, cost, savings, instructions, etc.). The researchers argue for ‘more user friendly and informative controls’.

2.3. Purpose and framework of this study The purpose of this study was to study the experiences of adopting solar PV systems in a northern country, Finland, where the adoption of solar systems is at a lower level than in most other European countries [20,21]. In 2010 the total grid-connected solar energy generation was only 4 GWh in Finland [22], doubling to 8 GWh in 2014 [23]. Solar PV energy production has since further increased, but still accounts for less than 0.05% of total electricity production in Finland [6]. The present work focuses on early adopters’ experiences of adopting solar PV systems and of their everyday use. The study examines how they have overcome the barriers (reviewed in Ref. [15]) to adopting solar PV systems. A special interest of the study is the user experience of solar PV systems. In addition to barriers to adoption, we focus on usability problems experienced by users of solar PV systems as well as the pleasure that the systems provide them. Fig. 1 gives an overview of the study, including the framework of the study and the research questions. Usability problems refer to problems that make the system ineffective, inefficient, and difficult to learn and use [24]. User experience is a broader concept than usability and is defined as ‘a person's perceptions and responses that result from the use and/or anticipated use of a product, system or service’ [24]. The work utilizes the four pleasures framework by Tiger [25] (originally published by Tiger but often referred to Jordan [26]). In this framework, pleasurability is not a property of a product but is related to the interaction between a product and a person. The framework models four distinct types of pleasure: physical, social, psychological and ideological. Physio-pleasures refer to pleasures connected with taste, smell and touch as well as feelings of sensual pleasure. Physio-pleasures are derived, for example, by food or drink, exercise or lying in the sun. Socio-pleasures refer to the enjoyment derived from relationships with others. This group of pleasures includes the comfort derived from being socially accepted as well as the pleasure of belonging to a social group.

Fig. 1. Framework of the study and the research questions.

Psycho-pleasures derive from activities initiated and carried forward by individuals. A sense of achievement, such as learning to play a new song with a guitar, can create psycho-pleasure. In the context of use of products, psycho-pleasures are gained from accomplishing tasks and making the accomplishment a satisfying experience (while poor usability leads to annoyance and frustration). Ideo-pleasures are connected to people's values. In the context of products they relate, for example, to the aesthetics of a product and the values a product embodies. Pleasures from consuming books, music and art are considered to be ideopleasures according to this classification. 3. Method and material In this qualitative study, interviews were conducted to obtain an understanding of the experiences of Finnish pioneer households who have adopted a solar PV system. The interviews focused on owners of single-family houses who have the possibility to independently choose their energy systems (unlike those living in apartment buildings). For the semi-structured interviews a long list of questions was generated beforehand, but the interviewer could deviate from the question frame by presenting additional questions or by removing questions from the list depending on the course of the interview. Open discussion was encouraged. The comments given by the interviewees were written down in detail during the interviews. The interviewees were found from various sources: by direct inquiries to internet forums on Facebook in the field of microgeneration systems, inquiries sent to solar energy discussion lists (especially the Aurinkovirta newsletter) and with the help of a regional advisory organization of sustainable development (Valonia), which has contacts with solar energy producers in their area. In addition, a couple of interviewees were found by contact information given by other interviewees. One person per household was interviewed. The person participating in the interview was also designated as the person responsible for acquisition of solar PV panels for the household. The study involved both face-to-face interviews and telephone interviews. The face-to-face interviews were conducted at the homes of the interviewees and involved observation. As the contents and setup of the solar PV systems (panels, inverter and user interfaces) were found to be largely similar to each other, it was not considered necessary to visit all of the interviewees in person, and most interviews were therefore carried out by telephone. Many of the telephone interviews involved material sent by interviewees to researchers, including photos of installations, screenshots of user interfaces and links to sites that show public information of their power plants (especially on sunnyportal.com). A total of 28 interviews were performed, of which six were faceto-face interviews and 22 telephone interviews. The length of the face-to-face interviews was about 60 min, although one lasted for 2 h. The length of the telephone interviews was from 30 to 50 min, although one lasted for 80 min. The study involved participants from different parts of Finland, particularly the south-eastern part of the country where fifteen interviewees live. Seven of the interviewees live in south-western Finland, three near Helsinki, two near Tampere and one in northern Finland. Fig. 2 shows their places of residence and the annual solar irradiation in Finland. In southern Finland, the solar energy potential is similar to central Europe. 1 kWp system with a performance ratio of 0.75 generates about 850 kWh solar electricity in southern Finland [27]. The interviewees were told that the results will be presented anonymously. In this paper, the interviewees are referred to with code names from P1 to P28. The main method of processing and analysing the qualitative

