Pork meat prepared by different cooking methods. A microstructural, sensorial and physicochemical approach

Journal Pre-proof Pork meat prepared by different cooking methods. A microstructural, sensorial and physicochemical approach

Sara V. Ángel-Rendón, Annamaria Filomena-Ambrosio, María Hernández-Carrión, Empar Llorca, Isabel Hernando, Amparo Quiles, Indira Sotelo-Díaz PII:

S0309-1740(19)31030-7

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2020.108089

Reference:

MESC 108089

To appear in:

Meat Science

Received date:

27 October 2019

Revised date:

28 January 2020

Accepted date:

11 February 2020

Please cite this article as: S.V. Ángel-Rendón, A. Filomena-Ambrosio, M. HernándezCarrión, et al., Pork meat prepared by different cooking methods. A microstructural, sensorial and physicochemical approach, Meat Science (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.meatsci.2020.108089

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© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

Journal Pre-proof Pork meat prepared by different cooking methods. A microstructural, sensorial and physicochemical approach Ángel-Rendón, Sara V.a; Filomena-Ambrosio, Annamariab; Hernández-Carrión, Maríac; Llorca, Empard; Hernando, Isabeld; Quiles, Amparod; Sotelo-Díaz, Indira*b a

Maestría en Diseño y Gestión de Procesos, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de La

Research group in Alimentación, Gestión de Procesos y Servicio. EICEA, Universidad de

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b

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Sabana, Chía, Colombia

Products and Processes Design Group (PPDG), Department of Chemical Engineering.

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c

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La Sabana, Chía, Colombia

d

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Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.

Research Group of Food Microstructure and Chemistry. Department of Food Technology.

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Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain.

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Corresponding author

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Luz Indira Sotelo Díaz

Tel: (+57) 861 5555 / 861 6666, Ext: 21015 Address: Campus del Puente del Común, Km. 7, Autopista Norte de Bogotá. Chía, Cundinamarca, Colombia. E-mail address: [email protected] Abstract

Journal Pre-proof The influences of four different cooking methods—pan, ohmic, vacuum and sous vide— were

studied

with

regard

to

the

microstructural,

sensorial and

physicochemical

characteristics of pork meat. The end point temperature to all cooking methods was 70°C. Pan cooking resulted in a softer meat with higher overall liking by the consumers, and ohmic cooking produced firmer (p<0.05) meats and myofibrils, with higher alignment compared to the pan-cooked meat as well as a golden colour. Sous vide-cooked meats were

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perceived as insipid, while vacuum-cooked meats showed loss of structure and were

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perceived as drier (p<0.01) and paler (p<0.01). No statistically significant differences were

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found for cooking loss and water-holding capacity (p>0.05). The results suggest that

tasty. Ohmic-cooked

meat,

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consumers preferred pan-cooking, as they described these samples as juicy, tender and which required shorter cooking times, showed similar

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characteristics to pan-cooked meat and could be used as alternative to pan cooking in the

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catering industry.

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1. Introduction

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Key words: ohmic cooking, sous vide, vacuum cooking, pork meat, microstructure, CATA

The influence of different cooking methods on the sensory and physicochemical properties of foods is a topic that concerns scientists, cooks, chefs, gastronomes and consumers alike in every culture. Cooking of meat is considered an ancient practice that has evolved into refined cooking techniques (Suman, Nair, Joseph, & Hunt, 2016). Davey & Gilbert (1974) defined the cooking of meat as heating the food to a sufficiently high temperature to denature the different proteins that are present. During heating process, myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic and connective tissue proteins denature and they cause structural changes in the meat, producing modifications in

the mechanical properties (Li, Wang, Xu, Gao, &

Journal Pre-proof Zhou, 2013). The cooking of meat can be divided into low temperature (below 100°C) techniques, such as sous vide, which has been studied and implemented since the 1990s (Keller, 2008; Mossel & Struijk, 1991; Myhrvold, 2011; Schellekens, 1996; Sun, Rasmussen, Cavender, & Sullivan, 2019); high-temperature techniques (above 100°C), such as oven and frying; and very-high-temperature techniques (above 200°C), such as grilling (Suman et al., 2016). More recently, the ohmic cooking of meats such as beef, pork

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and turkey has been studied as an alternative cooking method that involves low

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temperatures as well as volumetric heating; further, ohmic cooking requires shorter

Filomena-Ambrosio,

Cordon-Díaz,

Benítez-Sastoque,

& Sotelo-Díaz, 2019;

re

Rendón,

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processing times to cook food, which could be an advantage for the food industry (Ángel-

Bozkurt & Icier, 2010; Dai et al., 2013; Özkan, Ho, & Farid, 2004; Yildiz-Turp, Sengun,

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Kendirci, & Icier, 2013; Zell, Lyng, Cronin, & Morgan, 2009, 2010). For meat products, it

