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Predictors of the actual degree of acculturation of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents in Finland
International Journal of Intercultural Relations 24 (2000) 503±518 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel
Predictors of the actual degree of acculturation of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents in Finland Inga Jasinskaja-Lahti*, Karmela Liebkind University of Helsinki, Department of Social Psychology, PO Box 4 (Fabianinkatu 28), 00014, Helsinki, Finland
Abstract This study examines what kind of interrelatedness exists between various aspects of the acculturation process and to what extent they predict the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation. In a comparison of a sample of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents N 170 living in Finland with a sample of their native Finnish peers N 190), the actual degree of acculturation is conceptualized as changes in the immigrants' family-related values, which represent a deep cultural inheritance transmitted to the adolescents by their parents. Immigrants' demographic characteristics, ethnic identity, acculturation attitudes, and experiences of family support are found to be important predictors of the actual degree of acculturation. Conditions and speci®c features of speci®c acculturation modes are discussed, and the importance of identifying and analyzing separately the distinctive components of the acculturation process is stressed. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Immigration; Adolescents; Socialization; Degree of acculturation; Values; Russia
1. Acculturation as resocialization Socialization has been seen as a lifelong process of development, involving changes and continuities of the human organism in interaction with the * Corresponding author. Tel.: +358-9-19123232; fax: +358-9-19122973. E-mail address: inga.jasinskaja@helsinki.® (I. Jasinskaja-Lahti). 0147-1767/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 4 7 - 1 7 6 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 1 0 - 9
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environment (KagÆitc° ibas° i, 1988). The total cultural context aects the socialization process and produces at the same time cultural variations in socialization patterns. The acculturation of immigrants has been conceptualized by psychological disciplines as a case of resocialization involving such psychological features as changes in attitudes, values and identi®cation; the acquisition of new social skills and norms; changes in reference and membership group aliations; and emotional adjustment to a changed environment (Sam, 1994). In the acculturation framework developed by Berry and his colleagues (Berry, 1984, 1986, 1990, 1992; Berry, Trimble & Olmedo, 1986; Berry, Kim, Minde & Mok, 1987) the internal psychological outcomes described above have been seen as a function of immigrants' identi®cation with their own and the mainstream culture. The core of the acculturation strategy model (Berry, 1990; Berry et al., 1987) consists of two basic questions addressed to the members of ethno-cultural minorities: (a) whether or not they consider it to be of value to maintain their original cultural identity and characteristics, and (b) whether or not they consider it to be of value to maintain relationships and contacts with the dominant group. The fundamental decision-making process refers to the choice of acculturation strategy. Because acculturation is a set of alternatives (Berry, 1990; Liebkind, 1984, 1989) and because individuals dier in the extent to which they behave in terms of group memberships (Tajfel, 1978; Lange & Westin, 1981), four strategies or acculturation attitudes have been derived: assimilation, integration, separation and marginalization (Berry et al., 1987). The outcome of the acculturation process refers in turn to the actual degree of an individual's acculturation, which also depends on experiences of the individual with members of both groups over time (Hutnik, 1991) and on a number of situational factors (Johnston & Hewstone, 1990). Although empirical research has assessed a wide variety of ethnic involvements, cultural activities, and attitudes to explain immigrants' acculturation (Phinney, 1990), it has often neglected to specify and dierentiate the precise psychological processes underlying acculturation (Liebkind, 1984, 1989, 1992, 1996a). Thus the speci®c task of acculturation research is still the careful investigation of the relationships between an individual's personal meaning of his or her membership in a particular ethnic category (ethnic identity), his or her attitudes toward cultural change (acculturation strategies), and the cultural values the individual has actually endorsed (actual degree of acculturation). In this study we will carefully investigate the relationships between the dierent aspects of the acculturation process and how these can be used to predict the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation. The actual degree of acculturation is conceptualized here as changes in the immigrants' family-related values, which represent a deep cultural inheritance transmitted to the adolescents by their parents. In the total sociocultural environment it is the parents, especially the mothers and their child-rearing practices, which have been proven to have the greatest in¯uence (KagÆitc° ibas° i, 1988). The importance of the family has also been stressed as a typical cultural value which provides stability and continuation of the culture (Smolicz, 1981; Triandis, Kashima, Shimada & Villareal, 1986), and it is
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changes in the cultural values which, after migration, most clearly represent the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation.
2. Russian-speaking immigrants in Finland Russian-speaking immigrants constitute the most numerous immigrant group in Finland. However, the majority of these are returnees of Finnish descent from the former Soviet Union. Their ancestors are Finns who emigrated to the former Soviet Union mostly during the 1930s from Finland, Canada and the USA, and so-called Ingrian Finns (i.e., the descendants of Finns who emigrated between the 17th and the beginning of the 20th century to rural Ingria, which is located partly in Russia and partly in Estonia). With respect to the cultural adaptation of this immigrant group in Finland, the youngest generation seems to have the most problems. It diers from the older immigrants because of its mixed ethnic background and its marked tendency toward monolingualism in the Russian language. One important cause for the generation dierences may be found in the assimilation policy practiced in the Soviet Union during the Stalinist era and after World War II which sought to dissolve all the contemporary Soviet nations into a new Russian-speaking nation with a denationalized cultural identity and a new national self-awareness (Nevalainen, 1990; Hint, 1991). ``Who are we?'' This question appears to trouble young Russian-speaking immigrants. Although many of them used to identify themselves as Finns, it is to be expected that, due to their Russi®cation, their Finnishness will dier from that of the native Finns and that they will show dierent socialization outcomes compared to native Finns. The prevailing family values in modern Finnish society emphasize individual independence and self-reliance in child development. These values, in particular the looseness of family bonds, has been related to the urbanized enterprise culture of the Western world (Kagan & Madsen, 1972; Smart & Smart, 1977). In contrast, the socialization values that are stressed in the Russian culture assume greater dependence on and orientation towards adult norms than is generally the case in Western families (Bronfenbrenner, 1970). In addition, the objective socio-economic conditions that characterized the life of immigrants before their immigration were associated with a high material dependence, as great value was placed on closely knit interpersonal ties and interdependence, rather than independence (KagÆitc° ibas° i, 1988). Accordingly, the cultural gap experienced by Russian-speaking immigrants could be substantial. However, the comparison of the two socialization models provided by the family and the new environment and thus also the outcome of acculturation depend on the way each young individual relates the core values of his or her own ethnic culture to the value system of the host society (Rotheram & Phinney, 1987). They depend also upon what these immigrants bring to each situation and how adaptable, trustful and supporting they experience their relationships with the socialization partners to be (Hortac° su, Oral & Yasak-GuÈltekin, 1991). Especially
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in the case of teenagers, changes in their cultural values often relate to con¯icts with their parents, which further complicates their adaptation. In sum, to explore these theoretical and empirical issues, we examined what kind of interelatedness exists between various aspects of the acculturation process and to what extent they predict the actual degree of acculturation among Russianspeaking immigrant adolescents in Finland. Firstly, we hypothesized that the dierent aspects of acculturation would be interrelated in a complex manner. In this pattern, however, we assumed the adolescents' experiences of family relations to be of special importance for their cultural acculturation. We also assumed that the Russian and Finnish identities of the immigrant adolescents would show dierent relationships to dierent acculturation attitudes, with the Russian identity relating more to the separation and the Finnish identity more to the assimilation attitudes. Secondly, we hypothesized that, due to the dierent socialization norms in the Russian culture, the Russian-speaking adolescents in Finland would dier from their Finnish peers in their degree of adherence to traditional family-related values. Thirdly, we assumed that adolescents with a high degree of actual acculturation would tend to be those who arrived in Finland at a younger age and had stayed in Finland for a longer period. We also expected these adolescents to have experienced less family support and to express acculturation attitudes supporting integration or assimilation to a higher degree than others. In addition, the degree of Finnish identity of the immigrant adolescents was not expected to be associated with the degree of their actual acculturation in terms of endorsing Finnish values prevailing in Finland today.