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Fig. 2. Annual solar irradiation in Finland (optimally inclined photovoltaic modules) [27] and the places of residence of the interviewees.

data was thematic analysis. The interviews were performed in Finnish and the materials have been translated from Finnish into English for this publication. 4. Results 4.1. Characteristics of solar PV system adopters The solar PV system adopters interviewed in this study were between 30 and 73 years old and on average 57 years old. Two of the 28 interviewees were women, the others were men. The education level of the interviewees was higher than in the Finnish population on average. Of the interviewees 17 had an academic background, although the study also involved participants with a low level of education. The study participants included, for example, a veterinarian, a chief design engineer, a shopkeeper and a locksmith. Fourteen of the interviewees had an educational background in technology. Two of the interviewees lived alone, while the others had a spouse. Less than half of the interviewees (11) had children living with them in the same household. All of the solar PV systems owned by the participants were installed between 2013 and 2017 except one, which was originally built in 2007 and enlarged in 2013. The households own all of the solar PV systems. All except two of the households in the study are able to sell their surplus solar energy to the grid. Those who do not sell energy to the grid have batteries for energy storage. The interviews revealed that the average knowledge of energy

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technology is much higher among the adopters of solar PV systems than in the population on average. For example, many people have problems understanding scientific units and do not understand the difference between kW and kWh [28], but this was not the case with the solar PV adopters who not only understand the difference between power and consumption values but many of them well remember the actual production/consumption values of their household. The majority of adopters had other than financial motivation. Based on the interview responses, the interviewees were classified into four groups of solar PV owners: environmentally concerned, economically concerned, innovator/developer/experimenter and energy specialist (Table 1). If it is was not clear to the interviewer which group the respondent belongs to, the interviewee was asked to locate him- or herself in one of the groups that they most closely identify with. In cases where it was impossible to choose a single group, the person was placed in two or more groups. The adopters classified as environmentally concerned are those who want to produce clean energy and reduce their emissions. They typically want to inspire others to produce their own clean energy. The group consisting of economically concerned adopters are those who want to reduce their living costs by installing solar PV panels. They typically do not see the economic profit from the solar PV system to be particularly good (due to the long payback time), but do consider themselves to be gaining savings immediately once the installations have been made. Innovators/developers/experimenters typically have good DIY skills and have implemented their own energy or home automation solutions in their home (or aim to do so). One of the interviewees (P5) installed a wind turbine and rechargeable batteries in addition to the solar PV system. Another interviewee (P17) was a retired electrical engineer who was pursuing his profession as a hobby by developing an ambitious home automation system. The energy specialists have a professional background in energy technology or maintain a recreational interest in the field. However, as stated previously, average knowledge of energy-related issues was higher among the adopters than the general population, so even some of those who were not classified as energy specialists had had a good knowledge of energy technologies. 4.2. Adoption of a solar PV system 4.2.1. Overcoming the barriers Karakaya and Sriwannawit [15] provided an overview of the barriers against adopting solar PV systems based on a review of scientific publications. The results of that study were compared to the results of our interview study in order to reveal how the respondents overcame the barriers. The results presented in Table 2 highlight the importance of expert advice and co-operation in overcoming barriers to adoption.