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is essential to achieve a palatable and safe product (Margit D. Aaslyng et al., 2007; GarcíaSegovia, Andrés-Bello, & Martínez-Monzó, 2007; Lorenzo, Cittadini, Munekata, &

ur

Domínguez, 2015; Modzelewska-Kapituła, Dabrowska, Jankowska, Kwiatkowska, &

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Cierach, 2012; Tornberg, 2005), and each specific cooking technique or procedure and its relationship with time and temperature produces different quality characteristics that are appreciated by consumers (Chiavaro, Rinaldi, Vittadini, & Barbanti, 2009; Lorenzo et al., 2015; Scussat et al., 2017; Suman et al., 2016). Some of the most valued properties in cooked meat are cooking loss, tenderness, juiciness, and intensity of flavour, and these properties depend mainly on the raw meat quality, end point temperature and cooking method (Margit Dall Aaslyng, Bejerholm, Ertbjerg, Bertram, & Andersen, 2003; Li et al., 2013; Maughan, Tansawat, Cornforth, Ward, & Martini, 2012; Miller, 2017; Reinbach et al., 2007; Thorslund, Sandøe, Aaslyng, & Lassen, 2016). For the industry, the criteria for

Journal Pre-proof producing safe cooked products is based on “worse case scenarios” for contamination levels and heat resistance at traditional cooking temperatures. A better understanding of the factors involved in the ability of an organism to survive mild cooking temperatures is required in order to move away from these criteria (Stringer & Metris, 2018); however, the current recommended end point temperature for pork meat safety ranges between 65 and 75°C (Channon, D’Souza, & Dunshea, 2016).

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Several researchers have shown how microstructure studies in food matrixes can explain

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the changes with different processing conditions (Estrada-Solís, Figueroa-Rodríguez,

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Figueroa-Sandoval, Hernández-Rosas, & Hernández-Cazares, 2016; Nollet & Toldrá,

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2009). There have also been diverse contributions to the better understanding of the

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microstructures of different meat products, such as duck, turkey, beef and pork meat, during different storage and cooking processes (Aguilera, Stanley, & Baker, 2000; Barbut,

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Smith, & Gordon, 1996; Sriket, Benjakul, Visessanguan, & Kijroongrojana, 2007; Li et al., 2013). However, to our knowledge, the influence of different cooking methods on meat

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after reaching an end point temperature of 70°C on sensorial properties and microstructural

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changes in pork are unknown.

On the other hand, positive sensory responses are one of the most important factors for food acceptance, as food is not only a nutritious element but also a hedonic one, and through a statistical evaluation, the sensorial perception of the consumers can be measured (Meilgaard, Civille, & Carr, 2007; Tapia, Lee, Weise, Tamasi, & Will, 2019). The check all that apply (CATA) method is considered easier to understand and faster to use when compared to the use of trained evaluators and has become popularized for the acquisition of consumer-based

sensory

product characterization (Grasso,

Monahan,

Hutchings,

&

Journal Pre-proof Brunton, 2017). It is used to show the perception of differences between consumers, to analyse the acceptance of products, or to aid in the development of products and packaging (Ares, Barreiro, Deliza, Giménez, & Gámbaro, 2010; Grasso et al., 2017; Ng, Chaya, & Hort, 2013; Parente, Manzoni, & Ares, 2011; Piqueras-Fiszman, Ares, Alcaide-Marzal, & Diego-Más, 2011). CATA allows the respondents to select attributes relevant to them rather than analysing all of the attributes of a scale. In addition, these methods are less expensive

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than methods that involve a trained sensory panel (Ares, Deliza, Barreiro, Giménez, &

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Gámbaro, 2010; Ng et al., 2013). For the sensory analysis of meat, products are generally

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compared against a control based on a hedonic scale or a hedonic scale with quantitative

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descriptive analysis (QDA) (Cáceres, García, & Selgas, 2008; Nowak, Von Mueffling,

Pérez-Álvarez, 2009, 2010).

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Grotheer, Klein, & Watkinson, 2007; Viuda-Martos, Ruiz-Navajas, Fernández-López, &

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Additionally, some variations in juiciness and the appearance in cooked pork meat could be associated with cooking loss, a parameter of important economic value in the catering

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industry. For each cooking method, the relationship between temperature and time, besides

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the economic effects, could also be associated with meat quality and consumer perception. Thus, the objective of this research was to evaluate the influences that four different cooking methods have on the microstructural, sensorial, and physicochemical properties of pork meat (short shank) when cooked until an end point temperature of 70°C. 2. Methodology 2.1 Meat sample preparation

Journal Pre-proof Pork leg (short shank), consisting of superficial, medius and profundus gluteal muscles, the semitendinosus muscle, and the semimembranosus, sartorius, quadratus femoris and quadriceps femoris muscles, that was purchased from a local supplier certified by Pork Colombia® in the city of Bogotá (Colombia) was used in this research. Excess surface connective tissue was removed prior to cutting the meat into slices 1.75 cm ± 0.25 cm thick, each weighing 110 g ± 10 g. These measurements are commonly found as portion

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sizes in households and the catering industry.

