Precision dating and cultural history of the La Pointe-Krebs House (22JA526), Pascagoula, Mississippi, USA

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 20 (2018) 87–96

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Precision dating and cultural history of the La Pointe-Krebs House (22JA526), Pascagoula, Mississippi, USA

T

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Grant L. Harleya, , Justin T. Maxwellb, Joshua S. Oliverc, David H. Holtd, Joshua Bowmane, Marks Sokolosky-Wixonf a

Department of Geography, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States Department of Geography, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States c Ecosystems Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia Crawley, Western Australia, Australia d Department of Geography and Geology, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States e United States Air Force, 3001-2E Yokota Air Base, Japan f La Pointe-Krebs Foundation, 4602 Fort Street, Pascagoula, MS, United States b

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Dendrochronology Dendroarchaeology Gulf Coast Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville

The La Pointe-Krebs House in Pascagoula, Mississippi is an important archaeological site (22JA526) located in the southeast United States (US). Despite being subjected to several independent archaeological and architectural studies, the exact calendar year(s) of construction for the original building and subsequent additions was unknown. We identified and sampled 26 timbers throughout the structure that contained bark or a smooth, curved outer surface that would return near-cutting or cutting dates using techniques of dendroarchaeology. A total of 14 samples came from timbers associated with the original 2-room Center Room, 9 from the East Room addition, and 3 from the West Room addition. All sampled timbers derived from a southern yellow pine tree species, most likely Pinus palustris (Mill.; longleaf pine) which was once widely distributed across the southeast US. The structure chronology spanned the period 1572–1932 CE with an inter-series correlation of r = 0.49 (1595–1788; p < 0.001) and was correlated against a regional P. palustris reference chronology from Eglin Air Force Base, Florida (n = 194 years, r = 0.40; t = 6.03, p < 0.001). Compilation of the cutting- and near-cutting dates revealed three distinct dating groups of timbers. First, three timbers from the Center Room have cut dates of 1757 CE. Second, two timbers in the East Room had cutting dates of 1762 CE. Third, three timbers with bark located over the Center and East Rooms dated to 1772 CE and were most likely repairs made to the roof following Bernard Roman's Hurricane in September 1772. No samples collected from the West Room provided near-cutting or cutting dates. The Gulf Coast region of the US has strong ties to French culture, heritage, and history, and the La Pointe-Krebs House played an important role during the creation of that culture in the region that still exists today.

1. Introduction As a subfield of dendrochronology, the science of dendroarchaeology can provide valuable and accurate environmental, temporal, and cultural information on wooden structures to address a wide range of research questions. One of the first studies in the eastern United States (US) to apply techniques of dendroarchaeology to address construction histories of log structures was Stahle (1979) throughout the State of Arkansas. During the 1980s and 1990s, however, few dendroarchaeological studies were performed in the East. Yet the past ca. 10 years has seen the revitalization of dendroarchaeology in the East (Nash and Copenheaver, 2017), with successful dating of structures in

⁎

Arkansas (Therrell and Stahle, 2012), Michigan (Harley et al., 2011; Rochner et al., 2017a), Indiana (Matheus et al., 2017), West Virginia (Cockrell et al., 2017), Tennessee (Grissino-Mayer and van de Gevel, 2007; Henderson et al., 2009; Mann et al., 2009; Slayton et al., 2009; Stachowiak et al., 2014, 2016; Grissino-Mayer et al., 2017), Virginia (Grissino-Mayer et al., 2013; Druckenbrod et al., 2017), North Carolina (Van De Gevel et al., 2009; Rochner et al., 2017b), Georgia (GrissinoMayer and Hally, 2017; DeWeese et al., 2017), Florida (Grissino-Mayer et al., 2010; Garland et al., 2012), and Mississippi (Harley et al., 2017). Despite this rapid increase in dendroarchaeological studies in the East, the Gulf Coast region of the US remains underrepresented. In south-central Mississippi, Harley et al. (2017) combined

Corresponding author at: 875 Perimeter Drive, MS-3021, Moscow, ID 83844-3021, United States. E-mail address: [email protected] (G.L. Harley).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.04.031 Received 11 December 2017; Received in revised form 24 April 2018; Accepted 27 April 2018 2352-409X/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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G.L. Harley et al.

A

B

Fig. 1. Historical (A) and current (B) photographs of the La Pointe-Krebs House, Pascagoula, Mississippi. Image (A) courtesy of the Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College C.C. “Tex” Hamill Down South Magazine Collection.

Cadillac, and in 1715 CE he was deeded land in present-day Pascagoula, Mississippi. Hugo Ernestus Krebs (b. ca. 1714) relocated from the Alsace-Lorraine area near Neumagen, Germany to the Pascagoula, Mississippi area ca. 1730 and became a successful plantation owner, inventor, surgeon, and engineer. Hugo Krebs married one of La Pointe's daughters, Marie Josephine ca. 1741, and after La Pointe retired back to La Rochelle, France ca. 1747, Hugo and Marie inherited La Pointe's land, on which the LPK House sits today (Table 1). Despite the detailed and documented history of the La Pointe and Krebs families and the land, the exact construction year(s) of the LPK House was unknown. The architecture and documented history of the LPK House makes it an important structure in the region, and revealing the exact calendar year of construction would help to solidify its place on the Gulf Coast historical landscape. In this paper, we used minimally invasive techniques to better understand the history of the LPK House within the context of its rich cultural history. We combined techniques of dendrochronology to investigate the cutting dates of timbers used to build the LPK House with oral history records, historical documents, and historical photographs of the house to develop of more comprehensive understanding of the history of the structure.