Table 1 Classification of the interviewees. Although the interviewees often displayed intermediate characteristics, they were located in one group if possible. If it was impossible to choose one group only, the person was placed in two or more groups. Slashes (e.g. (P9)) represent cases where the person belongs to two separate groups. Square brackets (e.g. [P6]) represent cases where the person belongs to all four groups. If it was not clear to the interviewer which group the interviewee belongs to, the interviewee was asked to locate him- or herself in one of the groups. Group

Interviewees belonging to the group

Environmentally concerned

P3, [P6], P10, P12, P14, P16, P18, P20, P21, P24, P26, P28 P2, [P6], P7, P8, (P9), P25, P27 P1, P5, [P6], (P9), P13, (P17), P22, P23 P4, [P6], P11, P15, (P17), P19

Economically concerned Innovator/developer/experimenter Energy specialist

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Table 2 Overview of the barriers to adopting solar PV systems and strategies used to overcome them by the Finnish adopters. This information especially concerns those who participated in a joint order. Barriers to adopting solar PV systems (as reviewed in Ref. [29], see Section 2.2)

Strategies of adopters to overcome the barriers (according to the interviews)

Sociotechnical barriers

The products were ordered jointly and those products known to be of good quality were chosen based on expert advice. Expert advice, including volunteer activism. Cooperation between adopters. Self-sufficient operation.

Low quality standards for PV systems in some countries Lack of knowledge Lack of knowledge on the supply side (e.g. among architects and planners) Perceived complexity of interaction between people and PV systems Perceived complexity of solar PV technology Negatively perceived attributes of PV systems, e.g. low battery storage and low power capability Inadequate installation space

Management barriers

Economic barriers

Lack of appropriate financial schemes for low-income markets Weak after-sales services Ineffective marketing and education campaigns High cost of PV systems

Long payback period

High cost of maintenance Policy barriers

Ineffective policy measures: PV systems are often not economically profitable without policy support

Removal of government support Policy support for other energy sources

Twenty-two of the interviewees participated in joint orders of solar PV systems (e.g. panels, inverters and installation equipment). In addition to the joint orders, modes of co-operation included arranging and attending briefing events on solar energy, visiting each other's solar energy plants (during or after installation), discussions on social media, newsletters and personal contacts with each other. Many of the respondents stated the importance of one particular individual. This person acted as project coordinator and organized the joint orders of the solar PV systems (first one in 2013), and his experience and knowledge were instrumental in the adopters' choice of products and plant size. He also provided instructions for installing the panels as well as realistic information on the energy production of solar PV systems. He previously served on a volunteer basis, but nowadays takes a fee (EUR 500) from participants for the joint orders that he organizes. A total of 250 participants have taken part in the joint orders organized by him between 2013 and 2018. The decisions to invest in solar PV systems were made despite the absence of government support for individual producers of solar energy (Table 2). The only support available is an income tax credit for domestic services purchased from companies (‘tax credit for domestic costs’). Most interviewees did the system installation themselves so did not qualify for the tax credit, with the exception of electrical installation work (which is required by law to be carried out by a professional and is a minor cost compared to other PV system costs). Financial barriers were thus mostly overcome by the good financial position of the adopters. The economic aspects of PV system adoption are examined in more detail in the following section.

4.2.2. Economic aspects Each study respondent invested from EUR 5000 to 30,000 in a

Shared knowledge between adopters. Choosing products with high usability based on expert advice. Sharing realistic information. Roof space normally available for installation (one respondent installed some the panels at ground level). (Not a relevant barrier for a high-income country.) Co-operation between adopters. Expert advice, including volunteer activism. Sharing realistic information. The cost of PV system was reduced by installing the systems by themselves (except the electricity connections) and participating in a joint order of products. Most adopters have a good financial situation. Few have taken a loan to acquire a PV system. The long payback period is accepted (but cannot be calculated accurately because the future price of electricity is not known). Many adopters compare solar PV investment costs to those of a new car or kitchen renovation (which they consider less economically beneficial than PV systems). The realized costs of maintenance have been negligible, as the PV systems have worked properly. No economic support received except a minor tax credit for paid installation work (if panels self-installed this only concerns connection of the PV system to the electricity grid). (In contrast, companies and farmers are eligible for support for solar PV system investments.) (Not a relevant barrier for Finland where no support has been removed.) Current policies do economically support other energy sources, which is not seen to be fair.