3. Method 3.1. Participants In all, 360 young people were studied: 170 Russian-speaking immigrants and 190 native Finns. The immigrant group consisted of 93 boys and 77 girls who had arrived in Finland between 1987 and 1996 and were living in the region of Helsinki. Their overall mean age was 15.01 years (SD=1.49 years). The native group was composed of 103 boys and 87 girls. The overall mean age of the native group was 14.5 years (SD=1.01 years). Descriptive data collected for the immigrant group provided the following pro®le. The mean age of the young immigrants at the time of their immigration was 12.5 years. Their age at immigration was fairly evenly distributed over a range of 7±18 years, with a mode of 9 years. At the time the data were collected, the young immigrants had been residing in Finland for a mean of 2.5 years. The length of their residence in Finland ranged from 0.5 years to 9 years, with a mode of 2 years. They had come from dierent regions: 53% from Russia, 34% from Estonia, and 13% from other parts of the former Soviet Union. They had also come largely from mixed ethnic family backgrounds: 36% of the immigrant
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mothers and 47% of the fathers were Russians, 16% of the mothers and 18% of the fathers were Ingrian Finns, 34% of the mothers and 19% of the fathers were Finns, and 14% of the mothers and 16% of the fathers represented other nationalities from the former Soviet Union. Irrespective of the great variability in parental ethnicity, 75% of the immigrant mothers and 70% of the fathers came to Finland under returnee status. This means that almost every immigrant adolescent in this study came from a family of some Finnish descent. 3.2. Procedure This study was carried out in secondary schools in the region of Helsinki. All secondary schools identi®ed as having Russian-speaking immigrant students were contacted and invited to participate in the study. None of them refused to participate. The researcher personally visited these schools and invited immigrant students and randomly selected natives to participate in the study at a designated time. The natives were selected from the same school levels and, when possible, also from the same classes as the immigrant respondents. All participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and that their responses were con®dential. As a rule, all students present in school at a designated time completed the questionnaire, which took approximately one hour. The questionnaire has been translated into Finnish and Russian from the original English version by two researchers at the University of Helsinki. Native students were given the Finnish version of the questionnaire, and immigrants were given a choice of answering the questionnaire in Finnish or Russian. All immigrants preferred to complete the Russian version of the questionnaire. 3.3. Measures All the measures used in the study were assembled by an international group of researchers1 for use in a study of adaptation among immigrant and ethnic minority adolescents. These measures were either developed for the project or taken directly or with modi®cation from existing scales, as described below. All response options represented Likert-type scales. 3.3.1. Ethnic identity Ethnic identity, consisting of cognitive, evaluative, and emotional components (Tajfel, 1981), was assessed using a 14-item measure modi®ed by the researchers from Phinney's (1992) ethnic identity scale. The measure covered the extent of multi-ethnicity of the immigrants' identity, including such statements as ``I feel proud to be a Russian'', `` I feel that I'm a part of the Finnish culture'', etc. Using maximum likelihood factor analysis and varimax-rotation, the 14 items supported
1 John Berry and Kyunghwa Kwak (Canada), Karmela Liebkind (Finland), Jean Phinney (USA), Colette Sabatier (France), David L. Sam (Norway), Charles Westin and Erkki Virta (Sweden).
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a two-factor solution for the immigrants' ethnic identity in accordance with the acculturation perspective of ethnic identity (Berry, 1986, 1990; Berry et al., 1987; Hutnik, 1986). The two factors were named degree of Russian identity and degree of Finnish identity. The Cronbach alpha of the ®rst scale was 0.90, and of the second 0.71. The items loading ranged in the degree of Russian identity factor between 0.36 and 0.80 and in the degree of Finnish identity factor between 0.61 and 0.88. 3.3.2. Acculturation attitudes Twenty items were formulated by Berry, Kim, Power, Young and Bujaki (1989) to tap acculturation attitudes among immigrant adolescents on the basis of the theoretical model of psychological acculturation. The scale assessed assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization acculturation attitudes in each of ®ve domains: marriage, cultural traditions, language, social activities, and friends. The maximum likelihood factor analysis of the scale items supported Berry's model, suggesting a four-factor solution. The assimilation factor (e.g., ``I feel that Russian-speaking people should adapt in Finland to Finnish cultural traditions and not maintain those of their own'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.43 and 0.70, and Cronbach alpha=0.72. The Separation factor (e.g., ``It is more important to me to be ¯uent in Russian than in Finnish'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.33 and 0.76, and Cronbach alpha=0.53. The integration factor (e.g., ``I prefer social activities which involve both Russian-speaking people and Finns'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.49 and 0.74, and Cronbach alpha=0.68. The marginalization factor (e.g., ``I don't want to have either Finnish or Russian-speaking friends'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.36 and 0.58, and Cronbach alpha=0.38. 3.3.3. Experiences of family support The measure of immigrants' experiences of their parents' support and understanding consisted of six items: three items that assessed their experiences of mother's support and understanding (e.g., ``My mother and I understand each other'') and three items those of the father's (e.g., ``When something is troubling me I can always discuss it with my father''). For separate investigation of relationships with mothers and fathers these two factors were extracted from a maximum likelihood factor analysis, with the ®rst referring to adolescents' experiences of the mother's support and understanding (Cronbach alpha=0.72; all factor loadings between 0.72 and 0.80) and the second to those of the father's (Cronbach alpha=0.77; all factor loadings between 0.55 and 0.99). 3.3.4. Family-related values A 14-item questionnaire of family-related values developed by Nguyen and Williams (1989), Georgas (1989) and Georgas, Berry, Shaw, Christakopoulo and Mylonas (1996) was used to assess family values characteristic of the immigrants and natives on the one hand and the actual degree of acculturation of the immigrant adolescents on the other. This scale consisted of items assessing
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attitudes towards parental authority (e.g., ``Parents always know what is best'') and adolescent autonomy (e.g., ``It is all right for the girl over the age of 18 to decide when to marry and whom to marry''). In order to compare the immigrants' and the natives' values, the immigrant and native samples were merged into the same factor analysis. Two factors were extracted from a maximum likelihood factor analysis. The two factors were named parental authority (Cronbach alpha=0.80) and children's rights (Cronbach alpha=0.81), with the former indicating the adherence to hierarchical family structures based on age and gender, and the latter indicating the extent of acceptance of children's autonomy and freedom of choice. The item loadings ranged in the parental authority factor between 0.33 and 0.73 and in the children's rights factor between 0.54 and 0.88 3.3.5. Demographic variables The adolescents reported their gender, age, place of birth, age on arrival in Finland if foreign-born, their ethnicity and the ethnicity of their parents. Duration of immigrant adolescents' residence in Finland was calculated by subtracting their age of arrival in Finland from their present age. 3.4. Analysis of data To answer the ®rst question regarding the interelatedness of dierent aspects of the adolescents' acculturation, Pearson correlation coecients were computed. The second question about the dierences between immigrants and natives in their family-related values was examined by using two two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA). The third question on predictors of immigrants' actual degree of acculturation was examined by using discriminant analysis.
4. Results Before addressing the main questions of the actual degree of the immigrants' acculturation the relationships between their ethnic identity, acculturation attitudes, family-related values, experiences of family support, and such demographic variables as age on arrival and duration of residence in Finland were investigated using Pearson correlation coecients. Due to large number of intercorrelations only those statistically signi®cant p < 0:01 and very signi®cant p < 0:001 are discussed (see Table 1). As seen in Table 1, there was considerable interrelatedness between the ethnic identity of immigrants and acculturation attitudes. As we expected, the Russian and Finnish identities of the immigrants were dierently related to the acculturation attitudes. Immigrants who scored high in Russian identity seemed to prefer separation attitudes instead of assimilation attitudes. In contrast, the immigrants' Finnish identity correlated positively with assimilation attitudes and negatively with separation attitudes. The correlations did not indicate signi®cant relationships between the immigrants' ethnic identity
Note:
p < 0.01,
p < 0.001.