techniques of dendroarchaeology with geophysical ground surveys to better understand the construction history of the antebellum Deason House in Jones County. In northeastern Alabama, Therrell et al. (2017) applied tree-ring dating to three historical log buildings to determine if any of the structures were associated with the historic Fort Armstrong. Fort Armstrong was constructed near Cedar Bluff, Alabama by militia members under the ultimate command of Andrew Jackson to support actions against the “Red Stick” faction of Creeks during the First Creek War in 1813. As the network of reference tree-ring chronologies—against which structures are dated—grows in the Gulf Coast region, so can the number of dendroarchaeological studies. The La Pointe-Krebs (LPK) House in Pascagoula, Mississippi has long been known as an important archaeological site (22JA526) within the North American Coastal Plain (Fig. 1). Archaeological test excavations in 1979 (Padgett, 1979), 1992 (Hinks et al., 1993), 1994 (Waselkov and Silvia, 1995), and 2015 revealed a long sequence of occupation at the site, starting with sporadic use of the site during the Middle Woodland period (ca. 200 BCE–500 CE). The first major occupation, however, was by the Pascagoula Indians during which they built houses and created a large shell midden derived from oyster harvesting and processing. The Pascagoula Indian occupation is thought to be potentially contemporary with the settlement of the LPK House during the French Colonial era in first decades if the 18th century (Padgett, 1979; Hinks et al., 1993; Waselkov and Silvia, 1995). The LPK House has one of the richest cultural histories of any structure on the Gulf Coast. Along with the Ursuline Convent in New Orleans, Louisiana, the LPK House is one of two remaining examples of French Colonial architecture in the US (Fig. 1). In the late 17th century, the French government tasked Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville to lead and oversee the colonization of Louisiana. In late 1698 CE, d'Iberville sailed from Montreal and eventually arrived on the Gulf Coast near modern Biloxi, Mississippi in January 1699 CE (e.g. Hamilton, 1910; Wilson, 1968; Giraud, 1974; Higginbotham, 1977). Along with his brother, Ignace, Joseph Simon de la Pointe was a passenger on one of the d'Iberville ships that made the voyage. La Pointe was fortunate enough to have connections with French Governor Antoine de la Mothe

Table 1 Ownership line of the La Pointe-Krebs House, Pascagoula, Mississippi from ca. 1714–present.

88

Owner

Born

Died

Period owned

Hugo Ernestus Krebs Joseph Simon Krebs Joseph Simon Krebs Jr. Sidoine Eugene Krebs Cecile Johnson Jules K. Johnson Father Bernard O'Reilly James Ira & E.J. Ford Jackson County, Mississippi

1714 1742 1787 1816 1854 1888 – – –

1776 1796 1854 1864 1915 1960 1938 – –

– – – – – 1914–1932 1932–1938 1938–1942 1942–present

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Fig. 2. Map showing location of the La Pointe-Krebs House relative to the reference chronology site location at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida.

2. Material and methods

2.2. Field methods

2.1. The La Pointe-Krebs House

At the time of field sampling (8 April 2016) the entire LPK House was undergoing a major renovation project which resulted in full exposure of all wooden elements of the structure (Fig. 1B). We first inspected all logs for either bark or a continuous curved surface that would indicate the presence of terminal rings formed before each tree was harvested and used in construction, thus representing a true cutting date (e.g. Grissino-Mayer, 2009). Suitable logs were flagged and then a detailed sketch of the structure was created for later reference. First, we attempted to use archaeological dry wood borers attached to variable speed hand drills, which is the most common method for extracting dendroarchaeological samples from structures (e.g. Grissino-Mayer, 2009) (Fig. 3A). In some cases, the use of the dry wood borer was difficult given the highly resinous heartwood of southern yellow Pinus spp. (e.g. P. palustris; Grissino-Mayer et al., 2010), and instead we used handheld Haglöff 5 mm increment borers. We achieved greater success extracting increment cores from timbers with the Haglöff borer, yet some issues did arise. Although jamming was not an issue—a common problem with coring non-living woody material with increment borers—we did encounter twisting of cores, so the samples were straightened in the laboratory with steam. The increment borers allowed us to gather longer, more intact samples that contained a greater number of growth rings compared to the samples extracted with the dry wood borer, which was important for internal and external crossdating. In some cases, full cross-sections were taken from suitable non-loadbearing timbers. Each core was immediately affixed to wooden core mounts in the field, and cross-sections were wrapped before transportation back to the laboratory. Each sample was given a label consisting of a 3-letter code and number (e.g. LPK01 for La Pointe-Krebs).