solar PV system (average EUR 12,000). The size of plant was between 3.2 and 21 kWp (average 7 kWp). Most interviewees (22) reduced costs by installing the panels as far as possible themselves, while the remainder (6) purchased full PV system installations. The respondents generally considered the financial return from the solar PV system investment is not particularly good. The payback time is long. Most respondents reported the payback time to be between 15 and 25 years and noted that it cannot be calculated accurately because the future price of electricity is not known. Some older respondents commented that they will not get their investment back during their lifetime. The majority of adopters did not consider payback time to be a relevant way to evaluate the investment. Some compared the investment in a solar PV system to investment in a new car or kitchen renovation: ‘what is the payback time of these?’ (e.g. P15, P19). The solar PV system investment is seen to create monetary savings every year after installation (‘the return is higher than from a bank account’) (P6, P25). Some respondents stated that the solar PV system increases the value of their house. One has asked a real estate agent to estimate the effect of the solar PV system on the value of his property, but the estate agent had no experience of this and could not give a valuation. There are, however, significant differences between the adopters. Some e especially those who are environmentally concerned e were not at all motivated by economic rewards but were interested instead in reducing their impact on the environment. Some others, on the other hand, made very detailed economic calculations, including sensitivity analyses. One respondent commented that their family has saved a lot of

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money by preventing food from spoiling: ‘Our picked berries in the freezer would have been spoiled many times over during power outages without our own energy production’ (P5). This household has a wind power plant and rechargeable batteries in addition to a solar PV system and can use these as a backup during power cuts as most solar PV systems turn off during outages for safety reasons (to prevent electric shock during the repair of electric lines). Many respondents argued in the interviews for net metering (this is a common theme in social media discussions among the adopters). It is not considered fair that the current way of measuring production and consumption leads to a situation where a household may sell and buy electricity at the same time because energy meters measure the three phases of the power system separately. Some energy companies have energy meters that perform the three-phase net metering, whereas most energy meters in use do not. In addition, the solar PV adopters argue for hourly net metering. It would improve the economy of solar PV systems if households were billed only for their net energy use.

energy production and consumption through web portals via personal computer or mobile phone. Many receive daily email reports on the previous day's production. The users can also monitor their production via the small display on inverter panel. They also receive information from their energy company. The web applications typically also provide information on CO2 reduction (kg), but these values were not noted at all or were found to be less interesting than those related to energy (kWh/kW). Respondents had problems understanding the magnitude of the CO2 values: ‘I've no idea whether this is high or low’ (P27). For many of the interviewees, energy production and making improvements to their energy system were treated as a hobby, not something they aim to profit from economically, ‘a cheap hobby’ as one (P11) put it. The results indicate that clean energy production is typically pursued as a hobby by a single family member (more often male than female) than the whole family. Other family members typically participate by aiming to use appliances and devices (e.g. washing machine and dishwasher) when solar energy is available.

4.3. Experiences of daily use of solar PV systems

4.3.2. Pleasure derived from owning a solar PV system The interviews revealed that the adopters derive pleasure from their household solar PV system in a number of ways. The respondents were asked to describe the most important pleasure that their solar PV system brings them. The results are presented in Table 3 in which the pleasures are classified according to the four pleasures framework by Tiger [25]. The analysis shows that own PV electricity generation brings socio-, psycho- and ideo-pleasures to the adopters. The capability to produce own clean energy and reduce emissions brings pleasure to the adopters. This is predominantly an ideo-pleasure as it is closely connected to the adopters’ environmental values. The capability to deliver information about clean energy production to other people through own installations (26 out of 28 adopters had delivered information) creates sociopleasure and ideo-pleasure. Cooperation with other producers of solar energy creates a feeling of belonging to a social group (sociopleasure). The good usability of solar PV systems and their user interfaces and effortless energy production create psycho-pleasure for their users. The household's self-sufficiency in energy production (achieved only partly by solar energy production) creates psychopleasure, as do the self-made installations (and development work) carried out. The savings gained by producing own energy and selling the surplus energy to the grid creates a sense of achievement and can be considered predominantly to be psycho-pleasures. Reduced dependency on energy companies provides both psychoand ideo-pleasure. The ability to provide clean energy for other energy users brings ideo-pleasure, but this was not stated to be the most important pleasure by any of the adopters.