1.00 ÿ0.04 0.38 ÿ0.30 ÿ0.13 0.16 ÿ0.14 0.01 ÿ0.13 0.09 ÿ0.14 0.17
1. Degree of Russian identity 2. Degree of Finnish identity 3. Separation attitudes 4. Assimilation attitudes 5. Marginalization attitudes 6. Integration attitudes 7. Children's rights 8. Parental authority 9. Mother's support 10. Father's support 11. Age of arrival 12. Duration of residence a
1
Index 1.00 ÿ0.37 0.31 ÿ0.07 0.17 0.10 0.17 ÿ0.05 0.11 0.08 ÿ0.12
2
1.00 ÿ0.06 0.05 ÿ0.05 ÿ0.10 ÿ0.01 ÿ0.06 0.06 ÿ0.21 0.19
3
1.00 0.09 0.02 0.15 0.12 0.03 0.19 0.11 ÿ0.14
4
1.00 ÿ0.09 0.12 ÿ0.12 ÿ0.05 0.02 ÿ0.13 0.17
5
1.00 ÿ0.22 0.09 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00
6
1.00 ÿ0.13 0.02 ÿ0.09 0.00 ÿ0.02
7
1.00 0.29 0.32 0.08 ÿ0.14
8
1.00 0.01 ÿ0.04 ÿ0.05
9
1.00 0.03 ÿ0.06
10
Table 1 Pearson correlations between the indices used in this study to assess processes underlying acculturation of Russian-speaking adolescentsa
1.00 ÿ0.71
11
1.00
12
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and their family-related values. Likewise, there were no systematic statistically signi®cant correlations between the family-related values of immigrants and their acculturation attitudes, except for one negative correlation between immigrants' acceptance of limitations of children's independence and integration acculturation attitudes. According to our expectations, however, the immigrants' experiences of their relationship with both parents were signi®cantly related to their actual degree of acculturation in terms of adherence to family values that stressed the importance of parental authority. The more immigrants experienced the support and understanding provided by their mothers and fathers, the less they accepted equality between the parents and children in family decision-making. The immigrants' age on arrival was signi®cantly related only to their separation attitudes. The younger the immigrants arrived in Finland the less they held separation attitudes. The duration of the immigrants' residence in Finland was not signi®cantly related to any index of acculturation (see Table 1). To answer the second question about the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation, dierences between the immigrants and natives in family-related values were tested by using two two-way, 2 (status: immigrant vs native) 2 (gender: girl vs boy), analyses of variance (ANOVA) with two factor scores which measured the adolescents' adherence to family-related values as dependent variables. The results of the analysis regarding adolescents' acceptance of parental authority are presented in Table 2 and those regarding their acceptance of children's rights in Table 3. As we expected, the immigrants diered statistically signi®cantly from their Finnish peers in both factor scores: they accepted more parental authority (see Table 2) and less autonomy of children (see Table 3). The boys also accepted the needs for limitations of childrens' independence more than the girls (see Table 3). There were no signi®cant status gender interactions on these two scales. Because the explanation of the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation was of special interest in this study, a discriminant function analysis was performed to identify the underlying structure of the data and to directly investigate the variables as predictors of the immigrants' actual degree of acculturation. The precise aim of this analysis was to dierentiate the more acculturated immigrants whose family values were similar to those of `typical' Finnish adolescents (who approved of Finnish family values) from the less acculturated immigrants, whose family values were more traditional. The classi®cation variable was modi®ed from the two factor scores that measured the immigrants' family related values. Those immigrants whose values on both factor scores ranged between M 2 SD as measured from the distribution of native Finns constituted a ®rst discriminant group. These adolescents n 54 represented those who had family values similar to the `typical' Finnish adolescents. The second group n 110 consisted of those immigrants whose family values were greater in both factors compared to the ®rst group (greater than M+SD as measured from the distribution of native Finns). These adolescents represented the more traditional immigrants. Nobody from the immigrant group had scores in both factors that were similar to those of Finnish adolescents whose values were less traditional comparing to the `typical' Finnish
a
df 1, 356 1, 356 1, 356
0.46 0.85
p < 0.001.
F 107.73 3.43 3.18
0.45 0.84
0.46 0.87
ÿ0.41 0.75
All sample (N = 190)
Boys (n = 93)
All sample (N = 170)
Girls (n = 77)
Natives
Immigrants
Note: The higher the mean is, the greater is the acceptance of parental authority.
Parental authority M SD Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): F-test for the analysis of variance model: F 3, 359 55:78, p < 0:001 Source for hypothesis: Status Gender Status Gender
Family-related values
Table 2 Two-way analysis of variance for immigrants' and natives' family-related values regarding acceptance of parental authoritya
ÿ0.57 0.67
Girls (n = 87)
ÿ0.27 0.80
Boys (n = 103)
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adolescents (less than M-SD as measured from the distribution of native Finns) compared to the `typical' Finns in the ®rst group. For this reason the third discriminant group was not established. All indexes of this study were included in the analysis, i.e., degree of Russian and Finnish identity, acculturation attitudes towards assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization, two indexes of family support regarding adolescents' relationships with both parents, and demographic variables such as gender, age on arrival and duration of residence in Finland. Those variables that were most important in distinguishing the more and the less acculturated immigrant groups (those with loadings >0.30) were identi®ed. The evaluation of the assumption of homogeneity of the variancecovariance matrices revealed no threat to multivariate analysis. One signi®cant discriminant function was isolated, with a w 2 11, N 164 25:88, p < 0:01: This discriminant function maximally separated the less acculturated or traditional immigrant adolescents from the more acculturated, and it was labeled degree of acculturation. This function correctly classi®ed 66% of the respondents. The loading matrix of correlations between predictors and the discriminant function suggested, as shown in Table 4, that the best predictors for distinguishing between the more acculturated and the less acculturated immigrants were the immigrants' degree of Finnish identity, their separation attitudes, their experience of mother's understanding and support, and the duration of their residence in Finland. As we expected, a high degree of the immigrants' Finnish identity was not associated with a high degree of acculturation, but, on the contrary, with a low
Table 3 Two-way analysis of variance for immigrants' and natives' family-related values regarding acceptance of children's rightsa Family-related values
Immigrants All sample (N = 170)
Children's rights M SD Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): F-test for the analysis of variance model: F 3,359 11:62, p < 0:001 Source for hypothesis: Status Gender Status gender
0.21 1.05
df 1, 356 1, 356 1, 356
Natives Girls Boys All sample (n = 77) (n = 93) (N = 190)
0.06 0.87
0.33 1.18
ÿ0.19 0.76
Girls Boys (n = 87) (n = 103)
ÿ0.30 0.72
ÿ0.09 0.78
F 16.55 6.48 0.12
a Note: The higher the mean is, the greater is the acceptance of children's obedience to parents. p < 0.05, p < 0.001.
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degree of acculturation (mean 0.13 vs ÿ0.20). This re¯ects the dierent nature of the Finnishness of the immigrants compared to that of the natives. Although the less acculturated immigrant adolescents did not dier from the more acculturated ones in their experiences of father's support and understanding (mean ÿ0.10 vs 0.05), they experienced a higher degree of mother's support and understanding than did the more acculturated immigrants (mean 0.19 vs ÿ0.39). Surprisingly, the more acculturated immigrants also seemed to be more orientated toward separation than the less acculturated immigrants (mean 0.15 vs ÿ0.09). In terms of demographic characteristics, the immigrant adolescents who had been in Finland for a longer time were, as expected, more acculturated than those who had stayed in the country for a shorter time (mean 2.86 vs 2.25). However, against expectations, age on arrival in Finland did not by itself discriminate signi®cantly between more and less acculturated immigrants (mean 12.24 vs 12.72).