Formerly known as the Old Spanish Fort, the LPK House and Museum is located at 4602 Fort Street (30.38 N, −88.55 W) in the town of Pascagoula, Mississippi (www.lapointekrebs.org) (Fig. 2). The LPK House sits on a ca. 1.6 ha parcel of land that borders the Pascagoula River near its mouth into Pascagoula Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Three distinct rooms make up the current configuration of the LPK House: an original center room (CR), east addition room (ER), and west addition room (WR). One of the primary aspects of the LPK House that makes it unique is the materials used to build the structure. The CR and ER of the LPK House were built of tabby with inset wooden-frame doors and windows. The WR addition was built of vertical pine posts filled with bousillage. Tabby construction, which employed a mixture of oyster shells, lime, sand, and water, was only documented by the British and Spanish in the southeastern US (Deagan, 1983). The bousillage used in the west room addition derived from French and Native American traditions and began with timber framing sunk directly into the ground. Between timbers were wooden structural supports called rabbets (or barreaux) and void spaces were filled with a mixture of mud, Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides), animal bones, pottery sherds, and other local items. Unlike tabby, the bousillage walls were supported by a timber framing structure, and the mud chinking acted as efficient insulation against the weather as well as an evaporative cooling system for the house. Examples of tabby usage in structures are rare today, but bousillage was common in the 18th and 19th centuries and many of the Creole Cottages in Louisiana exist today. Previous archaeological studies have excavated ca. 1700-era tabby ruins by the Spanish in St Augustine, Florida (Deagan, 1983) and at ca. 1741 CE Fort Frederica by the British in Georgia (Manucy, 1962). To date, no other French-period tabby structures from the Gulf Coast have been reported in the archaeological or historical literature.

2.3. Laboratory methods Cores and cross-sections were processed using methods standard to the science of dendrochronology (Stokes and Smiley, 1968; Speer, 2010). These laboratory procedures yielded a wood surface with clearly discernable cellular features. On each sample, the innermost complete 89

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B

A

Fig. 3. [A] Extracting sample LPK14 in the 2nd floor attic, south pitch 3rd rafter west of the east chimney, handhewn with bark. [B] Scanned image of sample LPK14 showing the ring measurement path and cutting date of 1757 CE. [C] Photograph showing the 2nd floor attic space view to the east over the Center Room and East Room. The chimney in the photograph is located between the Center Room and East Room.

C

ring was assigned the relative year “1” and each subsequent 10th ring was marked with an “X” under the microscope. We then scanned each sample with an EPSON Expression 11000XL machine and all tree-ring widths were measured to 0.001 mm accuracy using coupled WinDendro (Regents, Inc. ver. 2016c) software (Fig. 3B).

coefficients significant at p < 0.001) to be accepted as absolutely dated (Holmes, 1983).

3. Results 3.1. Species

2.4. Internal and external crossdating We identified 26 timbers throughout the LPK House that contained bark or a smooth, curved outer surface that would return near-cutting or cutting dates. Once sanded, we identified all timbers as a species of southern yellow pine, most likely Pinus palustris (Mill.) (longleaf pine) (Hoadley, 1990) (Fig. 3B, C). The historical range of P. palustris in the Southeast US once covered ca. 37 million ha (Frost, 2006), but fire suppression, habitat fragmentation, and widespread logging activities over the past several hundred years contributed to a ca. 96% distribution reduction, such that only ca. 1.3 million ha remain (Oswalt et al., 2014). The Gulf Coast landscape once contained vast areas of oldgrowth P. palustris forests before European settlement. However, P. palustris was particularly desirable for the building and lumber industries during the 19th century as the human population began to increase from the influx of settlers to the region. The LPK House timbers were characterized by large heartwood areas surrounded by thin sections of sapwood, which is characteristic of P. palustris as opposed to P. taeda or P. elliottii, two other common conifer species in the area. Heartwood zones commonly contained extensive amounts of oleoresinladen heartwood that exuded pitch during the coring process.

We first used COFECHA, a computer program that uses segmented time-series correlation techniques to assist in crossdating of undated tree-ring time series (Holmes, 1983), to help assign dates for all the LPK House samples relative to each other. We tested 40-year time segments lagged by 20 years to suggest possible temporal placements of all samples. We used a minimum correlation value of 0.40 (typically p < 0.001) as a statistical standard of convincing agreement between measured series. After considering the suggested temporal placement made by COFECHA, we compared each series visually. Internal crossdating resulted in a set of measured series that were aligned temporally with each other, but not absolutely dated in time. For absolute dating, we again used COFECHA to crossdate the undated tree-ring sequences against an independent chronology created from the region. We used a reference chronology developed from P. palustris (Mill.) trees growing on Eglin Air Force Base (30.45°N, −86.55°W; Fig. 2) located ca. 180 km east of the LPK House (Henderson, 2006; Henderson and Grissino-Mayer, 2009; Harley et al., 2017) (Table 2). We required the final suggested dating placement made by COFECHA to be convincing graphically (similar temporal patterns in the wide and narrow rings) and statistically (correlation

Table 2 Descriptive statistics for the La Pointe Krebs chronology and Eglin Air Force Base reference chronology. Chronology

Start date

End date

Length (yrs)

No. samples

No. flagged segments

Interseries correlation

Mean sensitivity

Mean seg. length

La Pointe-Krebs House Eglin Air Force Base

1572 1503

1932 2004

361 502

26 144

16 44

0.49 0.51

0.33 0.31

81.7 158.7

90

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Fig. 4. Architectural renderings of the La Pointe-Krebs House, Pascagoula, Mississippi showing sample locations from the West (green), Center (blue), and East (red) Rooms along the (A) first floor north wall, first (B) floor plan view, (C) interior profile looking west, (D) exterior looking west, (E) exterior looking east, and (F) interior profile looking north. Dashed circles represent through backside view. Note: north arrow for (B) and solid black scale bar for each view. All renderings modified from Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), “Old French Fort, Pascagoula, Jackson County, MS,” Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress collection HABS MISS,30-PASCA,3. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

House tree-ring series spans the period 1595–1788 CE (n = 194 years; r = 0.40; t = 6.03, p < 0.001), and a convincing match was noted graphically (Fig. 6).

