- Email: [email protected]
Possible early signs of athlete burnout: A prospective study
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12 (2009) 393–398
Original paper
Possible early signs of athlete burnout: A prospective study Scott L. Cresswell School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, The University of Western Australia, Australia Received 7 September 2006; received in revised form 17 January 2008; accepted 18 January 2008
Abstract Athlete burnout is a concern because of its potential negative consequences for athlete performance and welfare. The aim of the current research was to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured midseason were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season. Quantitative methods (i.e., questionnaire) were used to identify the level of burnout and perceptions of proposed early signs among male professional rugby union players (n = 183) aged 18–36 years (M = 25.19, S.D. = 2.98). Results indicated significant associations among proposed early signs measured mid-season and athlete burnout measured at the end of the season. Consistent with previous research perceived rugby and money hassles were positively associated with key characteristics of burnout whereas perceptions of adequate social support were negatively correlated with burnout characteristics. In conclusion this study provides further support for the proposed early signs of athlete burnout. © 2008 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Social support; Money hassles; Rugby hassles
Media sources have forwarded the idea that some professional rugby players are experiencing exhaustion and burnout (e.g., 1–4). Athlete burnout is an experiential syndrome with three central characteristics including an enduring sense of: (a) reduced accomplishment, (b) sport devaluation and (c) physical and emotional exhaustion.5,6 Proactive approaches to the prevention and management of burnout require an athlete “at risk” of experiencing this enduring negative state to be identified. As such the purpose of the current study was to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured midseason were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season, after a further 12 weeks of competition. Cresswell and Eklund7 forwarded a practitioner’s guide to the athlete burnout syndrome. Within the practitioner’s guide several early signs of the athlete burnout syndrome were proposed. These early signs were proposed to indicate that an athlete may be at risk of experiencing burnout. In contrast, proposed symptoms signify that an athlete may actually be experiencing burnout. For example, difficulty managing rugby demands might be an early sign warning
E-mail address: [email protected].
of the risk of impending burnout whereas enduring feelings of physical tiredness would be classed as a symptom of physical exhaustion. The proposed early signs forwarded by Cresswell and Eklund fit within the framework of Smith’s8 cognitive-affective stress-based model for the occurrence of athlete burnout. Specifically Smith proposes that perceptions of demands (e.g., rugby and money hassles) and resources (e.g., social support) form potential antecedents/early signs of burnout. Researchers have provided empirical support for some of the proposed early signs. Specifically perceptions of adequate social support, competence and perceptions of control have been negatively associated with key characteristics of burnout. Perceived rugby and money hassles have been positively associated with burnout characteristics.9 This empirical support, however, was based on a cross-sectional research design. As Cresswell and Eklund9 highlight while perceiving these hassles may lead to burnout, it is also possible that athletes experience these hassles as a result of burnout. For example, rugby-related hassles could result in players experiencing enduring feelings of reduced accomplishment. Alternatively, players may perceive rugby hassles as salient because they have started to experience enduring feelings of reduced accomplishment. As a result a prospective research design employed to assess if players’ perceptions of
1440-2440/$ – see front matter © 2008 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.01.009
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S.L. Cresswell / Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12 (2009) 393–398
early signs are related to their subsequent feelings of burnout will likely advance our knowledge in the area. Specifically, further establishing the criterion validity for the proposed early signs of burnout in this manner is an important initial step towards proactively managing the syndrome. In the current study a prospective research design was adopted to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured mid-season (Time 1) were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season (Time 2). Three proposed early signs were assessed in the current study, including perceptions of rugby related hassles, satisfaction with social support and concerns about money-related hassles. The remaining two early signs were not included in the current study because they displayed inadequate internal consistency in previous research.9 Based on previous research it was anticipated that perceptions of hassles (rugby related or money related) would be positively associated with burnout.9,10 In contrast, it was anticipated that perceptions of satisfaction with social support would be negatively associated with burnout.9,11 Burnout was measured at Time 1 and Time 2 to allow comparisons between concurrent (i.e., Time 1 early signs with Time 1 burnout characteristics) and prospective (i.e., Time 1 early signs with Time 2 burnout characteristics) models.