Table 4 Results of discriminant function analysis of predictors of immigrants' high vs low degree of acculturationa Predictor variable Ethnic identity Degree of Russian identity Degree of Finnish identity Acculturation attitudes Separation Assimilation Marginalization Integration Experiences of family support Mother's support Father's support Demographic factors Gender Age on arrival in Finland Length of residence in Finland Canonical R Eigenvalue
Correlation of predictor variables with discriminant function 0.20
Univariate F df=1, 162 1.15
ÿ0.40
4.41
0.31 ÿ0.28 ÿ0.7 0.04
2.84 2.23 0.15 0.04
ÿ0.67 ÿ0.19
13.15 1.03
ÿ0.29 ÿ0.28 0.45
2.40 2.26 5.93
0.39 0.18
a Note: The correlations are given with regard to the high degree of acculturation. p < 0.05, 0.001.
p<
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5. Discussion The ®ndings of this study indicate that there are complex relations between the dierent processes underlying acculturation. The ethnic identity of immigrants does not seem to be related to their actual degree of acculturation in terms of the cultural values they actually have adopted. This ®nding supports notions of the relative independence of these two components of the acculturation process (Driedger, 1976; Der-Karabetian, 1980; Hutnik, 1986, 1991). The absence of intercorrelations between the immigrants' ethnic identity and their family-related values also provides a strong support for the important theoretical point made by Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) that the characteristics that re¯ect crucial cultural values and distinguish cultural groups from one another are not a basis for the extent of adolescents' identi®cation with their group. In this study the immigrant adolescents' adherence to family-related values and, especially, to the acceptance of parental authority, was associated with the quality of their relationships with both parents. This result is consistent with the ®ndings stressing the importance of perceptions of family relationships for individual socialization (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). In addition, the result also emphasizes the importance of good relationships between the immigrant adolescents and their parents. Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents seem to sustain those family values which are important for their parents instead of moving away from the family tradition. The immigrants' ethnic identity seems to be strongly but not exclusively related to their acculturation attitudes, supporting previous ®ndings which have emphasized the crucial role of ethnic identity in distinguishing between dierent acculturation attitudes (Sommerlad & Berry; 1970). In this study the immigrants with a high degree of Russian identity seemed to be orientated toward separation, while the immigrants with a high degree of Finnish identity seemed to prefer the assimilation attitudes. However, neither the degree of Russian nor the degree of Finnish identity was connected with the integration or marginalization attitudes. This result indicates that neither their eorts to be integrated into a new culture nor their failure to anchor themselves in either culture is signi®cantly related to their multiple ethnic identity (Liebkind, 1996b). As we expected, immigrant adolescents shared more traditional family values than their native Finnish peers. In this study, as in other comparable ones (Garcia & Lega, 1979; Rogler, Cooney & Ortiz, 1980; Liebkind, 1996a, 1996b), the longer the immigrants had lived in Finland, the greater their reported degree of acculturation. Most importantly, in this study the increasing level of acculturation was strongly associated with a decrease of the immigrants adolescents' experiences of support and understanding provided by their parents, especially by their mothers, supporting similar ®ndings reported by Rick and Forward (1992). It is important, however, to understand how and to what extent the acculturation con¯ict is manifested in tensions within the immigrants' families. Immigrant parents, especially mothers, who often feel that they are the only `guardians' of their culture and responsible for child-rearing (Liebkind, 1996a), may feel insecure
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and worry about the children, especially daughters, moving away from the parents' control. Thus they become increasingly authoritarian, which is more likely to result in frustration and loss of con®dence in the adolescent. An interesting point relates to our ®nding that the high degree of immigrants' acculturation was associated with the low degree of their Finnish identity as well as with their separation attitudes. This result supports our expectation about the speci®c nature of Finnish identity of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents in terms of their traditional family values. Their Finnish identity seems to dier from that of the natives, and it could be characterized as an `imagined' identity re¯ecting the awareness of immigrants of their own Finnish roots as learned from the family history rather than of actual Finnish values prevailing in Finland today. This result also indicates a con¯ict between the immigrants' acculturation attitudes and the actual degree of their acculturation. Although the immigrants would prefer to keep their culture at the attitudinal level, they actually acculturate to the mainstream culture. Due to these results, the need for a separate assessment of ethnic identity, acculturation attitudes, and actual degree of immigrants' acculturation is strongly justi®ed. In summary, this study demonstrates the importance of identifying and analyzing separately the distinctive components of the acculturation process for an accurate understanding of the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation. More acculturation research is needed to understand and better predict the conditions under which new patterns of cultural socialization would provide favorable circumstances for the immigrants' adaptation to new environmental demands. Acknowledgements This research was supported by grants from the Ministry of Education and 350th Anniversary Foundation of the University of Helsinki (Finland) to Inga Jasinskaja-Lahti. References Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and per attachment: Individual dierences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(5), 427±454. Berry, J. W. (1984). Cultural relations in plural societies: Alternatives to segregation and their sociopsychological implications. In N. Miller & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact (pp. 11±27). New York: Academic Press. Berry, J. W. (1986). The acculturation process and refugee behavior. In C. L. Williams & J. Westermeyer (Eds.), Refugee mental health in resettlement countries. The series in clinical and community psychology (pp. 25±37). Washington: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. Berry, J. W. (1990). Psychology of acculturation. In J. J. Berman (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1989: Cross-cultural perspectives. Current theory and research in motivation (Vol. 37, pp. 201±234). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Berry, J. W. (1992). Acculturation and adaptation in a new society. International Migration, 30, 69±85.
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Berry, J. W., Trimble, J. E., & Olmedo, E. L. (1986). Assessment of acculturation. In W. J. Lonner & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Field methods in cross-cultural research (pp. 291±349). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Minde, T., & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21(3), 491±511. Berry, J., Kim, U., Power, S., Young, M., & Bujaki, M. (1989). Acculturation attitudes in plural societies. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 38, 185±206. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1970). Two worlds of childhood: US and USSR. New York: Russel Sage. Der-Karabetian, A. (1980). Relation of two cultural identities of Armenian-Americans. Psychological Reports, 47, 123±128. Driedger, L. (1976). Ethnic self-identity: A comparison of ingroup evaluations. Sociometry, 39, 131± 141. Garcia, M., & Lega, L. (1979). Development of a Cuban ethnic identity questionnaire. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 1, 247±261. Georgas, J. (1989). Changing family values in Greece: From collectivism to individualism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20, 80±91. Georgas, J., Berry, J., Shaw, A., Christakopoulou, S., & Mylonas, K. (1996). Acculturation of Greek family values. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 329±338. Hint, M. (1991). The changing language situation: Russian in¯uences on contemporary Estonian. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 12(1&2), 111±118. Hortac° su, N., Oral, A., & Yasak-GuÈltekin, Y. (1991). Factors aecting relationships of Turkish adolescents with parents and same-sex friends. The Journal of Social Psychology, 131(3), 413±426. Hutnik, N. (1986). Patterns of ethnic minority identi®cation and modes of social adaptation. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 9(2), 150±167. Hutnik, N. (1991). Ethnic minority identity. A social psychological perspective. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Johnston, L., & Hewstone, M. (1990). Intergroup contact: Social identity and social cognition. In D. Abrams & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity theory. Constructive and critical advances (pp. 185± 210). New York: Hawerter Wheatsheet. Kagan, S., & Madsen, M. C. (1972). Cooperation and competition of Mexican, Mexican-American and Anglo-American children at two ages under four instructional sets. Developmental Psychology, 5, 37±39. KagÆitc° ibas° i, C° (1988). Diversity of socialization and social change. In P. R. Dase, J. W. Berry & N. Sartorius (Eds.), Health and cross-cultural psychology (pp. 25±47). Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Lange, A., & Westin, C. (1981). Etnisk diskriminering och social identitet (Ethnic discrimination and social identity). Stockholm: Publica, Liber FoÈrlag. Liebkind, K. (1984). Minority identity and identi®cation processes: A social psychological study: Maintenance and reconstruction of ethnolinguistic identity in multiple group allegiance Commentationes Scientiarum Socialium 22 (Helsinki, Finland). Liebkind, K. (1989). Conceptual approaches to ethnic identity. In K. Liebkind (Ed.), New identities in Europe: Immigrant ancestry of youth (pp. 25±40). Aldershot, England: Gower. Liebkind, K. (1992). Ethnic identity Ð challenging the boundaries of social psychology. In G. M. Breakwell (Ed.), Social psychology of identity and the self concept (pp. 147±185). London: Surrey University Press. Liebkind, K. (1996a). Acculturation and stress. Vietnamese refugees in Finland. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 27(2), 161±180. Liebkind, K. (1996b). Vietnamese refugees in Finland Ð Changing cultural identity. In G. M. Breakwell & E. Lyons (Eds.), Changing European identities: Social psychological analysis of social change (pp. 227±240). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Nevalainen, P. (1990). InkerilaÈinen siirtovaÈki Suomessa 1940-luvulla. (1940s' Ingrian immigrants in Finland). Helsinki: Otava. Nguyen, N., & Williams, H. (1989). Transition from east to west: Vietnamese adolescents and their parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 505±515. Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 499±514.