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The short shank slices were submerged in a marinade solution of water 45.6%w/w, ice

saccharose (Manuelita®, Colombia) 2.25%w/w, plantain leaf 0.9%w/w,

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3.15%w/w,

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22.4%w/w, beer (Poker®, Bavaria, Colombia) 22.4%w/w, salt (Refisal®, Colombia)

Colombia)

0.01%w/w,

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scallions 2.7%w/w, black pepper (El Rey®, Colombia) 0.01%w/w, cumin (El Rey®, concentrated

chicken

stock

(Maggi®,

Nestlé,

Switzerland)

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0.1%w/w, and garlic 0.45%w/w and were vacuum packed at 0.728 atm (Kramer Food Equipment, Colombia). The samples were stored at 3 ± 1°C for 18 h. The slices were

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removed from the marinade solution prior to cooking. 2.2 Cooking methods

The end point temperature of 70°C was defined as the inner point temperature for all cooking methods, and it was measured using a precision thermometer (Reference Thermapen®, ThermoWorks, USA). For all cases, once the meat sample reached the desired temperature, the cooking process (Figure 1) was stopped. 2.2.1 Pan cooking

Journal Pre-proof Pan cooking was carried out in a frying pan on an induction hob (cooktop) (DZ/L2CE, Electrolux®) at approximately 230°C for 13 minutes until the inner temperature of the sample reached 70°C. 2.2.2 Ohmic cooking For the ohmic cooking of short shank slices, an electric field strength of 21 ± 1 V/cm was

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applied for 2.5 minutes in cooking equipment designed by BAÜER alongside the

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Universidad de La Sabana. The equipment has two food-grade stainless steel plates that serve as electrodes and can provide a separation between them from 0.5 cm to 10 cm

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according to the thickness of the meat sample (in this research, the resulting separation was

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1.5 cm). The equipment is also able to provide cooking voltages from 15 to 50 V (60 Hz) at

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times ranging between 1 second and 99 minutes. Ohmic cooking is a volumetric method that generates heat from the inside towards the outside of the food matrix (Ángel-Rendón et

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al., 2019), thus, the desired end point temperature (70°C) was measured on the surface of

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the meat sample.

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2.2.3 Sous vide cooking

The individual short shank slices were vacuum packed (Kramer Food Equipment®, Colombia) in polyethylene pouches and immersed in a water bath (15 L) hooked to a sous vide circulator (Polyscience®, USA) at 70°C for 45 minutes. 2.2.4 Vacuum cooking Vacuum cooking was performed in a cooking and impregnation system (Gastrovac®, International Cooking Concepts, 2016), which consists of a cooking vessel with an inner basket and a vacuum pump for the removal of air within the cooking environment. The

Journal Pre-proof short shank slices were placed in the inner basket, submerged directly in 4 L of water at 70°C, and cooked for 25 minutes. 2.3 Microstructure analysis 2.3.1 Light microscopy (LM) Samples were fixed with a 25 g L−1 glutaraldehyde solution (0.025 M phosphate buffer, pH

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6.8, at 4 ºC, 24 h), postfixed with a 20 g L−1 OsO4 solution (1.5 h), dehydrated using a

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graded acetone series (300, 500, 700 and 1000 g kg−1 ), contrasted in 40 g L−1 uranyl

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acetate dissolved in acetone and embedded in epoxy resin (Durcupan, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). The included samples were cut using a Reichert Jung ultramicrotome

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(Leica Mycrosystems, Wetzlar, Germany). Thick sections (1.5 μm) were stained with 2 g

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L−1 toluidine blue and examined in a Nikon Eclipse E800 light microscope (Nikon, Tokyo,

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Japan).

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2.3.2 Low-temperature scanning electron microscopy (Cryo-SEM) A JSM5410® SEM microscope (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan) was used with a Cryo CT500 C®

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unit (Oxford Instruments, Witney, U.K.) for the CryoSEM observation. Samples (3 mm thick) were placed in the holder, fixed with nitrogen slush (T ≤−210°C), and transferred frozen to the cryo unit, where they were fractured, etched (−90◦C), and gold-coated (10−2 bar and 40 mA). Samples were then transferred to the microscope and examined under conditions of 15 kV, −130°C, and a working distance of 15 mm. 2.4 Sensory analysis A consumer test was carried out to determine the acceptance of the samples cooked by the four different cooking methods. Consumers had to answer a check all that apply (CATA)

Journal Pre-proof questionnaire for each of the four samples provided. Additionally, a liking test was performed by consumers. 2.4.1 Consumers Consumers were recruited among students and employees of the Universidad de La Sabana. In total, there were 107 consumers (58 females and 49 males), aged 16 to 59 years old.

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2.4.2 Procedure

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The samples were assessed in a food laboratory (FoodLab) equipped with two white tables,

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each able to seat six people at a time, and illuminated with white light. Each consumer

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received four samples of pork meat, one for each treatment, in a sequential monadic series form with a randomized assignment in a single session. The samples were served at 50°C

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on white plates coded with random three-digit numbers, and unsalted soda crackers and

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2.4.3 CATA questions

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water were used for mouth rinsing.

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For each sample, the participants answered a CATA questionnaire with 34 attributes related to flavour, aroma, colour, texture, appearance, perception and buying intention. The panellists were instructed as follows: “Which of the following characteristics describe this sample? Please check all that you think to apply. You can taste the sample again if desired”. The attributes were selected according to available literature and informal tasting by researchers with training in sensory analysis. The following attributes were employed: appearance terms: fibrous/dry appearance, boiled meat appearance, greasy appearance, pale colour, golden colour, pink colour, green colour; aroma terms: hot oil aroma, meat aroma, beer aroma, spicy aroma, intense aroma;

Journal Pre-proof flavour terms: fatty, tasty/salty, insipid, metallic flavour, beer flavour, pepper flavour, meat flavour, cumin flavour, toasted flavour; consistency terms: fibrous, soft/tender, hard, dry, juicy, compact; and buying intention and food claim terms: appetizing, healthy, nutritive, I would consume, I would not consume, I would buy, I would not buy. The 34 terms were presented following the sequence of evaluation in terms of sensory modality as follows: appearance, consistency, and flavour, followed by the non-sensory

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parameters related to buying intention and food claim. Within those groups, the terms were

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randomized between the products and among the consumers so that the terms were not

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physically divided into groups and were presented as a continuous list in two columns.