1. Method 1.1. Participants The participants in the current study were professional rugby union players (n = 183) aged 18–36 years (M = 26.92) active in the English Premiership club competition. This sample included players from all 12 teams in The English Premiership competition, each of which has between 40 and 50 professional players. Participants reported playing professional rugby for an average of 5.5 years (S.D. = 3.0) and the English premiership competition for 4.4 years (S.D. = 3.0). Prior to data analysis, 110 participants (beyond the 183 players described above) were removed from the analysis because they only completed the questionnaire at one time point. Players did not complete questionnaires for a variety of reasons including absences due to injury and personal choice (participation at each data collection period was voluntary). 1.2. Instruments 1.2.1. Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) Raedeke and Smith5 developed the ABQ to assess athlete burnout. Previous rigorous psychometric testing with data collected from rugby players indicated that the ABQ should be considered the instrument of choice for the current study.12 The ABQ contains 15 items. The instrument is comprised of three 5-item subscales designed to measure: (a) reduced sense of accomplishment (e.g., “It seems that no
matter what I do, I don’t perform as well as I should”), (b) devaluation (e.g., “I have negative feelings towards sport”), and (c) emotional/physical exhaustion (e.g., “I am exhausted by the mental and physical demands of my sport”). Participants respond to individual items on a five-point Likert scale anchored by descriptors of “almost never” (1), “rarely” (2), “sometimes” (3), “frequently” (4), and “most of the time” (5). Acceptable internal consistency (alphas between 0.85 and 0.91), test–retest reliability and construct validity have been previously reported.5 For this investigation, the ABQ was adapted to be specific for the rugby population through minor word substitution (e.g., changing “sport” to “rugby”). Consistent with previous reports internal consistency estimates observed in the present investigation at Time 1 (alphas of 0.88, 0.83 and 0.76) and Time 2 (alphas of 0.91, 0.83 and 0.76) for the exhaustion, sport devaluation and reduced accomplishment subscales, respectively. 1.2.2. Potential early signs Cresswell and Eklund9 developed a 16-item inventory to measure potential early signs of burnout. This potential early signs measure was selected for use in the current study because it had been designed to measure early signs of burnout in rugby players.9 For the purposes of this investigation, the three subscales in Cresswell and Eklund’s9 study that displayed acceptable internal consistency (alphas ranged from 0.71 to 0.81) were employed to measure; (a) rugby hassles (5 items), (b) social support (5 items) and (c) money hassles (2 items) (see Table 1). Items were responded to on a five-point Likert scale anchored by descriptors of “strongly disagree” (1), “disagree” (2), “neither agree nor disagree” (3), “agree” (4), and “strongly agree” (5). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the potential early signs data using EQS 6.1. The first order three factor model exhibited a good fit to the data χ2 (66) = 917.3 (p < 0.01), NNFI = 0.98, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.030. Similar internal consistency values were recorded in this investigation to those reported previously9 with alphas of 0.79, 0.86 and 0.87 observed for the rugby hassles, social support and money hassles subscales, respectively. 1.3. Procedures Following formal ethics approval permission was secured through telephone contact from team coaches to approach players at team training sessions. Players were approached on-site immediately prior to or following team training and invited to participate. Standardized introduction information and instructions were given to all participants, and written informed consent was obtained prior to administration of the questionnaire. Players were asked to complete the questionnaire at two time points, midseason (Time 1) after 17 weeks of competition and at the end of the season (Time 2) after 29 weeks of competition. Participants completed the proposed early signs measure at Time 1 and the ABQ at Time 1 and Time 2.
S.L. Cresswell / Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12 (2009) 393–398
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Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the proposed early signs of burnout Descriptive data M
S.D.
Range
Money hassles subscale • Having enough money for basic needs (e.g., living expenses) was a hassle in the last month • Financial security was a hassle in the last month
2.65 2.67
1.26 1.18
1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0
Rugby hassles subscale • Not getting enough sleep/rest because of rugby commitments was a hassle in the last month • Too many responsibilities for rugby (e.g., sponsorship duties) was a hassle in the last month • Too many extra rugby tasks (e.g., watching video analysis) was a hassle in the last month • Having too many rugby training sessions was a hassle in the last month • Too many unexpected (extra) things to do for rugby was a hassle in the last month
2.54 2.18 2.48 2.48 2.38
1.07 0.84 1.03 1.04 0.91
1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0
4.07
0.72
1.0–5.0
3.84
0.85
1.0–5.0
3.80 3.72 3.81
0.79 0.86 0.78
1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 2.0–5.0
Social support subscale • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me when I am performing well (e.g., winning, gaining selection in teams) • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me to console me when I am very upset or frustrated about rugby • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me when I am under stress from rugby demands • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me when my rugby performance is not going well • I am satisfied with the way support people in my life accept my highs (e.g., wins) and lows (e.g., losses, mistakes) in rugby
1.4. Statistical analysis The focus of the analyses was on the comparison of concurrent and prospective models for the relationship between potential early signs and burnout. The ABQ measures were fitted to the team and early signs measures using General Linear Models. Two General Linear Models were assessed; a concurrent model (i.e., simultaneous measurement of early signs and burnout at Time 1) and a prospective model (i.e., measurement of early signs at Time 1 followed by burnout 12 weeks later at Time 2). Both models were assessed to determine the effects of factors on the dependent variables reduced accomplishment, exhaustion and sport devaluation. The factors of interest were basic rugby hassles, social support and money hassles. Only participants who completed the questionnaire at both time points were included within the analysis. The amount of missing data was minimal (less than 1%) and managed through the use of mean imputation procedures. All analyses were carried out using PROC GLM (SAS version 8.2, SAS institute, Carey, NC).
(reduced accomplishment: t(288) = −1.81, p = 0.07; exhaustion t(290) = −1.53, p = 0.13; sport devaluation t(290) = 0.03, p = 0.98). 2.2. Descriptive statistics and bivariate associations Descriptive statistics for proposed early signs and ABQ subscales as well as relevant bivariate correlations between these measures are presented in Table 2. Significant correlations were present among proposed early signs and the majority of burnout characteristics (see Table 2). 2.3. General Linear Models Relationships between individual key characteristics of burnout and factors were examined within six General Linear Models; one for each of the key characteristics of burnout at each of the two time points. All variables were hypothesized to be related to each characteristic and as such were entered and retained within each model. 2.4. Reduced accomplishment
2. Results 2.1. Preliminary analysis Before the central analysis, t-tests were conducted to ascertain if participants who only completed the questionnaire at Time 1 differed from remaining participants on the characteristics of burnout. No statistically significant difference was observed between the 110 removed participants and those who completed the questionnaire at both time points
The early signs explained slightly more variance in the reduced accomplishment variable at Time 2 (R2 = 0.27) compared to Time 1 (R2 = 0.24) (see Table 3). At Time 1 reduced accomplishment was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = 0.006) and money hassles (p = 0.007) as well as negatively associated with social support (p = 0.008). At Time 2 reduced accomplishment was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = 0.038) and money hassles (p = 0.012) as well as negatively associated with social support (p = < 0.001). Reduced accomplishment was also shown to vary depending on a player’s team at Time 2 (p = 0.029).