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Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with adolescents and youth adults from diverse group. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156±176. Rick, K., & Forward, J. (1992). Acculturation and perceived intergenerational dierences among Hmong youth. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23(1), 85±94. Rogler, L. H., Cooney, R. S., & Ortiz, V. (1980). Intergenerational change in ethnic identity in the Puerto Rican family. International Migration Review, 14(2), 193±214. Rosenthal, D. A., & Feldman, S. S. (1992). The nature and stability of ethnic identity in Chinese youth. Eects of length of residence in two cultural contexts. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23(2), 214±227. Rotheram, M. J., & Phinney, J. S. (1987). Introduction: De®nitions and perspectives in the study of children's ethnic socialization. In J. S. Phinney & M. J. Rotheram (Eds.), Children's ethnic socialization. Pluralism and development (pp. 10±28). Newbury Park: Sage. Sam, D. L. (1994). Acculturation of young immigrants in Norway. A psychological and socio-cultural adaptation. Bergen: University of Bergen. Smart, M. S., & Smart, R. C. (1977). Children: Development and relationships. New York: Macmillan. Smolicz, J. (1981). Core values and cultural identity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 4, 75±90. Sommerlad, E. A., & Berry, J. W. (1970). The role of ethnic identi®cation in distinguishing between attitudes towards assimilation and integration of a minority racial group. Human Relations, 13(1), 23±29. Tajfel, H. (1978). Interindividual behavior and intergroup behavior. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Dierentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 27±45). In European Monographs in Social Psychology, No. 14. London: Academic Press. Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Studies in social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Triandis, H. C., Kashima, Y., Shimada, E., & Villareal, M. (1986). Acculturation indices as a means of con®rming cultural dierences. International Journal of Psychology, 21, 43±70.
Predictors of the actual degree of acculturation of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents in Finland Inga Jasinskaja-Lahti*, Karmela Liebkind University of Helsinki, Department of Social Psychology, PO Box 4 (Fabianinkatu 28), 00014, Helsinki, Finland
Abstract This study examines what kind of interrelatedness exists between various aspects of the acculturation process and to what extent they predict the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation. In a comparison of a sample of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents N 170 living in Finland with a sample of their native Finnish peers N 190), the actual degree of acculturation is conceptualized as changes in the immigrants' family-related values, which represent a deep cultural inheritance transmitted to the adolescents by their parents. Immigrants' demographic characteristics, ethnic identity, acculturation attitudes, and experiences of family support are found to be important predictors of the actual degree of acculturation. Conditions and speci®c features of speci®c acculturation modes are discussed, and the importance of identifying and analyzing separately the distinctive components of the acculturation process is stressed. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Immigration; Adolescents; Socialization; Degree of acculturation; Values; Russia
1. Acculturation as resocialization Socialization has been seen as a lifelong process of development, involving changes and continuities of the human organism in interaction with the * Corresponding author. Tel.: +358-9-19123232; fax: +358-9-19122973. E-mail address: inga.jasinskaja@helsinki.® (I. Jasinskaja-Lahti). 0147-1767/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 4 7 - 1 7 6 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 1 0 - 9
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environment (KagÆitc° ibas° i, 1988). The total cultural context aects the socialization process and produces at the same time cultural variations in socialization patterns. The acculturation of immigrants has been conceptualized by psychological disciplines as a case of resocialization involving such psychological features as changes in attitudes, values and identi®cation; the acquisition of new social skills and norms; changes in reference and membership group aliations; and emotional adjustment to a changed environment (Sam, 1994). In the acculturation framework developed by Berry and his colleagues (Berry, 1984, 1986, 1990, 1992; Berry, Trimble & Olmedo, 1986; Berry, Kim, Minde & Mok, 1987) the internal psychological outcomes described above have been seen as a function of immigrants' identi®cation with their own and the mainstream culture. The core of the acculturation strategy model (Berry, 1990; Berry et al., 1987) consists of two basic questions addressed to the members of ethno-cultural minorities: (a) whether or not they consider it to be of value to maintain their original cultural identity and characteristics, and (b) whether or not they consider it to be of value to maintain relationships and contacts with the dominant group. The fundamental decision-making process refers to the choice of acculturation strategy. Because acculturation is a set of alternatives (Berry, 1990; Liebkind, 1984, 1989) and because individuals dier in the extent to which they behave in terms of group memberships (Tajfel, 1978; Lange & Westin, 1981), four strategies or acculturation attitudes have been derived: assimilation, integration, separation and marginalization (Berry et al., 1987). The outcome of the acculturation process refers in turn to the actual degree of an individual's acculturation, which also depends on experiences of the individual with members of both groups over time (Hutnik, 1991) and on a number of situational factors (Johnston & Hewstone, 1990). Although empirical research has assessed a wide variety of ethnic involvements, cultural activities, and attitudes to explain immigrants' acculturation (Phinney, 1990), it has often neglected to specify and dierentiate the precise psychological processes underlying acculturation (Liebkind, 1984, 1989, 1992, 1996a). Thus the speci®c task of acculturation research is still the careful investigation of the relationships between an individual's personal meaning of his or her membership in a particular ethnic category (ethnic identity), his or her attitudes toward cultural change (acculturation strategies), and the cultural values the individual has actually endorsed (actual degree of acculturation). In this study we will carefully investigate the relationships between the dierent aspects of the acculturation process and how these can be used to predict the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation. The actual degree of acculturation is conceptualized here as changes in the immigrants' family-related values, which represent a deep cultural inheritance transmitted to the adolescents by their parents. In the total sociocultural environment it is the parents, especially the mothers and their child-rearing practices, which have been proven to have the greatest in¯uence (KagÆitc° ibas° i, 1988). The importance of the family has also been stressed as a typical cultural value which provides stability and continuation of the culture (Smolicz, 1981; Triandis, Kashima, Shimada & Villareal, 1986), and it is
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changes in the cultural values which, after migration, most clearly represent the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation.