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2.4.4 Acceptability test

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For each pork meat sample, consumers were asked to score the degree of liking of the sample using a nine-point hedonic scale ranging from 1 to 9, with 1 being “I strongly

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dislike”, 5 being “I am indifferent” and 9 being “I strongly like” in the following order:

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2.4.5 Data analysis

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“overall liking”, “flavour liking”, “consistency liking”, and “appearance liking”.

A chi-square test was used to study the differences between the cooked pork meat samples from the CATA responses. For each sample, the frequency of use of each sensory attribute was determined by counting the number of consumers that selected the term to describe each sample (Hernández-Carrión, Varela, Hernando, Fiszman, & Quiles, 2015). A Cochran’s Q test (Parente et al., 2011) was performed on the CATA data of each attribute to identify the differences between the samples for each term. A factorial correspondence analysis (FCA) was run on the CATA frequency counts contingency table to understand the

Journal Pre-proof positioning of the four cooked pork meat samples as perceived by the consumers. The overall liking was superimposed in the obtained sensory space as a supplementary variable. The data analyses were performed using XLSTAT statistical software (Version 2010.5.02, Addinsoft, Barcelona, Spain). Overall liking, flavour, consistency, and appearance scores were analysed using a one-way ANOVA with the software StatGraphics (Version 18.1.1) (Statgraphics Technologies, Inc.,

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VA, USA), with a confidence level of 95% to study the differences between the samples for

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the acceptability test. Least significant differences were calculated by Fisher’s test

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(p<0.05).

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2.5.1 Texture

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2.5 Physicochemical analysis

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Firmness is related to the hardness of meat and is characterized as the maximum penetration force. For this measurement, the samples were cut in cubes of approximately 2

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x 2 x 2 cm. The firmness was evaluated using a TA.XT plus Texture Analyzer (Stable

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Micro Systems, UK) as described by Ozuna et al. (2013). A penetration test was conducted with a 2-mm cylinder probe (Stable Micro Systems, P/2) with a crosshead speed of 1 mm/s and a penetration distance of 6 mm. For each treatment, at least 12 penetration tests were carried out. 2.5.2 Cooking loss Cooking loss Eq. (1) was quantified according to the gravimetric weight difference method (Choi et al., 2016; Franco et al., 2011), and the measurement was performed six times.

Journal Pre-proof 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 % =

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡 −𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡

∗ 100

(1) 2.5.3 Water-holding capacity (WHC) The method suggested by Jauregui, Regenstein, & Baker (1981) was followed. A 1.500 ± 0.100-g sample was wrapped in a previously weighed #3 filter paper and further wrapped in

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a #50 filter paper. The samples were centrifuged (Universal 320R, Hettich Zentrifuguen) at

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9000 rpm for 20 minutes at 4°C. Afterwards, the #3 filter paper containing the sample was

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weighed for determining WHC using Eq. (2), where Wsp is the final weight of the sample and the #3 filter paper, Wp is the initial weight of the #3 filter paper, Ws is the initial weight

performed six times. 𝑊 ∗𝑀𝐶 (𝑊𝑠𝑝 −𝑊𝑝 )−(𝑊𝑠 −( 𝑠 )) 100

𝑊𝑠

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(2)

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𝑊𝐻𝐶 =

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of the sample, and MC is the moisture content on a wet basis. Measurements were

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2.5.4 Colour

Colour coordinates were evaluated at five random points on the surface of a cross-section of the short shank slices following the method described by Dai et al. (2013). A CR-400 colourimeter (Konica Minolta Sensing Americas Inc., Ramsey, NJ, USA) with a D65 illuminating lamp and a 2° observer was used for measuring L* (lightness), a* (redness/greenness) and b* (yellowness/blueness). These measurements were used for determining the chroma (C*ab) and the hue (hab) Eqs. (3-4). All measurements were performed six times.

Journal Pre-proof = √ 𝑎∗ 2 + 𝑏 ∗ 2

C*ab (3)

𝑏∗

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑎∗ )

hab (4) 2.5.5. Data analysis

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Physicochemical results were analysed using a one-way ANOVA with the software

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StatGraphics (Version 18.1.1) (Statgraphics Technologies, Inc., VA, USA), with a

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confidence level of 95% to study the differences between the samples. Least significant

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differences were calculated by Fisher’s test (p<0.05).