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Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlations for burnout characteristics and proposed early signs of burnout Descriptive data
Correlations
M
S.D.
Range
1
2
3
4
5
6
Burnout characteristics (ABQ) 1. Reduced accomplishment T1 2. Exhaustion T1 3. Sport devaluation T1 4. Reduced accomplishment T2 5. Exhaustion T2 6. Sport devaluation T2
2.38 2.82 1.90 2.40 2.82 2.01
0.59 0.71 0.70 0.61 0.69 0.69
1.0–4.6 1.2–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–4.8 1.2–5.0 1.0–5.0
– 0.30** 0.61** 0.67** 0.28** 0.53**
– 0.43** 0.34** 0.63** 0.40**
– 0.49** 0.28** 0.74**
– 0.37** 0.58**
– 0.43**
–
Proposed early signs 7. Money hassles subscale 8. Rugby hassles subscale 9. Social support subscale
2.66 2.41 3.85
1.14 0.72 0.65
1.0–5.0 1.0–4.8 1.4–5.0
0.31** 0.34** −0.27**
0.07 0.51** −0.19*
0.09 0.38** −0.31**
0.26** 0.29** −0.20**
0.10 0.31** −0.28**
0.11 0.33** −0.03
7
8
9
– 0.23** −0.03
– −0.31**
–
Note: (**) significant correlation (p < 0.01), (*) significant correlation (p < 0.05). T1: Time 1 (after 17 weeks of competition), T2: Time 2 (after 29 weeks of competition).
Table 3 Possible early signs associated with burnout characteristics at Times 1 and 2 with estimates for significant relationships Effect
DF
Mean square
F-value
p
Estimate
Reduced accomplishment Time 1 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.310 2.127 2.006 2.067
1.13 7.77 7.33 7.55
0.343 0.006 0.008 0.007
Time 2 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.621 1.270 3.750 1.890
2.14 4.36 12.89 6.50
0.029 0.038 <0.001 0.012
Exhaustion Time 1 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.450 15.425 0.138 0.000
1.23 42.10 0.38 0.00
0.281 <0.001 0.540 0.994
Time 2 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.533 4.401 0.941 0.306
1.26 10.37 2.22 0.72
0.265 0.002 0.138 0.397
Sport devaluation Time 1 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.567 6.021 5.036 0.011
1.48 15.68 13.12 0.03
0.160 <0.001 <0.001 0.868
Time 2 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.609 3.340 3.110 0.145
1.49 9.62 7.60 0.35
0.156 0.002 0.007 0.553
S.E.
R2 0.24
0.171 −0.173 0.103
0.061 0.064 0.038 0.27
0.132 −0.240 0.099
0.063 0.067 0.039 0.31
0.459
0.071
0.17 0.245
0.076
0.26 0.287 −0.274
0.072 0.076 0.21
0.232 −0.219
0.075 0.080
Note: Significant relationships have been listed in bold for ease of identification. Exhaustion = physical and emotional exhaustion. Team = players team at the time of the data collection. Italic value signifies that all p values <0.0001 except that for Time 2 Exhaustion which is 0.0020.
S.L. Cresswell / Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12 (2009) 393–398
2.5. Physical and emotional exhaustion The early signs explained more variance in the physical and emotional exhaustion variable at Time 1 (R2 = 0.31) compared to Time 2 (R2 = 0.17) (see Table 3). At Time 1 and Time 2 physical and emotional exhaustion was positively associated with rugby hassles (T1: p = < 0.001, T2: p = < 0.002). The remaining early signs were not significantly associated with physical and emotional exhaustion at Time 1 or Time 2. 2.6. Sport devaluation The early signs explained slightly more variance in the sport devaluation variable at Time 1 (R2 = 0.26) compared to Time 2 (R2 = 0.21) (see Table 3). At Time 1 sport devaluation was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = <0.001) and negatively associated with social support (p = < 0.001). At Time 2 sport devaluation was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = 0.002) and negatively associated with social support (p = 0.007).