3.2. Internal and external crossdating We extracted the 26 samples from the LPK House: 14 from the CR, 9 from the ER, and 3 from the WR (Fig. 4A–F). In each room, sample locations varied between 1st floor door jambs, window sills, and ceiling beams, and 2nd floor attic rafters and vertical wall supports (Figs. 3C, 4A–F). The LPK House chronology consisted of 26 series (Fig. 5A) with an interseries correlation of 0.49 (p < 0.001) and mean sensitivity of 0.33 (Table 2). COFECHA flagged 16 tested segments as being potentially misdated, but visual investigations of the problem segments suggested that we assigned the correct dating placement as the majority of these flags were due to low correlation (r < 0.37 as tested 40-year segments lagged 20 years) at the assigned dating placement. The LPK House chronology spanned the period 1572–1932 CE, however, the beginning and end of the chronology suffered from a [1] lack of overlap between samples ( < 30 years overlap) and [2] low sample depth (Fig. 5B). Thus, for external crossdating, we truncated the chronology to the period when we had at least two separate samples. External crossdating of the floating LPK House chronology against the reference Eglin Air Force Base chronology confirmed statistically that the LPK

3.3. Cutting dates and seasons Compilation of the cutting- and near-cutting dates revealed three distinct dating groups of timbers sampled from the LPK House (Table 3). First, three timbers (LPK07, LPK12, and LPK14) from the CR date to 1757 CE (Fig. 4F). Second, we found two timbers in the ER (LPK200 and LPK101) with a cutting date of 1762 CE (Fig. 4B). Third, three timbers with bark (LPK13, LPK36A, and LPK100) located over the CR and ER dated to 1772 CE, in addition to two timbers (LPK13S and LPK25A) from the CR with near-cutting dates of 1767 and 1764 CE, respectively (Fig. 4F). No samples collected from the WR provided nearcutting or cutting dates (e.g. Fig. 4B, D). We analyzed the terminal rings of the timbers that contained smoothed surface (e.g. wane; r) or bark (B) (Bannister et al., 1966; Nash, 1999) to determine the approximate time of year trees were felled and used for construction, assuming they were used immediately. The three 91

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Index

Fig. 5. Overlap plot for the measured series extracted from timbers in the La Pointe-Krebs House, Pascagoula, Mississippi spanning the period 1572–1932 CE.

2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

A

1500

1550

1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

1850

1900

1950

2000

Index

Year 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

r = 0.40, n = 194, t = 6.03, p < 0.001

B

1590

1610

1630

1650

1670

1690

1710

1730

1750

1770

Fig. 6. The La Pointe-Krebs House (LPK) chronology (blue) plotted with the reference chronology from Eglin Air Force Base, Florida (black line; Henderson and Grissino-Mayer, 2009). Panel A shows the temporal placement of the LPK chronology against the entire Eglin time series and panel B shows a zoomed inset based on the grey shaded region; note x-axes differ between panels. The LPK House chronology is anchored in time against the reference chronology from 1595 to 1788 (n = 194 years, r = 0.40, t = 6.03, p < 0.001). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

1790

Year of the ecosystem. Yet, small pockets of old-growth P. palustris still exist today (e.g. Henderson, 2006; Petruccelli et al., 2014; White and Harley, 2016), primarily in nature reserves. We used a well-replicated tree-ring chronology from a rare pocket of old P. palustris growing on Eglin Air Force Base to absolutely date timber samples from the LPK House (Henderson, 2006; Henderson and Grissino-Mayer, 2009). Through techniques of dendroarchaeology, we were able to improve understanding of the construction history of the LPK House, which has historical and cultural importance along the Gulf Coast landscape.

samples from the CR that returned cutting dates of 1757 had outermost growth rings that were incomplete and characterized by a fully developed earlywood zone followed by a latewood zone that was 1–2 cell rows thick. The ER samples (1762) contained terminal rings that were similar to the CR samples, with a fully developed earlywood zone and a thin zone of latewood tracheids. Finally, the samples dated to 1772 contained terminal rings that were defined by thick zones of latewood.