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3. Results and discussion

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3.1 Microstructure analysis

The raw pork meat is formed by muscle cells, which were stained blue by the toluidine blue

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agent (Figure 2A), and by small intercellular spaces that generally appear empty. Although

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some breakage was observed, possibly due to post-mortem proteolysis, these cells were intact, with the nucleus stained in a deep blue tint, intimately linked to each other and surrounded

with

intact

sarcolemma

membrane,

thus

maintaining

their

structural

individuality. In Figure 3A, it can be observed that the myofibrillar package remains tightly attached to the sarcolemma. In general, the muscle cells are constituted by structured and packed myofibrils (Figure 2A). The process of brining pork meat significantly affects the muscular tissue. Overall, the meat tissue appears lightly stained and distended. In some areas, the myofibrillar package has been dissolved, with gaps, and the inter-myofibrillar

Journal Pre-proof protein connections (costameres), which maintain the myofibrils together at the level of the Z disks, are degraded, indicating that the myofibrils have lost their arrangement. The cell membranes also have a high degree degradation (black arrow, Figure 3B), resulting in the loss of the individuality of the cells, which are merged with each other. The marinated meat tissue shows large intercellular spaces, some empty and others with solutes from cellular degradation (Figures 2B and 3B). The pan cooking of pork meat produces the retraction

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and dissolution of the myofibrillar package, and the myofibrils lose their connections

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(Figure 3C) and alignment and are dimly/slightly tinted (Figure 2C). Large areas are

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generated between the sarcolemma and the myofibrillar package, probably as a result of an

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incomplete solubilization of the myofilaments (Figure 3C). The areas are mostly full of solutes resulting from cellular dissolution and degradation (Figure 2C). These results

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indicate that pan cooking produces meats with low firmness, as shown in sensory and

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textural analysis (Tables 1 and 2). The ohmic cooking of meat seems to compact the inside of the cells because the relaxation of the cellular structure produced from the brining

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process is no longer observed (Figure 2D). Although a separation between the sarcolemma

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and the myofibrils is appreciated (Figure 2D and 3D), generally, the cells and their nuclei appear dyed blue and more structured when compared with brined meat. Inside the cells, the myofibrils show a higher degree of alignment between them (Figure 2D) compared to the brined and the pan-cooked meat. Although in some areas, the cells do show degradation and myofibrillar disintegration, with gaps and intercellular spaces in which solutes from cell degradation are observed (Figure 2D), ohmically cooked meat has better structure, which could indicate a higher firmness (Table 2). Both sous vide and vacuum cooking of the brined meat produce the degradation of myofilaments and a separation between the myofibrils and the sarcolemma membrane (Figures 2E, 2F, 3E and 3F). These cooking

Journal Pre-proof methods also seem to produce degradation at the level of the costameres; therefore, both the loss of connection and breakage between the myofibrils and the loss of alignment can be observed in some areas, in addition to the appearance of some empty intercellular spaces (Figures 2E and F). This predominant loss of structure could indicate the loss of juiciness in these kinds of cooked meats (Table 1).

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3.2 Sensorial and physicochemical analysis

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3.2.1 CATA questions

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Figure 4 shows the symmetric plot generated for the four cooked pork meat samples with an additional variable “overall liking” superimposed. The first two factors of the attribute

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map explained 94.80% of the variance of the experimental data (86.41% and 8.39%,

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respectively), indicating that the X axis accounts for the major differences in consumer

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perception. Most of the attributes were well represented in the perceptual space defined by the first two factors of the factorial correspondence analysis (FCA). The most positively

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perceived attributes were primarily correlated with the left part of the first factor of the

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FCA, and the “overall liking” was located on the left axis of the first factor. Those characteristics are primarily associated with the pan- and ohmic-cooked pork meat samples. Thus, consistency attributes fibrous, hard, dry and compact were located on the right hand of the axis, while soft/tender, fatty and juicy appeared to the left of the axis. Flavour attributes such as tasty/salty, beer flavour, pepper flavour, cumin flavour and toasted flavour appeared on the left of the axis, and insipid, metallic flavour, and meat flavour were on the right. Appearance attributes such as pale colour, green colour, boiled meat appearance and fibrous/dry appearance were located on the right axis, while attributes such as golden colour, pink colour, and greasy appearance were located on the left. All

Journal Pre-proof attributes related to aroma were placed on the left axis of the map, and food claim attributes such as I would not buy, I would not consume and healthy were placed on the right of the axis (SV), whereas I would buy, I would consume, appetizing and nutritive were placed on the left of the axis (pan and ohm). The Chi-square test (p<0.0001) indicated statistically significant differences between the descriptions of the samples. Cochran's Q test was performed on the data to identify the

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significant differences between the samples for each of the terms included in the CATA

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question. The results (Table 1) showed that statistically significant differences (p<0.05)

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were found between the samples for most of the analysed attributes. No statistically

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significant differences (p>0.05) were found for fibrous, hard, compact, fatty, beer flavour, pepper flavour, meat flavour, fibrous/dry app, hot oil aroma, meat aroma, beer aroma, and

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intense aroma and healthy.

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The pan-cooking method for pork meat was associated with an appetizing and nutritive product that is tasty/salty, juicy and soft/tender, with pepper and toasted flavours, and with

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a spicy aroma (Table 1, Figure 4). In contrast, ohmic cooked pork meat was associated with

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golden and green colour, intense, spicy, and beer aroma, toasted flavour, and beer and cumin flavour, related to the brine solution used prior to cooking (Figure 4). Moreover, according to Table 1, pan- and ohmic-cooked pork meat samples were significantly (p<0.05) associated with I would buy it and I would consume it by consumers. Concurrently, this area of the perceptual space was associated with the overall liking (superimposed as supplementary variable). Although the ohmically treated meat samples were, statistically, significantly harder (p<0.05)

than the pan-cooked meat (Table 2), the consumer panel did not detect a

Journal Pre-proof significant difference between the four methods (p=0.106). Zell et al. (2009) found that for beef samples (biceps femoris) cooked with ohmic heating, hardness was greater when compared to a traditional cooking method such as steam cooking. Additionally, they found that a difference in hardness of 5.08 N or less is not enough for a sensory panel to detect a difference, which confirms what was found in our study for short shank, where the hardness difference between the samples varied between 2.15 and 2.73 N – which is lower than the

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difference of 5.08 N mentioned by Zell et al. (2009). The results on hardness for both

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ohmic cooking and pan cooking, as well as the sensory results, could be explained by the

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alterations of the myofibrillar proteins that generate a hardening, as well as a weakening of

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the connective tissue (Becker, Boulaaba, Pingen, Krischek, & Klein, 2016).