3. Discussion The purpose of the current study was to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured midseason (Time 1) were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season (Time 2), after a further 12 weeks of competition. Results provided evidence of relationships among proposed early signs and subsequent burnout characteristics that were consistent with previous cross sectional research.9 Specifically perceived rugby and money hassles were positively associated with key characteristics of burnout whereas perceptions of adequate social support were negatively correlated with burnout characteristics. Prior to commenting on the results of the General Linear Modeling some comment on the level of burnout observed in this population seems appropriate. Comparisons with New Zealand semi-professional and professional rugby players9 revealed that the New Zealand players had similar levels of Reduced Accomplishment (M = 2.43, S.D. = 0.68), lower levels of Exhaustion (M = 2.32, S.D. = 0.72) and higher levels of Devaluation (M = 2.16, S.D. = 0.76). While solid normative data are presently not available some tentative efforts have been made to give meaning to levels of observed ABQ scores.13 Based on the means and standard deviations in Table 2 a proportion of players surveyed in the current study reported experiencing all facets of the burnout syndrome at a frequency described by Raedeke14 as high (above 3). While according to Raedeke’s14 characterization burnout does not appear to be a substantial concern for the majority of players in this sample it may be having a significant effect on the performance and welfare of some players. Further research is required to determine the negative consequences
397
associated with differing levels of burnout as measured by the ABQ. As predicted concurrent and prospective models contained similar relationships among potential early signs and burnout characteristics (see Table 3). The consistent nature of relationships among proposed early signs and athlete burnout supports theoretical propositions that burnout is the result of chronic negative perceptions.15 Similar to previous rugby research a high level of perceived rugby hassles was positively associated with all three key characteristics of burnout.9 In addition, similar to previous research, player’s perceptions of money hassles were associated with a high level of reduced accomplishment, but not the other characteristics of burnout.9 These findings also support previous research in general work and human care settings that has linked work related stressors to burnout10 and the perception of financial stress with indicators of ill-being (e.g., anxiety and depression).16 Player perceptions of social support were associated with all three all three key characteristics of burnout as has been observed in previous research.9 Overall the concurrent and prospective models accounted for similar amounts of variance. The exception to this observation was the exhaustion characteristic where the prospective model (R2 = 0.17) explained less variance than the concurrent model (R2 = 0.31). While from the current data it is not possible to tell why the prospective model accounted for less variance, it may be related to the variation in exhaustion illustrated in previous rugby research. Specifically exhaustion has been shown to vary across the season due to a number of factors including injury and playing position.17 It is possible that factors more influential than the early signs measured here moderated players’ experiences between the mid and end of season time points. A consistent pattern is beginning to emerge among potential early signs and characteristics of burnout. Overall these associations support psychosocial models that propose burnout is one potential outcome of chronic stress processes.8 Despite the advantages of adopting this prospective research design some limitations are still evident. Specifically in the current study the early signs measure was not completed by participants at Time 2. This report is based on a wider data collection and the early signs measure was not administered at Time 2 in order to reduce the number of questions presented to participants. As a result the possibility of a reciprocal relationship could not be explored. It is recommended that future researchers employ the early signs measure across time points to explore the possible reciprocal relationship among burnout and early signs. In addition, longitudinal research designs that examine if early signs occur prior to burnout would strengthen the validity of these proposed early signs. Longitudinal qualitative or quantitative investigations that follow individuals who are new to a particularly demanding sporting environment may provide interesting data in regard to the occurrence of these early signs and burnout. Future researchers should also consider examining the relationship between changes in early signs and changes in burnout scores. While these results
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provide further evidence for an association among these stressors and the key characteristics of burnout, they do not imply causation. Interventions designed to address these potential early signs may allow inferences of causation, however, prior to such interventions further research regarding the efficacy of potential early signs seems warranted. To date researchers have focused on elite male rugby players. Further research is needed to assess the efficacy of these early signs with a range of sports, and with participants at different competitive levels. In addition, researchers have focused on a limited number of early signs and it is likely there are a wider range of early signs as depicted within Cresswell and Eklund’s7 guide. In particular the early signs relating to control and competence that were included in previous research, but not the current study due to lack of an adequate measure, require further investigation.
Practical implications • Athlete burnout has three key characteristics; physical and emotional exhaustion, reduced accomplishment and sport devaluation. • Practitioners should be vigilant of athletes experiencing enduring rugby and money hassles as well as a lack of social support because these athletes may be particularly at risk of experiencing the key characteristics of burnout. • Helping athletes cope with rugby and money hassles, as well as building social support may help prevent athlete burnout.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by a grant from the Professional Rugby Players Association, Premier Rugby and the Rugby Football Union. I would like to thank Associate Pro-
fessor Brian McArdle from the University of Auckland for his extensive help with the statistics.
References 1. Cain N. Overworked players suffering injury crisis. The Sunday Times 2005; January 16:21. 2. Wildman R. Players’ survey reveals fear of injury and burn-out. The Daily Telegraph 2006; August 9:S13. 3. Hinton M. Rugby knackered. Sunday Star Times 2002; September 8:18. 4. Evans I. Professional era worth its weight in gold. Sunday Telegraph 2006; August 28:14. 5. Raedeke TD, Smith AL. Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2001;23:281– 306. 6. Cresswell SL, Eklund RC. The nature of athlete burnout: key characteristics and attributions. J App Sport Psychol 2006;18:219–39. 7. Cresswell SL, Eklund RC. The athlete burnout syndrome: a practitioner’s guide. N Z J Sports Med 2003;31:4–9. 8. Smith RE. Toward a cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout. J Sport Psychol 1986;8:36–50. 9. Cresswell SL, Eklund RC. The athlete burnout syndrome: proposed early signs. J Sci Med Sport 2004;7:481–7. 10. Price L, Spence SH. Burnout symptoms amongst drug and alcohol service employees: gender differences in the interaction between work and home stressors. Anxiety, Stress Coping 1994;7:67–84. 11. Etzion D. Moderating effect of social support on the stress-burnout relationship. J App Psychol 1984;69:615–22. 12. Cresswell SL, Eklund RC. The convergent and discriminant validity of burnout measures in sport: a multi-method multi-trait analysis. J Sports Sci 2006;24:209–20. 13. Eklund RC, Cresswell SL. Athlete burnout. In: Tenenbaum G, Eklund RC, editors. Handbook of sport psychology. NY: Wiley; 2007. p. 621–41. 14. Raedeke TD. Is athlete burnout more than just stress? A sport commitment perspective. J Sport Exerc Psychol 1997;19:396–417. 15. Maslach C. Burnout: the cost of caring. London: Prentice Hall; 1982. 16. Lange C, Byrd M. The relationship between perceptions of financial distress and feelings of psychological well-being in New Zealand university students. Int J Adolesc Youth 1998;7:193–209. 17. Cresswell SL, Eklund RC. Changes in athlete burnout over a 30-week rugby year. J Sci Med Sport 2006;9:125–34.