4. Discussion 4.1. Cutting seasons

Relative to the American Southwest, the Gulf Coast region is underrepresented by dendroarchaeological studies. Prior to European settlement in the Southeast US, the Pinus palustris (Mill.) ecosystem was once widely distributed across the Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plains. However, various human-induced disturbances during the 19th and 20th centuries like clear-cut logging, turpentine practices, and fire suppression have resulted in a widespread reduction in the distribution

All timbers associated with the WR were found to be either squared (no sapwood, smoothed outer surface, or bark) or in a state of decay that precluded extraction of an intact core. Thus, we were unable to confirm a date of construction for the WR. The terminal rings of the samples collected from the CR and ER, however, provided insight into 92

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Table 3 Dating results for the La Pointe-Krebs (LPK) House timbers, Pascagoula, Mississippi. Bold type shows cutting dates for respective rooms and bold italics type shows cutting dates that align with the Bernard Roman's Hurricane in September 1772. Note: “Outer ring type” codes are displayed in table footnote. Outer ring type: B = bark was present; r = outermost ring present, smoothed surface; v = date within a few years of cutting date, presence of sapwood; vv = cutting date not possible. Log ID

Inner ring date

Outer ring date

Outer ring type

Species

Corr. with ref.

t

Notes

Center Room LPK14 1670

1757

B

PIPA

0.53

5.7

LPK07

1685

1757

B

PIPA

0.51

4.9

LPK12

1670

1757

r

PIPA

0.58

6.5

LPK13

1674

1772

B

PIPA

0.51

6.4

LPK28 LPK16 LPK01 LPK10N LPK13S LPK25A LPK29 LPK32 LPK11 LPK10

1839 1572 1641 1595 1687 1695 1660 1681 1740 1688

1896 1642 1792 1671 1767 1764 1740 1739 1851 1746

vv vv vv vv v v vv vv B vv

PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA

0.55 0.47 0.44 0.54 0.56 0.60 0.47 0.55 0.53 0.47

4.8 4.3 5.9 5.5 5.9 6.1 4.7 4.9 6.5 3.9

attic, S pitch, 3rd rafter W of E chimney, hewn, thin LW formed, comp terminal ring attic, N pitch, 4th rafter E of W chimney, thin band LW formed, comp terminal ring attic, N pitch 5th rafter from W chimney, hewn, thin LW formed, comp terminal ring attic, N pitch 3rd rafter from W chimney, hewn, bark, thick LW formed, comp terminal ring 2nd ceiling beam, E of W chimney, incomp terminal ring N wall timber under E window, incomp terminal ring SW door jamb, comp terminal ring roof truss, squared, N pitch, incomp terminal ring roof truss S pitch, comp terminal ring N wall, 7th vertical timber from W wall, sapwood, comp terminal ring 1st ceiling beam E of W chimney, incomp terminal ring NW vertical timber w/ pine door jamb, incomp terminal ring attic, N pitch, 3rd rafter from W chimney, hewn bark, comp terminal ring attic, middle vertical support rafter, incomp terminal ring

East Room LPK200 1686 LPK101 1677

1762 1762

r r

PIPA PIPA

0.50 0.51

4.9 5.4

LPK36A LPK100 LPK17B LPK19 LPK18 LPK201 LPK50S

1661 1664 1855 1664 1696 1675 1649

1772 1772 1932 1756 1777 1746 1746

B B vv vv B vv vv

PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA PIPA

0.51 0.52 0.51 0.42 0.43 0.64 0.46

6.2 6.2 5.1 4.3 4.2 6.9 5.0

E doorway frame, wane, thin LW formed, comp terminal ring beam SE of E fire place, smoothed surface wane, thin LW formed, comp terminal ring attic, N pitch, 4th rafter from E end, thick LW formed, comp terminal ring attic S pitch rafter from E end, thick LW formed, comp terminal ring EW tie beam locking N & S rafter plates, incomp terminal ring W ceiling beam, incomp terminal ring NW rafter plate, wane, comp terminal ring attic S pitch rafter from E end, incomp terminal ring attic, S pitch 2nd vertical jack from E end, incomp terminal ring

West Room LPK22 1692 LPK21 1731 LPK24 1714

1744 1777 1788

vv vv vv

PIPA PIPA PIPA

0.62 0.50 0.44

5.5 3.8 4.1

SW, 1st vertical timber from W wall, incomp terminal ring SW, 2nd vertical timber from W wall, incomp terminal ring NW, 3rd vertical timber from W wall, no sapwood, incomp terminal ring

latewood, suggesting these timbers derived from trees felled during the fall or dormant season of 1772 or early in the calendar year of 1773 before cambial reactivation.

the exact year and season during which trees were felled and used in construction. Dorman and Barber (1956) reported that, during a given growing season, P. palustris individuals near Gulfport, Mississippi (ca. 50 km to the west of the LPK House) experience flowering and pollen ripening from middle February to middle March and seed ripening from September to October. Similar data were reported for other southern yellow pines, including P. taeda, P. elliottii var. elliottii, and P. echinata (Dorman and Barber, 1956; Huffman et al., 2004; Stambaugh et al., 2011; Tucker et al., 2018). Thus, in the Gulf Coast region of the US, the growing season of southern yellow pine species is likely characterized by cambial reactivation during the months of February–March and dormancy during October–November. Despite having adequate data on the growing season of southern yellow pine species, the timing of earlywood and latewood formation is less understood. In southern Florida, but in a similar coastal environment setting as the LPK House, Langdon (1963) and Harley et al. (2012) reported that P. elliottii var. densa formed earlywood tracheids from February to July and latewood tracheids from July to December. The longer growing season experienced by many southern yellow pine species results in wide latewood zones compared to conifers in other regions of the US (Kozlowski, 1971). The CR and ER samples had terminal growth rings that were partial and characterized by either no latewood tracheids or 1–2 cell rows of latewood tracheids. Based on P. palustris phenology and general timing of earlywood and latewood growth in this region of the US (Harley et al., 2012, 2017), this growth suggests the timbers from the CR and ER derived from trees felled in the middle of the growing season (e.g. late spring/early summer). The cutting-date samples of 1772 CE had terminal rings that contained either a complete or near-complete layer of