2. Russian-speaking immigrants in Finland Russian-speaking immigrants constitute the most numerous immigrant group in Finland. However, the majority of these are returnees of Finnish descent from the former Soviet Union. Their ancestors are Finns who emigrated to the former Soviet Union mostly during the 1930s from Finland, Canada and the USA, and so-called Ingrian Finns (i.e., the descendants of Finns who emigrated between the 17th and the beginning of the 20th century to rural Ingria, which is located partly in Russia and partly in Estonia). With respect to the cultural adaptation of this immigrant group in Finland, the youngest generation seems to have the most problems. It diers from the older immigrants because of its mixed ethnic background and its marked tendency toward monolingualism in the Russian language. One important cause for the generation dierences may be found in the assimilation policy practiced in the Soviet Union during the Stalinist era and after World War II which sought to dissolve all the contemporary Soviet nations into a new Russian-speaking nation with a denationalized cultural identity and a new national self-awareness (Nevalainen, 1990; Hint, 1991). ``Who are we?'' This question appears to trouble young Russian-speaking immigrants. Although many of them used to identify themselves as Finns, it is to be expected that, due to their Russi®cation, their Finnishness will dier from that of the native Finns and that they will show dierent socialization outcomes compared to native Finns. The prevailing family values in modern Finnish society emphasize individual independence and self-reliance in child development. These values, in particular the looseness of family bonds, has been related to the urbanized enterprise culture of the Western world (Kagan & Madsen, 1972; Smart & Smart, 1977). In contrast, the socialization values that are stressed in the Russian culture assume greater dependence on and orientation towards adult norms than is generally the case in Western families (Bronfenbrenner, 1970). In addition, the objective socio-economic conditions that characterized the life of immigrants before their immigration were associated with a high material dependence, as great value was placed on closely knit interpersonal ties and interdependence, rather than independence (KagÆitc° ibas° i, 1988). Accordingly, the cultural gap experienced by Russian-speaking immigrants could be substantial. However, the comparison of the two socialization models provided by the family and the new environment and thus also the outcome of acculturation depend on the way each young individual relates the core values of his or her own ethnic culture to the value system of the host society (Rotheram & Phinney, 1987). They depend also upon what these immigrants bring to each situation and how adaptable, trustful and supporting they experience their relationships with the socialization partners to be (Hortac° su, Oral & Yasak-GuÈltekin, 1991). Especially
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in the case of teenagers, changes in their cultural values often relate to con¯icts with their parents, which further complicates their adaptation. In sum, to explore these theoretical and empirical issues, we examined what kind of interelatedness exists between various aspects of the acculturation process and to what extent they predict the actual degree of acculturation among Russianspeaking immigrant adolescents in Finland. Firstly, we hypothesized that the dierent aspects of acculturation would be interrelated in a complex manner. In this pattern, however, we assumed the adolescents' experiences of family relations to be of special importance for their cultural acculturation. We also assumed that the Russian and Finnish identities of the immigrant adolescents would show dierent relationships to dierent acculturation attitudes, with the Russian identity relating more to the separation and the Finnish identity more to the assimilation attitudes. Secondly, we hypothesized that, due to the dierent socialization norms in the Russian culture, the Russian-speaking adolescents in Finland would dier from their Finnish peers in their degree of adherence to traditional family-related values. Thirdly, we assumed that adolescents with a high degree of actual acculturation would tend to be those who arrived in Finland at a younger age and had stayed in Finland for a longer period. We also expected these adolescents to have experienced less family support and to express acculturation attitudes supporting integration or assimilation to a higher degree than others. In addition, the degree of Finnish identity of the immigrant adolescents was not expected to be associated with the degree of their actual acculturation in terms of endorsing Finnish values prevailing in Finland today.
3. Method 3.1. Participants In all, 360 young people were studied: 170 Russian-speaking immigrants and 190 native Finns. The immigrant group consisted of 93 boys and 77 girls who had arrived in Finland between 1987 and 1996 and were living in the region of Helsinki. Their overall mean age was 15.01 years (SD=1.49 years). The native group was composed of 103 boys and 87 girls. The overall mean age of the native group was 14.5 years (SD=1.01 years). Descriptive data collected for the immigrant group provided the following pro®le. The mean age of the young immigrants at the time of their immigration was 12.5 years. Their age at immigration was fairly evenly distributed over a range of 7±18 years, with a mode of 9 years. At the time the data were collected, the young immigrants had been residing in Finland for a mean of 2.5 years. The length of their residence in Finland ranged from 0.5 years to 9 years, with a mode of 2 years. They had come from dierent regions: 53% from Russia, 34% from Estonia, and 13% from other parts of the former Soviet Union. They had also come largely from mixed ethnic family backgrounds: 36% of the immigrant
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mothers and 47% of the fathers were Russians, 16% of the mothers and 18% of the fathers were Ingrian Finns, 34% of the mothers and 19% of the fathers were Finns, and 14% of the mothers and 16% of the fathers represented other nationalities from the former Soviet Union. Irrespective of the great variability in parental ethnicity, 75% of the immigrant mothers and 70% of the fathers came to Finland under returnee status. This means that almost every immigrant adolescent in this study came from a family of some Finnish descent. 3.2. Procedure This study was carried out in secondary schools in the region of Helsinki. All secondary schools identi®ed as having Russian-speaking immigrant students were contacted and invited to participate in the study. None of them refused to participate. The researcher personally visited these schools and invited immigrant students and randomly selected natives to participate in the study at a designated time. The natives were selected from the same school levels and, when possible, also from the same classes as the immigrant respondents. All participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and that their responses were con®dential. As a rule, all students present in school at a designated time completed the questionnaire, which took approximately one hour. The questionnaire has been translated into Finnish and Russian from the original English version by two researchers at the University of Helsinki. Native students were given the Finnish version of the questionnaire, and immigrants were given a choice of answering the questionnaire in Finnish or Russian. All immigrants preferred to complete the Russian version of the questionnaire. 3.3. Measures All the measures used in the study were assembled by an international group of researchers1 for use in a study of adaptation among immigrant and ethnic minority adolescents. These measures were either developed for the project or taken directly or with modi®cation from existing scales, as described below. All response options represented Likert-type scales. 3.3.1. Ethnic identity Ethnic identity, consisting of cognitive, evaluative, and emotional components (Tajfel, 1981), was assessed using a 14-item measure modi®ed by the researchers from Phinney's (1992) ethnic identity scale. The measure covered the extent of multi-ethnicity of the immigrants' identity, including such statements as ``I feel proud to be a Russian'', `` I feel that I'm a part of the Finnish culture'', etc. Using maximum likelihood factor analysis and varimax-rotation, the 14 items supported
1 John Berry and Kyunghwa Kwak (Canada), Karmela Liebkind (Finland), Jean Phinney (USA), Colette Sabatier (France), David L. Sam (Norway), Charles Westin and Erkki Virta (Sweden).
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a two-factor solution for the immigrants' ethnic identity in accordance with the acculturation perspective of ethnic identity (Berry, 1986, 1990; Berry et al., 1987; Hutnik, 1986). The two factors were named degree of Russian identity and degree of Finnish identity. The Cronbach alpha of the ®rst scale was 0.90, and of the second 0.71. The items loading ranged in the degree of Russian identity factor between 0.36 and 0.80 and in the degree of Finnish identity factor between 0.61 and 0.88. 3.3.2. Acculturation attitudes Twenty items were formulated by Berry, Kim, Power, Young and Bujaki (1989) to tap acculturation attitudes among immigrant adolescents on the basis of the theoretical model of psychological acculturation. The scale assessed assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization acculturation attitudes in each of ®ve domains: marriage, cultural traditions, language, social activities, and friends. The maximum likelihood factor analysis of the scale items supported Berry's model, suggesting a four-factor solution. The assimilation factor (e.g., ``I feel that Russian-speaking people should adapt in Finland to Finnish cultural traditions and not maintain those of their own'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.43 and 0.70, and Cronbach alpha=0.72. The Separation factor (e.g., ``It is more important to me to be ¯uent in Russian than in Finnish'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.33 and 0.76, and Cronbach alpha=0.53. The integration factor (e.g., ``I prefer social activities which involve both Russian-speaking people and Finns'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.49 and 0.74, and Cronbach alpha=0.68. The marginalization factor (e.g., ``I don't want to have either Finnish or Russian-speaking friends'') had factor loadings ranged between 0.36 and 0.58, and Cronbach alpha=0.38. 3.3.3. Experiences of family support The measure of immigrants' experiences of their parents' support and understanding consisted of six items: three items that assessed their experiences of mother's support and understanding (e.g., ``My mother and I understand each other'') and three items those of the father's (e.g., ``When something is troubling me I can always discuss it with my father''). For separate investigation of relationships with mothers and fathers these two factors were extracted from a maximum likelihood factor analysis, with the ®rst referring to adolescents' experiences of the mother's support and understanding (Cronbach alpha=0.72; all factor loadings between 0.72 and 0.80) and the second to those of the father's (Cronbach alpha=0.77; all factor loadings between 0.55 and 0.99). 3.3.4. Family-related values A 14-item questionnaire of family-related values developed by Nguyen and Williams (1989), Georgas (1989) and Georgas, Berry, Shaw, Christakopoulo and Mylonas (1996) was used to assess family values characteristic of the immigrants and natives on the one hand and the actual degree of acculturation of the immigrant adolescents on the other. This scale consisted of items assessing
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attitudes towards parental authority (e.g., ``Parents always know what is best'') and adolescent autonomy (e.g., ``It is all right for the girl over the age of 18 to decide when to marry and whom to marry''). In order to compare the immigrants' and the natives' values, the immigrant and native samples were merged into the same factor analysis. Two factors were extracted from a maximum likelihood factor analysis. The two factors were named parental authority (Cronbach alpha=0.80) and children's rights (Cronbach alpha=0.81), with the former indicating the adherence to hierarchical family structures based on age and gender, and the latter indicating the extent of acceptance of children's autonomy and freedom of choice. The item loadings ranged in the parental authority factor between 0.33 and 0.73 and in the children's rights factor between 0.54 and 0.88 3.3.5. Demographic variables The adolescents reported their gender, age, place of birth, age on arrival in Finland if foreign-born, their ethnicity and the ethnicity of their parents. Duration of immigrant adolescents' residence in Finland was calculated by subtracting their age of arrival in Finland from their present age. 3.4. Analysis of data To answer the ®rst question regarding the interelatedness of dierent aspects of the adolescents' acculturation, Pearson correlation coecients were computed. The second question about the dierences between immigrants and natives in their family-related values was examined by using two two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA). The third question on predictors of immigrants' actual degree of acculturation was examined by using discriminant analysis.