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12 (2009) 393–398
Original paper
Possible early signs of athlete burnout: A prospective study Scott L. Cresswell School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, The University of Western Australia, Australia Received 7 September 2006; received in revised form 17 January 2008; accepted 18 January 2008
Abstract Athlete burnout is a concern because of its potential negative consequences for athlete performance and welfare. The aim of the current research was to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured midseason were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season. Quantitative methods (i.e., questionnaire) were used to identify the level of burnout and perceptions of proposed early signs among male professional rugby union players (n = 183) aged 18–36 years (M = 25.19, S.D. = 2.98). Results indicated significant associations among proposed early signs measured mid-season and athlete burnout measured at the end of the season. Consistent with previous research perceived rugby and money hassles were positively associated with key characteristics of burnout whereas perceptions of adequate social support were negatively correlated with burnout characteristics. In conclusion this study provides further support for the proposed early signs of athlete burnout. © 2008 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Social support; Money hassles; Rugby hassles
Media sources have forwarded the idea that some professional rugby players are experiencing exhaustion and burnout (e.g., 1–4). Athlete burnout is an experiential syndrome with three central characteristics including an enduring sense of: (a) reduced accomplishment, (b) sport devaluation and (c) physical and emotional exhaustion.5,6 Proactive approaches to the prevention and management of burnout require an athlete “at risk” of experiencing this enduring negative state to be identified. As such the purpose of the current study was to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured midseason were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season, after a further 12 weeks of competition. Cresswell and Eklund7 forwarded a practitioner’s guide to the athlete burnout syndrome. Within the practitioner’s guide several early signs of the athlete burnout syndrome were proposed. These early signs were proposed to indicate that an athlete may be at risk of experiencing burnout. In contrast, proposed symptoms signify that an athlete may actually be experiencing burnout. For example, difficulty managing rugby demands might be an early sign warning
E-mail address: [email protected].
of the risk of impending burnout whereas enduring feelings of physical tiredness would be classed as a symptom of physical exhaustion. The proposed early signs forwarded by Cresswell and Eklund fit within the framework of Smith’s8 cognitive-affective stress-based model for the occurrence of athlete burnout. Specifically Smith proposes that perceptions of demands (e.g., rugby and money hassles) and resources (e.g., social support) form potential antecedents/early signs of burnout. Researchers have provided empirical support for some of the proposed early signs. Specifically perceptions of adequate social support, competence and perceptions of control have been negatively associated with key characteristics of burnout. Perceived rugby and money hassles have been positively associated with burnout characteristics.9 This empirical support, however, was based on a cross-sectional research design. As Cresswell and Eklund9 highlight while perceiving these hassles may lead to burnout, it is also possible that athletes experience these hassles as a result of burnout. For example, rugby-related hassles could result in players experiencing enduring feelings of reduced accomplishment. Alternatively, players may perceive rugby hassles as salient because they have started to experience enduring feelings of reduced accomplishment. As a result a prospective research design employed to assess if players’ perceptions of
1440-2440/$ – see front matter © 2008 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.01.009
394
S.L. Cresswell / Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12 (2009) 393–398
early signs are related to their subsequent feelings of burnout will likely advance our knowledge in the area. Specifically, further establishing the criterion validity for the proposed early signs of burnout in this manner is an important initial step towards proactively managing the syndrome. In the current study a prospective research design was adopted to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured mid-season (Time 1) were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season (Time 2). Three proposed early signs were assessed in the current study, including perceptions of rugby related hassles, satisfaction with social support and concerns about money-related hassles. The remaining two early signs were not included in the current study because they displayed inadequate internal consistency in previous research.9 Based on previous research it was anticipated that perceptions of hassles (rugby related or money related) would be positively associated with burnout.9,10 In contrast, it was anticipated that perceptions of satisfaction with social support would be negatively associated with burnout.9,11 Burnout was measured at Time 1 and Time 2 to allow comparisons between concurrent (i.e., Time 1 early signs with Time 1 burnout characteristics) and prospective (i.e., Time 1 early signs with Time 2 burnout characteristics) models.