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Toasted flavours and aromas could be attributed to the formation of poly-cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or PAHs, which are produced in greater quantity in cooking methods such as

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smoking, grilling and roasting. Yildiz-Turp et al. (2013) found that in ohmic cooking, the formation of these components could occur despite the meat sample not being in the

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presence of temperatures above 100°C during cooking, suggesting that ohmic cooking is

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indeed an alternative candidate for the processing of meat products with attributes such as toasted aroma, toasted flavour, and golden appearance. Thereby, colour is considered to be one of the most important sensory attribute because it is first perceived by consumers; if the colour is not attractive, other sensory characteristics lose their importance, despite their possible positive perception (Ahmed, David, Fayaz, & Zequan, 2018; Carpenter, Cornforth, & Whittier, 2001; Merlino, Borra, Girgenti, Dal Vecchio, & Massaglia, 2018; Troy & Kerry, 2010). For instrumental colour measurements, the hue angle describes the “actual colour”, and in meats, a shift from a red angle to a higher angle indicates browning and

Journal Pre-proof discolouration (Ahmed et al., 2018). For pan and ohmic cooking, significant differences were found for the hue angle, where pan cooking has a lower value (Table 2) and is more closely related to a pink colour than ohmic cooking. In contrast, chroma (C*ab), described as the “saturation index”, refers to the intensity of the colour; in this research, we found significant differences (p<0.05) between ohmic cooking and pan cooking. Pan cooking has a higher colour intensity and could be related to perception that is more appetizing to the

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consumer. The vacuum cooking of meat was perceived as yielding a dry, pale meat, insipid,

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with metallic flavour, and a boiled meat appearance; vacuum cooked meat was

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significantly (p<0.05) associated by the consumers with I would not buy and I would not

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consume this meat if it were presented at the moment of purchase (Table 1, Figure 4). This appearance is related to tough, dry, compact and flavourless meats by Colombian

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consumers and is associated with local preparations such as “carne sudada”, which obtains

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its flavour from the sauce that is added after cooking (Ordoñez Caicedo, 2002). Additionally, for a large number of meat products, a high moisture loss during cooking

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would lead to decreases in tenderness and juiciness (Villamonte, Simonin, Duranton,

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Chéret, & De Lamballerie, 2013). The consumers in this research did not like the meat obtained by using this cooking method, in comparison with the other cooking methods evaluated. The negative sensorial effect on meat, which translates to a less juicy meat with a crumbly texture and appearance has been reported by other researchers, such as Becker et al. (2016) and Roldán et al. (2013), for pork meat and lamb meat, respectively. Sous vide-cooked pork meat was associated with an insipid sample, with a boiled meat appearance and a stronger metallic flavour, which could be related to the constant contact between the meat and the sarcoplasmic proteins secreted during cooking into the packaging

Journal Pre-proof (García-Segovia et al., 2007). This could also explain the retention of the a* colour coordinate for the sous vide cooking, which showed the closest a* value to raw meat (9.59 ± 2.42). Sous vide meat typically shows higher a* values compared to commonly boiled meat, and these values tend to decrease as the cooking temperature increases (Jeong, Hyeonbin, Shin, & Kim, 2018). Sous vide was also the less firm meat sample (Table 2), which could be explained by a greater collagen solubilization and the formation of gels

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with a smaller degree of aggregation, typically found in sous vide cooking, aided by the

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overpressure from the heating of the steam within the vacuum-packed environment

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(Baldwin, 2012; Tornberg, 2005). However, during vacuum cooking, this overpressure is

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not generated because a constant pressure is maintained, which reduces the collagen

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solubilization and gel formation (García-Segovia et al., 2007). Vacuum- and sous vide-cooked meats were perceived as paler, which is related to the

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higher levels of the colour coordinate L*; vacuum cooking also showed a higher hue angle and a lower chroma (Table 2). This could be explained in relation to the myoglobin

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denaturation of meat during cooking, which changes from bright red or pink colours to

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more opaque brown colours or paler shades when meat is cooked (Dai et al., 2013; Gagaoua, Picard, & Monteils, 2018; King & Whyte, 2006; Mancini & Hunt, 2005; Suman et al., 2016; Swatland, 1989; Tikk, Lindahl, Karlsson, & Andersen, 2008; Xia, Weaver, Gerrard, & Yao, 2008). Researchers such as Sánchez del Pulgar, Gázquez, & RuizCarrascal (2012) and Tian et al. (2016) related vacuum cooking in water with the migration of sarcoplasmic proteins out of the meat towards the water. Thus, García-Segovia et al. (2007) also found lower values for red colour in vacuum-cooked meat. Moreover, the sous