4.3.1. Human interaction and usability According to the interviews, all the PV system adopters are satisfied with the operation of the solar PV systems. The systems have worked properly and have needed no attention apart from cleaning snow from the panels during winter, which many adopters have done themselves. Snow cover does not have a significant effect on annual production as energy production is low during the winter. In contrast to the perceived complexity of interaction between people and PV systems (Section 2.2) and the common usability problems of control and automation systems of buildings (e.g. Refs. [30,31]), the present study did not reveal significant problems in usability. No usability analysis of solar PV systems was performed in this study, but the interviews revealed high satisfaction with these products and their user interfaces. The solar PV systems operate fully automatically but users can easily get information on how much energy their solar PV system has produced (kWh) and currently produces (kW). The interviews did, however, reveal some problems, especially related to internet connectivity. This aspect has no effect on energy production, only on how the production can be monitored. Several respondents experienced temporal problems with the internet connection (although the inverter has later been able to update the missing data to the server). One respondent experienced a problem with the installation where the inverter was not connected to the internet. The same interviewee bought an additional device for home energy management but was unable to get it working. She felt that ‘you have to be an IT professional to make it work’ (P14). In addition, the visits to the solar PV plants of the interviewees revealed that interviewees had problems using the inverter control panel. Not all of them had learned to use the buttons on the interface properly. The usability problems with the button controls do not, however, constitute a major problem as the inverters typically provide information on current and past production without pressing any buttons. Furthermore, the inverter panel interface is not the main source of information for the users but secondary to web applications, with which they are largely satisfied. The users were very active in monitoring system performance. The majority reported that they monitor their system's production daily (even up to ten times a day), at least during the productive solar energy season. Some users lost interest in actively monitoring production and consumption after a period after installation, while others continued active monitoring. The respondents monitor their

4.4. Effect on energy behaviour In Finland, the amount of solar energy available is very low from November to February, the period when the need for heating energy is actually at its highest. In contrast, during summertime the solar PV panels produce more energy than needed for own household use. During the sunny days of summer, the majority of energy produced is sold to the grid. The households are paid for the energy they sell, although the price paid per kWh is lower than purchased energy due to transmission charge and taxes. Households typically buy electrical energy at a 2e3 times higher price per kWh than they get when selling electric energy to the grid. The solar PV system owners are aware that it is economically more beneficial to use the solar energy that they produce themselves rather than to sell to the grid. It is common practice for the

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Table 3 Classification of pleasures derived from a domestic solar PV system. Interviewees were asked to describe the most important pleasures brought by their own solar PV system, i.e. the table does not include all pleasures derived from the PV system. In classifying pleasures, economic savings were considered to produce psycho-pleasure, while reduced environmental impact was considered to create ideo-pleasure. Interviewee

Description of the most important pleasure

P1

Direct results of own experiments and constructions seen in practice. Savings gained. Savings gained. A hobby. It is fun to demonstrate the system to guests. Managing own production and consumption. ‘I always have a good feeling when the sun is shining.’ ‘It's nice to do something concrete to support something good’ (referring to clean energy production). Own production of energy. The ability to advise other people in this area. Many new friends and social contacts. ‘Double good feeling during the summer when the sun is shining’ (referring to savings and pollution-free energy). Smaller electricity bill and lower CO2 emissions. Lower cost of living. Self-sufficiency, own energy production. Less dependency on energy companies. ‘A shining sun is a pleasure to see’ (referring to pollution-free energy). Energy self-sufficiency. Capability to produce a renewable, new kind of energy for own use. Self-sufficiency. Pollution-free energy. ‘Able to be a pioneer and offer information to others: come and see’ (welcomes to visit his plant). Environmental aspects. Great satisfaction from being able to do something and being a good example to others. Ease of operation. No work required to produce energy (opposite to burning fuels). Capability to produce energy imperceptibly, effortlessly and cleanly. Pollution-free (and free) energy. The results of own constructions seen in use. Keen to follow developments in this (his own) professional field after retirement. Feels that his reputation among his friends is positively affected by decreasing emissions. Reduced carbon footprint. Capability to produce energy for own use effortlessly. Capability to produce clean energy for own use. Ability to use renewable energy. Concrete benefit from reducing CO2 emissions. Savings gained. Environmental friendliness. Self-sufficiency. Effortlessness. Effortlessness, no manual operation needed. Nice to follow the energy production. Ease of use, carefree operation. Everything works automatically. It is nice when the sun is shining and the system is working fine and savings are gained. The possibility to fight against increasing energy costs. Absolutely easy to use. A lot of energy produced during the summer: possibility to use any device in the household with self-produced electricity.