1. Method 1.1. Participants The participants in the current study were professional rugby union players (n = 183) aged 18–36 years (M = 26.92) active in the English Premiership club competition. This sample included players from all 12 teams in The English Premiership competition, each of which has between 40 and 50 professional players. Participants reported playing professional rugby for an average of 5.5 years (S.D. = 3.0) and the English premiership competition for 4.4 years (S.D. = 3.0). Prior to data analysis, 110 participants (beyond the 183 players described above) were removed from the analysis because they only completed the questionnaire at one time point. Players did not complete questionnaires for a variety of reasons including absences due to injury and personal choice (participation at each data collection period was voluntary). 1.2. Instruments 1.2.1. Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) Raedeke and Smith5 developed the ABQ to assess athlete burnout. Previous rigorous psychometric testing with data collected from rugby players indicated that the ABQ should be considered the instrument of choice for the current study.12 The ABQ contains 15 items. The instrument is comprised of three 5-item subscales designed to measure: (a) reduced sense of accomplishment (e.g., “It seems that no
matter what I do, I don’t perform as well as I should”), (b) devaluation (e.g., “I have negative feelings towards sport”), and (c) emotional/physical exhaustion (e.g., “I am exhausted by the mental and physical demands of my sport”). Participants respond to individual items on a five-point Likert scale anchored by descriptors of “almost never” (1), “rarely” (2), “sometimes” (3), “frequently” (4), and “most of the time” (5). Acceptable internal consistency (alphas between 0.85 and 0.91), test–retest reliability and construct validity have been previously reported.5 For this investigation, the ABQ was adapted to be specific for the rugby population through minor word substitution (e.g., changing “sport” to “rugby”). Consistent with previous reports internal consistency estimates observed in the present investigation at Time 1 (alphas of 0.88, 0.83 and 0.76) and Time 2 (alphas of 0.91, 0.83 and 0.76) for the exhaustion, sport devaluation and reduced accomplishment subscales, respectively. 1.2.2. Potential early signs Cresswell and Eklund9 developed a 16-item inventory to measure potential early signs of burnout. This potential early signs measure was selected for use in the current study because it had been designed to measure early signs of burnout in rugby players.9 For the purposes of this investigation, the three subscales in Cresswell and Eklund’s9 study that displayed acceptable internal consistency (alphas ranged from 0.71 to 0.81) were employed to measure; (a) rugby hassles (5 items), (b) social support (5 items) and (c) money hassles (2 items) (see Table 1). Items were responded to on a five-point Likert scale anchored by descriptors of “strongly disagree” (1), “disagree” (2), “neither agree nor disagree” (3), “agree” (4), and “strongly agree” (5). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the potential early signs data using EQS 6.1. The first order three factor model exhibited a good fit to the data χ2 (66) = 917.3 (p < 0.01), NNFI = 0.98, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.030. Similar internal consistency values were recorded in this investigation to those reported previously9 with alphas of 0.79, 0.86 and 0.87 observed for the rugby hassles, social support and money hassles subscales, respectively. 1.3. Procedures Following formal ethics approval permission was secured through telephone contact from team coaches to approach players at team training sessions. Players were approached on-site immediately prior to or following team training and invited to participate. Standardized introduction information and instructions were given to all participants, and written informed consent was obtained prior to administration of the questionnaire. Players were asked to complete the questionnaire at two time points, midseason (Time 1) after 17 weeks of competition and at the end of the season (Time 2) after 29 weeks of competition. Participants completed the proposed early signs measure at Time 1 and the ABQ at Time 1 and Time 2.
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Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the proposed early signs of burnout Descriptive data M
S.D.
Range
Money hassles subscale • Having enough money for basic needs (e.g., living expenses) was a hassle in the last month • Financial security was a hassle in the last month
2.65 2.67
1.26 1.18
1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0
Rugby hassles subscale • Not getting enough sleep/rest because of rugby commitments was a hassle in the last month • Too many responsibilities for rugby (e.g., sponsorship duties) was a hassle in the last month • Too many extra rugby tasks (e.g., watching video analysis) was a hassle in the last month • Having too many rugby training sessions was a hassle in the last month • Too many unexpected (extra) things to do for rugby was a hassle in the last month
2.54 2.18 2.48 2.48 2.38
1.07 0.84 1.03 1.04 0.91
1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0
4.07
0.72
1.0–5.0
3.84
0.85
1.0–5.0
3.80 3.72 3.81
0.79 0.86 0.78
1.0–5.0 1.0–5.0 2.0–5.0
Social support subscale • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me when I am performing well (e.g., winning, gaining selection in teams) • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me to console me when I am very upset or frustrated about rugby • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me when I am under stress from rugby demands • I am satisfied with the support people in my life give me when my rugby performance is not going well • I am satisfied with the way support people in my life accept my highs (e.g., wins) and lows (e.g., losses, mistakes) in rugby
1.4. Statistical analysis The focus of the analyses was on the comparison of concurrent and prospective models for the relationship between potential early signs and burnout. The ABQ measures were fitted to the team and early signs measures using General Linear Models. Two General Linear Models were assessed; a concurrent model (i.e., simultaneous measurement of early signs and burnout at Time 1) and a prospective model (i.e., measurement of early signs at Time 1 followed by burnout 12 weeks later at Time 2). Both models were assessed to determine the effects of factors on the dependent variables reduced accomplishment, exhaustion and sport devaluation. The factors of interest were basic rugby hassles, social support and money hassles. Only participants who completed the questionnaire at both time points were included within the analysis. The amount of missing data was minimal (less than 1%) and managed through the use of mean imputation procedures. All analyses were carried out using PROC GLM (SAS version 8.2, SAS institute, Carey, NC).