Journal Pre-proof vide-cooked pork meat sample was significantly (p<0.05) associated with the attributes of I would not buy it and I would not consume it by the consumers. Additionally, the importance of cooking loss is widely known, according to Purslow, Oiseth, Hughes, & Warner (2016), weight loss or cooking loss contributes to the selection of temperatures and times for a safe cooking process. In this research, no significant differences in cooking loss (Table 2) were found for the different cooking methods when

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the cooking temperature (70°C) was reached. However, Cheng & Sun (2008) and

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Kondjoyan, Oillic, Portanguen, & Gros (2013) assert that cooking loss depends on the

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kinetic of the mass transfer process during thermal treatment; therefore, different cooking

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techniques will determine differences in water loss. In this research, it was found that none

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of the evaluated cooking processes had a significant effect on the water-holding capacity properties of meat after cooking (Table 2). These results in cooking loss coincide with

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those reported by García-Segovia et al. (2007), who found significant differences for time and temperature of cooking, but not between cooking treatments (atmospheric cooking and

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sous vide cooking). For water-holding capacity, Dai et al. (2014) found values of 36.29 ±

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1.47 for the ohmic cooking of pork meat (M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum) at a final end-point temperature of 95°C after 13 minutes of cooking time, while in this research, we found higher water holding capacity values (58.25 ± 0.7) for 2.5 minutes of ohmic cooking. 3.2.2 Liking test The mean scores for the overall liking and the liking of flavour, consistency, and appearance are shown in Table 3. The overall liking (OL) scores were between 7.6 and 5.9 for the four cooked pork meat samples. Pan-cooked pork meat was significantly (p<0.05) more liked than all of other samples and presented better flavour, consistency and

Journal Pre-proof appearance according to consumers, followed by ohmic cooking, and then sous vide cooking and vacuum cooking, among which there were no significant differences (p>0.05). Aaslyng & Meinert (2017), Aaslyng et al. (2007), Maughan et al. (2012), and Thorslund et al. (2016) found that meat flavour is one of the most important factors and that the choice a consumer makes in relation to a good eating quality of meat is a combination of tenderness, juiciness and an intense meat flavour. We found that consumers prefer meat samples that

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are appetizing, tender, juicy, tasty/salty and that have golden and toasted colours, as found

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for the pan-cooked and ohmically cooked meat samples. In contrast, consumers reject pork

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meat samples that are pale in colour, with a metallic flavour and with fibrous and boiled

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meat appearance, which are related to the sous vide- and vacuum-cooked samples. According to the frequency of selection of the attributes found in the CATA questions

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(Table 1), juiciness, tenderness, toasted and tasty flavours, and spicy aroma were the

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attributes that led to acceptance (drivers of liking) of the pan-cooked and ohmically cooked meat samples, while attributes such as dry and insipid, boiled meat appearance, pale colour

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cooked meat samples.

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and metallic flavour led to the rejection (drivers of disliking) of the sous vide- and vacuum-

4. Conclusions

Despite reaching the same final temperature (70ºC), different cooking methods, such as pan, ohmic, sous vide and vacuum cooking, result in specific structural, physicochemical and sensory characteristics in pork meat. This research also suggests that properties like cooking loss and water-holding capacity are more dependent on the final temperature reached by the meat than on the cooking method used, as evidenced by the lack of significant differences between the methods evaluated. Sous vide and vacuum cooking

Journal Pre-proof showed a predominant loss of structure at the microstructural level, which consumers perceived as undesirable, less firm and less juicy. In contrast, pan-cooked samples were the most liked by consumers, who described them as juicy, tender and tasty. Out of all of the methods evaluated, ohmic cooking showed the most similar characteristics to pan-cooked meat. Therefore, the application of ohmic cooking could be an alternative to conventional pan cooking in the catering industry because this method requires shorter cooking times

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and produces a cooked meat well appreciated by consumers.

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5. Acknowledgements

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The authors would like to thank the following entities for financing this research project

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CT044 -2016: COLCIENCIAS, PorkColombia and the Gastronomy Programme and

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Faculty of Engineering of the Universidad de La Sabana. They would also like to thank the

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79(4), 806–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.11.015

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Tornberg, E. Effects of heat on meat proteins - Implications on structure and quality of meat products, 70 Meat Science § (2005). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.11.021 Troy, D. J., & Kerry, J. P. (2010). Consumer perception and the role of science in the meat industry. Meat Science, 86(1), 214–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.05.009 Villamonte, G., Simonin, H., Duranton, F., Chéret, R., & De Lamballerie, M. (2013). Functionality of pork meat proteins: Impact of sodium chloride and phosphates under high-pressure processing. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 18,

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changes in beef muscle. Journal of Food Engineering, 84(1), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.04.023

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on quality characteristic of meat: A review. Meat Science, 93(3), 441–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.10.013 Zell, M., Lyng, J. G., Cronin, D. A., & Morgan, D. J. (2009). Ohmic cooking of whole beef muscle - Optimisation of meat preparation. Meat Science, 81(4), 693–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2008.11.012 Zell, M., Lyng, J. G., Cronin, D. A., & Morgan, D. J. (2010). Ohmic cooking of whole turkey meat - Effect of rapid ohmic heating on selected product parameters. Food Chemistry, 120(3), 724–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.10.069

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Figure 1. Cooking methods schematic

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Figure 2. Light Microscopy micrographs of raw pork meat (short shank) (A), brined (B), pancooked (C), ohmic cooked (D), sous vide cooked (E), and Vacuum cooked (F) meat. s: sarcolemma, n: nucleus, i.s.: intercellular space, m.p.d.: myofibrillar package dissolved, d. m.: dissolved membrane.