P2 P3 P4

P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17

P18 P19 P20 P21 P22 P23 P24 P25 P26 P27 P28

majority of the families to put the washing machine and dishwasher on during periods their own solar energy is available. One interviewee (P20) had even developed their own term for this practice: ‘solar laundry’ (‘aurinkopyykki’ in Finnish). Several respondents turn their electric water heater on when the sun is shining (this function is typically not supported by domestic automation and needs to be done manually). Some use their electric sauna (common in Finnish homes) while free energy is available or try to schedule cooking for that time. One respondent said that he uses a welding machine and circular saw when the amount of solar energy produced is at its highest (when the sky is clear in the middle of the day). Another respondent said that he uses woodworking machines during sunny periods. Some adopters reported that they have come to better understand their energy use and have changed their energy consumption habits and saved energy in this way (double dividend effect). Others implemented no changes to their energy use. They may already have reduced their energy use prior to PV system installation. Self-produced solar energy may have led to another kind of change: the solar PV system adopters had become increasingly

Physiopleasure

Sociopleasure

Psychopleasure

Ideopleasure

X X X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X X

X X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X X X X X X X

X

X X X X

engaged with own energy production. 12 out of the 28 adopters plan to install more panels (‘as much as the roof allows’) or have already expanded their system. Three respondents had already acquired an electric car and charge the car with their own solar energy and many other respondents planned to buy an electric car once car prices come down. Six adopters had improved their home automation system to enable more efficient use of their solar energy and several others were planning to do so. Owning a solar PV system also inspired adopters to buy smaller electric appliances, such as an electric grill. Some adopters gained a new awareness and interest in energy politics after starting to produce their own energy.

5. Discussion Solar PV systems have a short history in Finland but are now becoming more common. The purpose of this study was to gather experiences of pioneers who have adopted a solar PV system. The demographics of the Finnish adopters seem to be similar to those of other countries. Balcombe et al. [19] conclude in their

S. Karjalainen, H. Ahvenniemi / Renewable Energy 133 (2019) 44e52

review that the following demographic factors increase the likelihood of adopting microgeneration energy technologies: age between 45 and 65 years old, being a homeowner, belonging to the upper-middle class, having middle or higher level income and having a higher level of education. These factors accurately describe the average (but not all) Finnish adopters involved in this study. The interviewees were highly satisfied with their solar PV systems. The systems function automatically and very few problems had been encountered with them. The software products for monitoring production and consumption were actively used and seem to have a good usability. In contrast to the presumptions and other studies referred in Section 2.2, this study does not reveal any significant usability problems. The software products are able to deliver information on past and current energy production and consumption in a graphical format that is easy to understand. These results may be affected by the fact that the interviewees recruited do not accurately represent the whole population of solar PV owners in Finland: the sample in this qualitative study was not random. Those who participated in the interviews may be more satisfied with their systems than those who did not volunteer to participate. The respondents were less interested in CO2 values than kWh/ kW values and they had problems understanding the magnitude of the CO2 values. In future, all of us may gain better understanding of the magnitude of CO2 values if CO2 values are commonly presented in the context of products and services. There is still a need for designs that engage users for efficient energy use and production, although the respondents in study (who have higher knowledge of energy technology than the population on average) were largely satisfied with their systems. The level of automation is one of the central issues in designing energy systems. Decisions regarding the level of automation should take into account the special qualities of each system and its users [32], also in the domestic environment [33]. The solar PV systems operate fully automatically with no manual operation required and provide information on the amount of energy produced. This is optimal for both the user and for PV system performance. The importance of trustworthy information from experts and other adopters was highlighted in the study. The results show that the adopters were able to overcome the barriers to adopting a solar PV system due to the availability of expert advice and through cooperation. The majority of participants in the study participated in a joint order of solar PV systems and installed the panels by themselves with advice from others. Those who participated a joint order received realistic information on the energy production of the PV system and the economic (un)profitability of investment. They are satisfied with their plant and many of them warn others against companies asking high prices for their solar PV systems, which are probably not of as good quality. The importance of trustworthy information has also been emphasized by earlier studies. Finding trustworthy information was the second-most important barrier (after financial factors) faced by those considering installing a microgeneration system in the UK [7]. Positive effects of information meetings, technical support meetings and social networks for the diffusion of PV and other microgeneration systems have earlier been identified by other studies (e.g. Refs. [29,34e40]). The adopters did not consider payback time to be a relevant way to evaluate the investment in this Finnish study similar to a study by Schelly [40] performed in Wisconsin, US. The solar PV systems bring many kinds of pleasure to their owners as presented in Section 4.6. In addition to the pleasures listed in Table 3, active monitoring of one's own energy production (and consumption) seems to provide similar pleasure to that derived from following sports results or stock market prices: there is (almost) always