(reduced accomplishment: t(288) = −1.81, p = 0.07; exhaustion t(290) = −1.53, p = 0.13; sport devaluation t(290) = 0.03, p = 0.98). 2.2. Descriptive statistics and bivariate associations Descriptive statistics for proposed early signs and ABQ subscales as well as relevant bivariate correlations between these measures are presented in Table 2. Significant correlations were present among proposed early signs and the majority of burnout characteristics (see Table 2). 2.3. General Linear Models Relationships between individual key characteristics of burnout and factors were examined within six General Linear Models; one for each of the key characteristics of burnout at each of the two time points. All variables were hypothesized to be related to each characteristic and as such were entered and retained within each model. 2.4. Reduced accomplishment
2. Results 2.1. Preliminary analysis Before the central analysis, t-tests were conducted to ascertain if participants who only completed the questionnaire at Time 1 differed from remaining participants on the characteristics of burnout. No statistically significant difference was observed between the 110 removed participants and those who completed the questionnaire at both time points
The early signs explained slightly more variance in the reduced accomplishment variable at Time 2 (R2 = 0.27) compared to Time 1 (R2 = 0.24) (see Table 3). At Time 1 reduced accomplishment was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = 0.006) and money hassles (p = 0.007) as well as negatively associated with social support (p = 0.008). At Time 2 reduced accomplishment was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = 0.038) and money hassles (p = 0.012) as well as negatively associated with social support (p = < 0.001). Reduced accomplishment was also shown to vary depending on a player’s team at Time 2 (p = 0.029).
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Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlations for burnout characteristics and proposed early signs of burnout Descriptive data
Correlations
M
S.D.
Range
1
2
3
4
5
6
Burnout characteristics (ABQ) 1. Reduced accomplishment T1 2. Exhaustion T1 3. Sport devaluation T1 4. Reduced accomplishment T2 5. Exhaustion T2 6. Sport devaluation T2
2.38 2.82 1.90 2.40 2.82 2.01
0.59 0.71 0.70 0.61 0.69 0.69
1.0–4.6 1.2–5.0 1.0–5.0 1.0–4.8 1.2–5.0 1.0–5.0
– 0.30** 0.61** 0.67** 0.28** 0.53**
– 0.43** 0.34** 0.63** 0.40**
– 0.49** 0.28** 0.74**
– 0.37** 0.58**
– 0.43**
–
Proposed early signs 7. Money hassles subscale 8. Rugby hassles subscale 9. Social support subscale
2.66 2.41 3.85
1.14 0.72 0.65
1.0–5.0 1.0–4.8 1.4–5.0
0.31** 0.34** −0.27**
0.07 0.51** −0.19*
0.09 0.38** −0.31**
0.26** 0.29** −0.20**
0.10 0.31** −0.28**
0.11 0.33** −0.03
7
8
9
– 0.23** −0.03
– −0.31**
–
Note: (**) significant correlation (p < 0.01), (*) significant correlation (p < 0.05). T1: Time 1 (after 17 weeks of competition), T2: Time 2 (after 29 weeks of competition).
Table 3 Possible early signs associated with burnout characteristics at Times 1 and 2 with estimates for significant relationships Effect
DF
Mean square
F-value
p
Estimate
Reduced accomplishment Time 1 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.310 2.127 2.006 2.067
1.13 7.77 7.33 7.55
0.343 0.006 0.008 0.007
Time 2 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.621 1.270 3.750 1.890
2.14 4.36 12.89 6.50
0.029 0.038 <0.001 0.012
Exhaustion Time 1 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.450 15.425 0.138 0.000
1.23 42.10 0.38 0.00
0.281 <0.001 0.540 0.994
Time 2 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.533 4.401 0.941 0.306
1.26 10.37 2.22 0.72
0.265 0.002 0.138 0.397
Sport devaluation Time 1 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.567 6.021 5.036 0.011
1.48 15.68 13.12 0.03
0.160 <0.001 <0.001 0.868
Time 2 Team Rugby hassles Social support Money hassles
9 1 1 1
0.609 3.340 3.110 0.145
1.49 9.62 7.60 0.35
0.156 0.002 0.007 0.553
S.E.
R2 0.24
0.171 −0.173 0.103
0.061 0.064 0.038 0.27
0.132 −0.240 0.099
0.063 0.067 0.039 0.31
0.459
0.071
0.17 0.245
0.076
0.26 0.287 −0.274
0.072 0.076 0.21
0.232 −0.219
0.075 0.080
Note: Significant relationships have been listed in bold for ease of identification. Exhaustion = physical and emotional exhaustion. Team = players team at the time of the data collection. Italic value signifies that all p values <0.0001 except that for Time 2 Exhaustion which is 0.0020.