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Figure 3. Cryo-SEM micrographs of raw pork meat (short shank) (A), brined (B), pan-cooked (C),

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ohmic cooked (D), sous vide cooked (E), and Vacuum cooked (F) meat.

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Figure 4. Symmetric plot. Representation of the terms from the CATA question with the additional variable “overall liking” superimposed and the four cooked pork meat samples in the first two dimensions of the Factorial Correspondence Analysis (FCA) of the CATA counts. Pan, Ohm, SV and Vac are pan cooking, ohmic cooking, sous vide cooking and vacuum cooking respectively.

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Pan

Ohm

SV

Vac

Q

Fibrous

35

45

44

45

0.325

Soft/Tender

81

64

64

52

< 0.0001

Hard

7

17

17

14

0.106

Dry

19

17

24

41

< 0.0001

Juicy

75

63

48

Compact

45

45

49

Fatty

13

9

11

Tasty/salty

67

53

Insipid

3

9

Metallic flavor

9

18

Beer flavor

27

Pepper flavor

11

Meat flavor Cumin flavor

51

0.715

4

0.104

32

25

< 0.0001

24

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40

< 0.0001

22

20

0.027

28

22

15

0.070

7

5

5

0.297

68

70

66

62

0.606

18

30

15

13

0.002

18

10

2

1

< 0.0001

40

41

80

98

< 0.0001

48

50

4

4

< 0.0001

Pink color

26

14

18

11

0.023

Green color

1

14

8

10

0.003

Fibrous/dry app

28

34

39

45

0.069

Boiled meat app

49

54

75

72

< 0.0001

Greasy app

19

16

11

3

0.002

Hot oil aroma

10

10

5

6

0.320

Pale color Golden color

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Toasted flavor

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< 0.0001

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CATA Terms

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Table 1. Frequency of selection of CATA terms and Cochran’s Q test for significant differences between four cooked pork meat samples.

61

62

66

68

0.655

Beer aroma

20

27

25

14

0.060

Spicy aroma

36

31

21

17

0.004

Intense aroma

24

21

13

14

0.073

Appetizing

71

56

33

32

< 0.0001

Healthy

27

25

25

35

0.227

Nutritive

35

29

23

20

0.027

I would consume

93

80

65

62

< 0.0001

I would not consume

8

20

32

30

< 0.0001

I would buy

77

65

46

35

< 0.0001

I would not buy

14

27

44

48

< 0.0001

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Meat aroma

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Highlighted terms correspond to those for which significant differences between samples were identified according to Cochran’s Q test (p < 0.05).

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Table 2. Firmness, cooking loss, water holding capacity and color parameters (L*, a*, b*, C*ab, and hab) of four cooked pork meat samples.

a*

b*

C*ab

2.92a (0.32)

26.50a (6.73)

56.47a (5.13)

61.85a (5.10)

8.51a (1.95)

11.84a (2.02)

14.69ac 0.95ac (2.19) (0.12)

Ohm

5.56b (0.70)

30.25a (3.85)

58.25a (5.24)

63.12a (4.57)

6.40bc (1.73)

11.17a (0.97)

12.94b (1.52)

1.06b (0.10)

SV

2.83a (0.60)

26.15a (6.49)

57.46a (3.75)

62.10a (4.72)

9.74a (2.68)

11.55a (1.75)

15.29c (2.14)

0.88a (0.16)

Vac

3.41c (0.54)

23.79a (8.90)

59.69a 66.20b 7.92c (10.65) (4.69) (3.08)

11.08a (1.55)

13.76ab 0.97c (2.83) (0.15)

Treatment

Pan

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Cooking Firmness WHC loss L* (N) (%w/w) (%w/w)

Values within a column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

hab (°)

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Table 3. Scores for overall liking, flavor liking, consistency liking, and appearance liking for four cooked pork meat samples.

Flavor liking

Consistency Appearance liking liking

Pan

7.6a (1.6)

7.8a (1.5)

7.8a (1.5)

7.2a (1.9)

Ohm

6.9b (1.7)

6.9b (1.9)

6.9b (2.1)

6.2b (2.1)

SV

6.1c (2.1)

6.3c (2.2)

6.6bc (2.2)

Vac

5.9c (2.1)

6.1c (2.1)

6.3c (2.3)

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Overall liking

4.8c (2.4)

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4.5c (2.3)

Values within a column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

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Values between parentheses are the standard deviations.

Journal Pre-proof Author Statement

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Sotelo-Díaz, Indira: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing - Review & Editing. Quiles, Amparo: Investigation. Hernando, Isabel: Design of methodology, Writing - Review & Editing. Llorca, Empar: Resources, Investigation . Hernández-Carrión, María: Statical analysis. FilomenaAmbrosio, Annamaria: Investigation. Ángel-Rendón, Sara V: Development of methodology, Writing - Original Draft

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Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Journal Pre-proof Highlights

Lower cooking time and high acceptability are the main advantages of ohmic cooking

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Pan and ohmically cooked meats were preferred by the Colombian consumers

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A higher alignment in myofibrils’ microstructure is associated with a harder meat