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something happening and the numbers change; as with sports results and stock market prices, your latest energy production data are produced and presented daily or even in real time. One of the key findings of the study is that the solar PV system adopters had become increasingly engaged with own energy production. It seems that the ‘appetite grows with the eating’ and solar PV owners are highly interested in electric (or plug-in hybrid) cars and improving their home automation to maximize consumption of their own energy production and to drive pollution-freely. A similar finding was made in a study concerning solar PV adopters in northern California [37], a totally different climate to Finland. The majority of adopters in California co-adopted another energyrelated product, such as a smart thermostat or hybrid vehicle, or were considering adopting them, or had improved the energy efficiency of their house. 6. Conclusions The adopters are very satisfied with and proud of their PV plants even though the economic profitability of the systems is not particularly good. Own production of solar energy produces socio-, psycho- and ideo-pleasures for the adopters. The adopters find pleasure in producing pollution-free energy effortlessly and being able to offer information about clean energy production to others through their own installations. The adopters actively monitor their energy production and have become highly engaged in domestic energy matters. Many have enlarged their solar PV system or plan to do so, or are highly interested in upgrading their energy system with an electric car or advanced home automation. The importance of trustworthy information from experts and other adopters was highlighted in the study. The adopters overcame the barriers to adoption primarily through access to expert advice and co-operation, which provided them with realistic information about the solar PV systems, their installation, costs and the amount of energy that they can potentially produce. A large proportion of the expert advice was given on a volunteer basis. Acknowledgements This work was performed as part of the Smart Energy Transition project, which aims at the global disruption of energy markets and the creation of pathways for Finland to profit from energy disruption. Smart Energy Transition thanks the Strategic Research Council in collaboration with the Academy of Finland for their support for the project. We thank the interviewees and all those who helped facilitate contact with them, especially Vesa-Matti Puro (Aurinkovirta), Ville Reinikainen (City of Lappeenranta) and Liisa Harjula (Valonia). Sincere thanks also to Hanna-Liisa Kangas for her comments. References [1] European Commission, 2030 Energy Strategy, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/ energy/en/topics/energy-strategy-and-energy-union/2030-energy-strategy. (Accessed 28 February 2018). [2] O. Lucon, D. Ürge-Vorsatz, A.Z. Ahmed, H. Akbari, P. Bertoldi, L.F. Cabeza, et al., Buildings, in: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change: Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, vol. 33, IPCC, 2014, pp. 1e44. https:// www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter9.pdf. [3] J. Keirstead, Behavioural responses to photovoltaic systems in the UK domestic sector, Energy Pol. 35 (2007) 4128e4141, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.enpol.2007.02.019. [4] S. Caird, R. Roy, Adoption and use of household microgeneration heat technologies, Sci. Res. 2010 (2010) 61e70, https://doi.org/10.4236/lce.2010.12008. [5] J. Leenheer, M. de Nooij, O. Sheikh, Own power: motives of having electricity without the energy company, Energy Pol. 39 (2011) 5621e5629, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.04.037. [6] Statistics Finland, Official Statistics of Finland (OSF), Energy Supply and

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