4.2. Construction history and cultural dynamics We combined the results of our dendroarchaeological analyses with a previous architectural analysis (Fore, 2015) to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the construction dynamics and cultural history of the LPK House. Fore (2015) concluded that the LPK House has undergone 10 major periods of architectural development, additions, and alterations. The sequence of additions, repairs, and alterations reported by Fore (2015) included: [1] an original tabby building ca. 1750s, [2] 1770s addition of the east room, [3] 1790s addition of the west room, [4] removal within the west room in the 1790s, [5] 1820s east addition and division of the center room, [6] removal within the east room addition in 1820s, various small-scale alterations from the [7] 1830s through 1890s, [8] 1934–1940, and [9] 1996 CE, and finally [10] a current extensive restoration. Yet, with regard to the main structure, our dendroarchaeological analysis was limited to sampling intact timbers with robust structural integrity that were accessible, hence the need to combine our study with previous architectural investigations. 4.3. Original center room Timbers collected from the CR suggest a construction year of 1757 CE, which would make the original 2-room tabby building the 93

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west wall of the house that, during our field inspection, had the potential of containing sapwood and thus a near-cutting date, despite being squared. However, after the cores were prepared and examined under light microscope, no samples contained sapwood. Sample LPK24 dated to the period 1714–1788 CE, which is close to the 1790s construction period estimate, however this timber was squared, contained no sapwood, and thus a cutting date was not possible (code vv). Despite modification to attic rafters, some of the ceiling boards were pit-sawn and still contain hand-wrought nails. This analysis serves as some of the only evidence that the WR addition was constructed in the 18th century.

oldest confirmed wooden structure in the Gulf Coast region of the US and along the Lower Mississippi Valley. A construction year of 1757 CE for the CR as revealed by our dendroarchaeological analyses aligns with the assertion by Fore (2015) that the original tabby building was constructed in the 1750s as evidenced by the architectural analyses. The three samples that provided cutting dates of late spring/early summer 1757 CE were extracted from attic rafters directly above the CR, one (LPK14) along the south pitch and two (LPK 07, LPK12) along the north pitch. Unfortunately, all timbers from the first floor door and window frames and ceiling joists of the CR were squared and were not suitable for providing near-cutting or cutting dates. Cut in 1851, sample LPK11 contained bark represents a replacement rafter installed along the north pitch of the roof during the known alteration period of 1830s–1890s. Also from the CR was sample LPK28, which had an outermost ring of 1896. The cutting code for LPK28 was vv, meaning that no sapwood was present, thus difficult to estimate a cutting period. However, we posit that this beam was added as structural support, most likely during the alteration period of the 1930s. The dating of another specimen extracted from a structural tie beam between two rafters (LPK17B) from the 1930s also suggests a period during which additional timbers were added for structural support throughout the attic. The CR was constructed using hand-wrought nails, pit-sawn lumber, and hand-hewn timbers. The walls of the CR were built of tabby that was poured into forms and a raised tabby floor was constructed above the surrounding grade. The door and window posts, many of which were sampled, were not set into the ground, but rather set into the tabby as it was poured. These timbers were used merely for support of the doors and windows and as tie-downs for the wall plates, some of which were sample (Fore, 2015). Tabby is made by dehydrating and rehydrating oyster shells by a method known as rick burn. Burning wood and oyster shells creates a lime slurry that is then mixed with water, whole and partial oyster shells, sand and ash. Shells were ubiquitous on the property as the LPK House was built on a large Native American oyster shell midden of the Pascagoula Tribe. The Pascagoula ventured south down the Pascagoula River each season and set up temporary camps to harvest clam and oysters.

4.6. Bernard Roman's hurricane of 1772 Given the long history of the LPK House on the Gulf Coast landscape, one primary hazard to the property over the years has been hurricanes. Three attic rafters sampled along the north (LPK 13 and 36A) and south (LPK100) pitches over the CR and ER provided cutting dates from the fall of 1772 or the dormant season of late 1772/early 1773. This cutting date directly aligns with damage to the house from the West Florida Hurricane of 1772, also known as Bernard Roman's Hurricane. Bernard Roman was a Dutch surveyor, cartographer, and naturalist who wrote a detailed documentation of the 1772 hurricane (Romans, 1775). In his 1775 book, Romans mentioned direct damage incurred to the LPK House by the storm: “…but the greatest fury of it [the hurricane] was spent on the neighbourhood of the Pasca Oocolo River; the plantation of Mr. Krebs there was almost totally destroyed, of a fine crop of rice, and a large one of corn were scarcely left and remains, the houses were left uncovered, his smith's shop was almost all washed away, all his works and out houses blown down…” (Romans, 1775, pg. 5). Romans went on to describe the widespread destruction to trees and blow down on the property and surrounding area upriver from the LPK House. Based on cutting dates of attic rafters sampled above the CR and ER, some of the rafters remained intact following the storm and others replaced shortly thereafter. The hurricane made landfall between 30 August and 3 September 1772, which aligns with the terminal growth rings of the timbers dated to 1772 characterized by thick latewood zones, suggesting timbers were either cut late in the 1772 growing season, or perhaps trees blown down from the hurricane were recycled and used to repair the LPK House roof. A more in-depth analysis of the internal crossdating statistics provided evidence of provenance for a few of the original CR and 1772 replacement timbers. LPK14 (south pitch rafter) and LPK07 (north pitch rafter) overlapped in time for 72 years (1685–1756) and growth rings during overlap were significantly correlated between samples (r = 0.55, t = 5.5, p < 0.01), suggesting they were growing in the same area or forest stand and responding similarly to climate. LPK12 (north pitch rafter) and LPK13 (north pitch rafter) were compared during the overlapped period from 1674 to 1756 (82 years) and growth rings were significantly correlated (r = 0.66, t = 7.9, p < 0.01). These individual trees could have been from the property, and LPK13, as a replacement rafter after the 1772 hurricane was likely growing on the property and either felled for timber use or blown down during the hurricane and used for timber. Finally, growth rings from LPK12 and LPK14 were significantly correlated during the period 1670–1737 (68 years; r = 0.53, t = 5.1, p < 0.01) and both provided cutting dates of 1757 CE for the original CR.