4. Results Before addressing the main questions of the actual degree of the immigrants' acculturation the relationships between their ethnic identity, acculturation attitudes, family-related values, experiences of family support, and such demographic variables as age on arrival and duration of residence in Finland were investigated using Pearson correlation coecients. Due to large number of intercorrelations only those statistically signi®cant p < 0:01 and very signi®cant p < 0:001 are discussed (see Table 1). As seen in Table 1, there was considerable interrelatedness between the ethnic identity of immigrants and acculturation attitudes. As we expected, the Russian and Finnish identities of the immigrants were dierently related to the acculturation attitudes. Immigrants who scored high in Russian identity seemed to prefer separation attitudes instead of assimilation attitudes. In contrast, the immigrants' Finnish identity correlated positively with assimilation attitudes and negatively with separation attitudes. The correlations did not indicate signi®cant relationships between the immigrants' ethnic identity
Note:
p < 0.01,
p < 0.001.
1.00 ÿ0.04 0.38 ÿ0.30 ÿ0.13 0.16 ÿ0.14 0.01 ÿ0.13 0.09 ÿ0.14 0.17
1. Degree of Russian identity 2. Degree of Finnish identity 3. Separation attitudes 4. Assimilation attitudes 5. Marginalization attitudes 6. Integration attitudes 7. Children's rights 8. Parental authority 9. Mother's support 10. Father's support 11. Age of arrival 12. Duration of residence a
1
Index 1.00 ÿ0.37 0.31 ÿ0.07 0.17 0.10 0.17 ÿ0.05 0.11 0.08 ÿ0.12
2
1.00 ÿ0.06 0.05 ÿ0.05 ÿ0.10 ÿ0.01 ÿ0.06 0.06 ÿ0.21 0.19
3
1.00 0.09 0.02 0.15 0.12 0.03 0.19 0.11 ÿ0.14
4
1.00 ÿ0.09 0.12 ÿ0.12 ÿ0.05 0.02 ÿ0.13 0.17
5
1.00 ÿ0.22 0.09 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00
6
1.00 ÿ0.13 0.02 ÿ0.09 0.00 ÿ0.02
7
1.00 0.29 0.32 0.08 ÿ0.14
8
1.00 0.01 ÿ0.04 ÿ0.05
9
1.00 0.03 ÿ0.06
10
Table 1 Pearson correlations between the indices used in this study to assess processes underlying acculturation of Russian-speaking adolescentsa
1.00 ÿ0.71
11
1.00
12
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and their family-related values. Likewise, there were no systematic statistically signi®cant correlations between the family-related values of immigrants and their acculturation attitudes, except for one negative correlation between immigrants' acceptance of limitations of children's independence and integration acculturation attitudes. According to our expectations, however, the immigrants' experiences of their relationship with both parents were signi®cantly related to their actual degree of acculturation in terms of adherence to family values that stressed the importance of parental authority. The more immigrants experienced the support and understanding provided by their mothers and fathers, the less they accepted equality between the parents and children in family decision-making. The immigrants' age on arrival was signi®cantly related only to their separation attitudes. The younger the immigrants arrived in Finland the less they held separation attitudes. The duration of the immigrants' residence in Finland was not signi®cantly related to any index of acculturation (see Table 1). To answer the second question about the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation, dierences between the immigrants and natives in family-related values were tested by using two two-way, 2 (status: immigrant vs native) 2 (gender: girl vs boy), analyses of variance (ANOVA) with two factor scores which measured the adolescents' adherence to family-related values as dependent variables. The results of the analysis regarding adolescents' acceptance of parental authority are presented in Table 2 and those regarding their acceptance of children's rights in Table 3. As we expected, the immigrants diered statistically signi®cantly from their Finnish peers in both factor scores: they accepted more parental authority (see Table 2) and less autonomy of children (see Table 3). The boys also accepted the needs for limitations of childrens' independence more than the girls (see Table 3). There were no signi®cant status gender interactions on these two scales. Because the explanation of the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation was of special interest in this study, a discriminant function analysis was performed to identify the underlying structure of the data and to directly investigate the variables as predictors of the immigrants' actual degree of acculturation. The precise aim of this analysis was to dierentiate the more acculturated immigrants whose family values were similar to those of `typical' Finnish adolescents (who approved of Finnish family values) from the less acculturated immigrants, whose family values were more traditional. The classi®cation variable was modi®ed from the two factor scores that measured the immigrants' family related values. Those immigrants whose values on both factor scores ranged between M 2 SD as measured from the distribution of native Finns constituted a ®rst discriminant group. These adolescents n 54 represented those who had family values similar to the `typical' Finnish adolescents. The second group n 110 consisted of those immigrants whose family values were greater in both factors compared to the ®rst group (greater than M+SD as measured from the distribution of native Finns). These adolescents represented the more traditional immigrants. Nobody from the immigrant group had scores in both factors that were similar to those of Finnish adolescents whose values were less traditional comparing to the `typical' Finnish
a
df 1, 356 1, 356 1, 356
0.46 0.85
p < 0.001.
F 107.73 3.43 3.18
0.45 0.84
0.46 0.87
ÿ0.41 0.75
All sample (N = 190)
Boys (n = 93)
All sample (N = 170)
Girls (n = 77)
Natives
Immigrants
Note: The higher the mean is, the greater is the acceptance of parental authority.