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2.5. Physical and emotional exhaustion The early signs explained more variance in the physical and emotional exhaustion variable at Time 1 (R2 = 0.31) compared to Time 2 (R2 = 0.17) (see Table 3). At Time 1 and Time 2 physical and emotional exhaustion was positively associated with rugby hassles (T1: p = < 0.001, T2: p = < 0.002). The remaining early signs were not significantly associated with physical and emotional exhaustion at Time 1 or Time 2. 2.6. Sport devaluation The early signs explained slightly more variance in the sport devaluation variable at Time 1 (R2 = 0.26) compared to Time 2 (R2 = 0.21) (see Table 3). At Time 1 sport devaluation was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = <0.001) and negatively associated with social support (p = < 0.001). At Time 2 sport devaluation was positively associated with rugby hassles (p = 0.002) and negatively associated with social support (p = 0.007).
3. Discussion The purpose of the current study was to examine if proposed early signs of burnout measured midseason (Time 1) were associated with characteristics of burnout measured at the end of the season (Time 2), after a further 12 weeks of competition. Results provided evidence of relationships among proposed early signs and subsequent burnout characteristics that were consistent with previous cross sectional research.9 Specifically perceived rugby and money hassles were positively associated with key characteristics of burnout whereas perceptions of adequate social support were negatively correlated with burnout characteristics. Prior to commenting on the results of the General Linear Modeling some comment on the level of burnout observed in this population seems appropriate. Comparisons with New Zealand semi-professional and professional rugby players9 revealed that the New Zealand players had similar levels of Reduced Accomplishment (M = 2.43, S.D. = 0.68), lower levels of Exhaustion (M = 2.32, S.D. = 0.72) and higher levels of Devaluation (M = 2.16, S.D. = 0.76). While solid normative data are presently not available some tentative efforts have been made to give meaning to levels of observed ABQ scores.13 Based on the means and standard deviations in Table 2 a proportion of players surveyed in the current study reported experiencing all facets of the burnout syndrome at a frequency described by Raedeke14 as high (above 3). While according to Raedeke’s14 characterization burnout does not appear to be a substantial concern for the majority of players in this sample it may be having a significant effect on the performance and welfare of some players. Further research is required to determine the negative consequences
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associated with differing levels of burnout as measured by the ABQ. As predicted concurrent and prospective models contained similar relationships among potential early signs and burnout characteristics (see Table 3). The consistent nature of relationships among proposed early signs and athlete burnout supports theoretical propositions that burnout is the result of chronic negative perceptions.15 Similar to previous rugby research a high level of perceived rugby hassles was positively associated with all three key characteristics of burnout.9 In addition, similar to previous research, player’s perceptions of money hassles were associated with a high level of reduced accomplishment, but not the other characteristics of burnout.9 These findings also support previous research in general work and human care settings that has linked work related stressors to burnout10 and the perception of financial stress with indicators of ill-being (e.g., anxiety and depression).16 Player perceptions of social support were associated with all three all three key characteristics of burnout as has been observed in previous research.9 Overall the concurrent and prospective models accounted for similar amounts of variance. The exception to this observation was the exhaustion characteristic where the prospective model (R2 = 0.17) explained less variance than the concurrent model (R2 = 0.31). While from the current data it is not possible to tell why the prospective model accounted for less variance, it may be related to the variation in exhaustion illustrated in previous rugby research. Specifically exhaustion has been shown to vary across the season due to a number of factors including injury and playing position.17 It is possible that factors more influential than the early signs measured here moderated players’ experiences between the mid and end of season time points. A consistent pattern is beginning to emerge among potential early signs and characteristics of burnout. Overall these associations support psychosocial models that propose burnout is one potential outcome of chronic stress processes.8 Despite the advantages of adopting this prospective research design some limitations are still evident. Specifically in the current study the early signs measure was not completed by participants at Time 2. This report is based on a wider data collection and the early signs measure was not administered at Time 2 in order to reduce the number of questions presented to participants. As a result the possibility of a reciprocal relationship could not be explored. It is recommended that future researchers employ the early signs measure across time points to explore the possible reciprocal relationship among burnout and early signs. In addition, longitudinal research designs that examine if early signs occur prior to burnout would strengthen the validity of these proposed early signs. Longitudinal qualitative or quantitative investigations that follow individuals who are new to a particularly demanding sporting environment may provide interesting data in regard to the occurrence of these early signs and burnout. Future researchers should also consider examining the relationship between changes in early signs and changes in burnout scores. While these results
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provide further evidence for an association among these stressors and the key characteristics of burnout, they do not imply causation. Interventions designed to address these potential early signs may allow inferences of causation, however, prior to such interventions further research regarding the efficacy of potential early signs seems warranted. To date researchers have focused on elite male rugby players. Further research is needed to assess the efficacy of these early signs with a range of sports, and with participants at different competitive levels. In addition, researchers have focused on a limited number of early signs and it is likely there are a wider range of early signs as depicted within Cresswell and Eklund’s7 guide. In particular the early signs relating to control and competence that were included in previous research, but not the current study due to lack of an adequate measure, require further investigation.
Practical implications • Athlete burnout has three key characteristics; physical and emotional exhaustion, reduced accomplishment and sport devaluation. • Practitioners should be vigilant of athletes experiencing enduring rugby and money hassles as well as a lack of social support because these athletes may be particularly at risk of experiencing the key characteristics of burnout. • Helping athletes cope with rugby and money hassles, as well as building social support may help prevent athlete burnout.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by a grant from the Professional Rugby Players Association, Premier Rugby and the Rugby Football Union. I would like to thank Associate Pro-
fessor Brian McArdle from the University of Auckland for his extensive help with the statistics.
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