4.4. East room addition The first documented alteration to the original 2-room tabby building was the addition of the ER estimated during the 1770s (Fore, 2015). The two samples extracted from the ER timbers revealed a cutting date of late spring/early summer of 1762, which also aligns with assertions by Fore (2015). The ER exists as a single room constructed against the east elevation of the LPK House. The ER was constructed with hand-wrought nails and timbers that were pit-sawn and hand-hewn, similar to the construction of the original CR. As with the CR, the ER was built with tabby walls poured into forms, a raised tabby floor, and door and window post that were set into the tabby floor. The roof trusses, rafters, and ceiling joists currently present over the ER are claimed original to the addition (Fore, 2015), but we were unable to confirm this due to the inability of locating rafters above the ER that contained bark, wane, or sapwood that would provide near-cutting or cutting dates. Yet, we were able to locate wane on a door frame timber (LPK200) that was part of the doorway constructed between the original CR to the ER addition and on a ceiling joist beam in the ER (LPK101). 4.5. West room addition

5. Summary and conclusions Fore (2015) used architectural analysis to estimate the construction of the WR addition to the ca. 1790s (Fore, 2015), but we were unable to provide a construction year for the WR. Many of the timbers in the attic above the WR were modified during the 19th century (Fore, 2015), and we were unable to locate timbers that contained bark, wane, or sapwood. We sampled three vertical timbers (LPK21, 22, and 24) along the

Joseph Simon de la Pointe was an Admiral in the fleet led by JeanBaptiste Le Moyne de Bienville stationed near the mouth of the Pascagoula River. The French government commissioned la Pointe to build a fort in 1721, leading to the early assertion that the LPK House was constructed that year or shortly thereafter. During Spanish control 94

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Fig. 7. Inset image of the house of Joseph Simon de la Pointe of Pascagula drawn on a 1726 CE map of the Pascagoula River and surrounding islands, lakes, and land by Jean-François-Benjamin Dumont de Montigny. Image from the Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des cartes et plans, Ge DD 2987 (8818 B) (http:// gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b67002996).

rings in these samples predates the 18th century, both timbers were squared without the presence of sapwood (cutting code vv) and hence, the number of rings missing between the terminal rings and the bark is unknown. Fore (2015) used a wide variety of techniques and knowledge about Colonial French architecture to estimate the original 2-room building was built in the 1750s, and our study directly aligns with these findings. Given the transfer of land from la Pointe to Krebs and his wife, Josephine, ca. 1747, but possibility 1757, the LPK House was most likely built under the supervision of Krebs. Marie Josephine Krebs died on 7 November 1751 and bore seven children during her marriage to Krebs. Hugo Krebs then married Marianne Chauvin de Joyeuse ca. 1753 and also had seven children. The ER and WR expansions were likely to serve an expanding family in 1762 and the 1790s, respectively. Krebs was described as running a productive plantation, which included hundreds of slaves who primarily raised rice, cotton, wax myrtle, and indigo (Romans, 1775). Evidence also exists of Krebs inventing a type of cotton gin ca. 20 years before Eli Whitney. A full description of the Krebs cotton gin was reported in Romans (1775), including the ability to produce 70–80 pounds of cotton a day, thus adding to the cultural importance of the LPK House on the Gulf Coast region of the US. “The French in Florida have much improved this machine by a large wheel which turns two of these mills at once, and with so much velocity as, by means of a boy, who turns it, to employ two negroes at hard labor to shovel the seed from under the mill: one of these machines I saw at Mr. Krebs at Pasca Oocooloo, but as it was partly taken down, he claiming the invention was very cautious in answering my questions, I cannot pretend to describe it accurately; I am informed that one of those improving mills will deliver seventy or eighty pounds of clean cotton per diem.” (Romans, 1775, p. 19).