Parental authority M SD Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): F-test for the analysis of variance model: F 3, 359 55:78, p < 0:001 Source for hypothesis: Status Gender Status Gender
Family-related values
Table 2 Two-way analysis of variance for immigrants' and natives' family-related values regarding acceptance of parental authoritya
ÿ0.57 0.67
Girls (n = 87)
ÿ0.27 0.80
Boys (n = 103)
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adolescents (less than M-SD as measured from the distribution of native Finns) compared to the `typical' Finns in the ®rst group. For this reason the third discriminant group was not established. All indexes of this study were included in the analysis, i.e., degree of Russian and Finnish identity, acculturation attitudes towards assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization, two indexes of family support regarding adolescents' relationships with both parents, and demographic variables such as gender, age on arrival and duration of residence in Finland. Those variables that were most important in distinguishing the more and the less acculturated immigrant groups (those with loadings >0.30) were identi®ed. The evaluation of the assumption of homogeneity of the variancecovariance matrices revealed no threat to multivariate analysis. One signi®cant discriminant function was isolated, with a w 2 11, N 164 25:88, p < 0:01: This discriminant function maximally separated the less acculturated or traditional immigrant adolescents from the more acculturated, and it was labeled degree of acculturation. This function correctly classi®ed 66% of the respondents. The loading matrix of correlations between predictors and the discriminant function suggested, as shown in Table 4, that the best predictors for distinguishing between the more acculturated and the less acculturated immigrants were the immigrants' degree of Finnish identity, their separation attitudes, their experience of mother's understanding and support, and the duration of their residence in Finland. As we expected, a high degree of the immigrants' Finnish identity was not associated with a high degree of acculturation, but, on the contrary, with a low
Table 3 Two-way analysis of variance for immigrants' and natives' family-related values regarding acceptance of children's rightsa Family-related values
Immigrants All sample (N = 170)
Children's rights M SD Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): F-test for the analysis of variance model: F 3,359 11:62, p < 0:001 Source for hypothesis: Status Gender Status gender
0.21 1.05
df 1, 356 1, 356 1, 356
Natives Girls Boys All sample (n = 77) (n = 93) (N = 190)
0.06 0.87
0.33 1.18
ÿ0.19 0.76
Girls Boys (n = 87) (n = 103)
ÿ0.30 0.72
ÿ0.09 0.78
F 16.55 6.48 0.12
a Note: The higher the mean is, the greater is the acceptance of children's obedience to parents. p < 0.05, p < 0.001.
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degree of acculturation (mean 0.13 vs ÿ0.20). This re¯ects the dierent nature of the Finnishness of the immigrants compared to that of the natives. Although the less acculturated immigrant adolescents did not dier from the more acculturated ones in their experiences of father's support and understanding (mean ÿ0.10 vs 0.05), they experienced a higher degree of mother's support and understanding than did the more acculturated immigrants (mean 0.19 vs ÿ0.39). Surprisingly, the more acculturated immigrants also seemed to be more orientated toward separation than the less acculturated immigrants (mean 0.15 vs ÿ0.09). In terms of demographic characteristics, the immigrant adolescents who had been in Finland for a longer time were, as expected, more acculturated than those who had stayed in the country for a shorter time (mean 2.86 vs 2.25). However, against expectations, age on arrival in Finland did not by itself discriminate signi®cantly between more and less acculturated immigrants (mean 12.24 vs 12.72).
Table 4 Results of discriminant function analysis of predictors of immigrants' high vs low degree of acculturationa Predictor variable Ethnic identity Degree of Russian identity Degree of Finnish identity Acculturation attitudes Separation Assimilation Marginalization Integration Experiences of family support Mother's support Father's support Demographic factors Gender Age on arrival in Finland Length of residence in Finland Canonical R Eigenvalue
Correlation of predictor variables with discriminant function 0.20
Univariate F df=1, 162 1.15
ÿ0.40
4.41
0.31 ÿ0.28 ÿ0.7 0.04
2.84 2.23 0.15 0.04
ÿ0.67 ÿ0.19
13.15 1.03
ÿ0.29 ÿ0.28 0.45
2.40 2.26 5.93
0.39 0.18
a Note: The correlations are given with regard to the high degree of acculturation. p < 0.05, 0.001.
p<
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5. Discussion The ®ndings of this study indicate that there are complex relations between the dierent processes underlying acculturation. The ethnic identity of immigrants does not seem to be related to their actual degree of acculturation in terms of the cultural values they actually have adopted. This ®nding supports notions of the relative independence of these two components of the acculturation process (Driedger, 1976; Der-Karabetian, 1980; Hutnik, 1986, 1991). The absence of intercorrelations between the immigrants' ethnic identity and their family-related values also provides a strong support for the important theoretical point made by Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) that the characteristics that re¯ect crucial cultural values and distinguish cultural groups from one another are not a basis for the extent of adolescents' identi®cation with their group. In this study the immigrant adolescents' adherence to family-related values and, especially, to the acceptance of parental authority, was associated with the quality of their relationships with both parents. This result is consistent with the ®ndings stressing the importance of perceptions of family relationships for individual socialization (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). In addition, the result also emphasizes the importance of good relationships between the immigrant adolescents and their parents. Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents seem to sustain those family values which are important for their parents instead of moving away from the family tradition. The immigrants' ethnic identity seems to be strongly but not exclusively related to their acculturation attitudes, supporting previous ®ndings which have emphasized the crucial role of ethnic identity in distinguishing between dierent acculturation attitudes (Sommerlad & Berry; 1970). In this study the immigrants with a high degree of Russian identity seemed to be orientated toward separation, while the immigrants with a high degree of Finnish identity seemed to prefer the assimilation attitudes. However, neither the degree of Russian nor the degree of Finnish identity was connected with the integration or marginalization attitudes. This result indicates that neither their eorts to be integrated into a new culture nor their failure to anchor themselves in either culture is signi®cantly related to their multiple ethnic identity (Liebkind, 1996b). As we expected, immigrant adolescents shared more traditional family values than their native Finnish peers. In this study, as in other comparable ones (Garcia & Lega, 1979; Rogler, Cooney & Ortiz, 1980; Liebkind, 1996a, 1996b), the longer the immigrants had lived in Finland, the greater their reported degree of acculturation. Most importantly, in this study the increasing level of acculturation was strongly associated with a decrease of the immigrants adolescents' experiences of support and understanding provided by their parents, especially by their mothers, supporting similar ®ndings reported by Rick and Forward (1992). It is important, however, to understand how and to what extent the acculturation con¯ict is manifested in tensions within the immigrants' families. Immigrant parents, especially mothers, who often feel that they are the only `guardians' of their culture and responsible for child-rearing (Liebkind, 1996a), may feel insecure
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and worry about the children, especially daughters, moving away from the parents' control. Thus they become increasingly authoritarian, which is more likely to result in frustration and loss of con®dence in the adolescent. An interesting point relates to our ®nding that the high degree of immigrants' acculturation was associated with the low degree of their Finnish identity as well as with their separation attitudes. This result supports our expectation about the speci®c nature of Finnish identity of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents in terms of their traditional family values. Their Finnish identity seems to dier from that of the natives, and it could be characterized as an `imagined' identity re¯ecting the awareness of immigrants of their own Finnish roots as learned from the family history rather than of actual Finnish values prevailing in Finland today. This result also indicates a con¯ict between the immigrants' acculturation attitudes and the actual degree of their acculturation. Although the immigrants would prefer to keep their culture at the attitudinal level, they actually acculturate to the mainstream culture. Due to these results, the need for a separate assessment of ethnic identity, acculturation attitudes, and actual degree of immigrants' acculturation is strongly justi®ed. In summary, this study demonstrates the importance of identifying and analyzing separately the distinctive components of the acculturation process for an accurate understanding of the actual degree of immigrants' acculturation. More acculturation research is needed to understand and better predict the conditions under which new patterns of cultural socialization would provide favorable circumstances for the immigrants' adaptation to new environmental demands. Acknowledgements This research was supported by grants from the Ministry of Education and 350th Anniversary Foundation of the University of Helsinki (Finland) to Inga Jasinskaja-Lahti. References Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and per attachment: Individual dierences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(5), 427±454. Berry, J. W. (1984). Cultural relations in plural societies: Alternatives to segregation and their sociopsychological implications. In N. Miller & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact (pp. 11±27). New York: Academic Press. Berry, J. W. (1986). The acculturation process and refugee behavior. In C. L. Williams & J. Westermeyer (Eds.), Refugee mental health in resettlement countries. The series in clinical and community psychology (pp. 25±37). Washington: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. Berry, J. W. (1990). Psychology of acculturation. In J. J. Berman (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1989: Cross-cultural perspectives. Current theory and research in motivation (Vol. 37, pp. 201±234). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Berry, J. W. (1992). Acculturation and adaptation in a new society. International Migration, 30, 69±85.
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