along the Gulf Coast, the structure served as a fort and home to Lieutenant de Grimarest, the commanding officer of Mobile, Alabama. Grimarest later married Anna Narbonne, granddaughter of Hugo Krebs and great-granddaughter of la Pointe. After relocating from Germany ca. 1730 and marrying Marie Josephine la Pointe, the LPK House property was deeded to Hugo Ernestus Krebs supposedly ca. 1747 after la Pointe relocated and retired back to France. We propose that the original 2-room building of the LPK House was first constructed in 1757, and the 10-year difference between the ca. 1747 transfer of land to Krebs as per the written history and the construction date of the house as revealed through dendrochronology is noteworthy. The earliest purported construction period for the original 2-room structure is in the 1720s, contemporary with the time the property was deeded to la Pointe. Yet, our results and the Fore (2015) study do not support a 1720s construction period for any portion of the current structure. A more likely scenario is that a previous structure or group of structures existed on or near the property prior to the 1750s. JeanFrançois-Benjamin Dumont de Montigny (31 July 1696–1760) was an officer in the French colonial military, historian, and memoirist. In 1726, de Montigny sketched the La Pointe Plantation (Fig. 7), but none of the buildings in the sketch resemble the LPK House and none of the structure footprints in the sketch have been located (Wilson, 1968). However, an archaeological excavation on the LPK House property in the year 2015 unearthed an old tabby structure corner that was likely one of la Pointe's early buildings. Interestingly, two samples extracted from timbers in the original CR contained inner growth rings that date to the late 16th century. Sample LPK16 and LPK10N spanned the periods 1572–1642 and 1595–1671 CE, respectively. LPK16 derived from a timber underneath a window along the east wall and LPK10N was extracted from a roof truss in the attic. Although the terminal growth 95

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The LPK House and property is one of the most dynamic and important archaeological sites in the Southeast US primarily because of the history of continued habitation starting with the use of the region by Native Americans for several thousand years (Felder et al., 1940; Padgett, 1979; Hinks et al., 1993; Waselkov and Silvia, 1995) and then by European settlers starting in the 18th century. Large areas of the Gulf Coast region of the US are known for their French culture, heritage, and history, and the LPK House played a role during the creation of that culture in the region that still exists today. Acknowledgements We thank the Drapeau Center for Undergraduate Research Eagle SPUR scholarship program at the University of Southern Mississippi for supporting this work, the La Pointe-Krebs Foundation for being accommodating to our research team and permitting us to sample timbers throughout the house, Dr. Joseph Henderson for use of the Eglin Air Force Base chronology, Trevis Matheus and James Thompson for their help in the field, and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments that improved earlier drafts of this manuscript. References Bannister, B., Dean, J.S., Gell, E., 1966. Tree-ring Dates from Arizona E: Chinle-de ChellyRed Rock Area. The University of Arizona, Tucson (55 pp). Cockrell, S.W., de Graauw, K.K., Ziegler, A.M., Hessl, A.E., 2017. Precision dating of Cook's Mill, a Civil War era structure in West Virginia. Dendrochronologia 43, 20–26. Deagan, K.A., 1983. Spanish St. Augustine: The Archaeology of a Colonial Creole Community. Academic Press, New York. 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In: Jose, S., Jokela, E.J., Miller, D.L. (Eds.), The Longleaf Pine Ecosystem – Ecology, Silviculture, and Restoration. Springer, New York, NY, US, pp. 9–48. Garland, N.A., Grissino-Mayer, H.D., Deagan, K., Harley, G.L., Waters, G., 2012. Dendrochronological dating of wood from the fountain of Youth Park archaeological site (8SJ31), St. Augustine, Florida, USA. Tree-Ring Research 68 (1), 69–78. Giraud, M., 1974. A history of French Louisiana. In: Lambert, Joseph C. (Ed.), The Reign of Louis XIV, 1698–1715, trans. vol. 1. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, pp. 59–61. Grissino-Mayer, H.D., 2009. Preface: an introduction to dendroarchaeology in the southeastern United States. Tree-Ring Research 65 (1), 5–10. Grissino-Mayer, H.D., Hally, D.J., 2017. An attempt to dendrochronologically date house features at the King site (9FL5), a 16th century Late Mississippian town in northwestern Georgia, USA. Dendrochronologia 43, 66–73. Grissino-Mayer, H.D., van de Gevel, S.L., 2007. Tell-tale tress: historical dendroarchaeology of log structures at Rocky Mount, Piney Flats, Tennessee. Hist. Archaeol. 41 (4), 32. Grissino-Mayer, H.D., Kobziar, L.N., Harley, G.L., Russell, K.P., LaForest, L.B., Oppermann, J.K., 2010. The historical dendroarchaeology of the Ximénez-Fatio House, St. Augustine, Florida, USA. Tree-Ring Research 66 (1), 61–73. Grissino-Mayer, H.D., Maxwell, J.T., Harley, G.L., Garland, N.A., Holt, D.H., Absher, C., Beale, B.J., Boehm, M.S., de Graauw, K.A., Rautio, A.M., Dye, A.W., 2013. Dendrochronology reveals the construction history of an early 19th century farm settlement, Southwestern Virginia, USA. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40 (1), 481–489. Grissino-Mayer, H.D., Schneider, E.A., Rochner, M.L., Stachowiak, L.A., Dennison, M.E., 2017. Tree-ring dating of timbers from Sabine Hill, home of General Nathaniel Taylor, Elizabethton, Tennessee, USA. Dendrochronologia 43, 33–40. Hamilton, P.J., 1910. Colonial Mobile, revised edition. Houghton-Mifflin, Boston, MA. 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