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Preliminary development of a sensation seeking scale for children
Person. indirid. D@ Vol. I?. No. 5, pp. 399405. Pnnted in Great Britain. All tightsreserved
0191~8869,‘91
1991
53.00 + 0.00
CopyrightC 1991PcrgamonPress
plc
PRELIMINARY DEVELOPMENT OF A SENSATION SEEKING SCALE FOR CHILDREN MARY F. Russo,’
BENJAMINB. LAHEY,’ MARY ANNE G. CHRIST,’
PAUL J. FRICK,’ KEITH MCBURNETT,’JASON L. WALKER,’ ROLF LOEBER,* MAGDA STOUTHAMER-LOEBER~and STEPHANIEGREEN’ ‘Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602 and ‘Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, U.S.A. (Received 20 September
1990)
Summary-A sensation seeking scale designed for use with school-aged children (SSSC) was standardized on an elementary school population. Test-retest reliability was adequate and gender differences were comparable to the adult sensation seeking scale. The SSSC was administered to 176 clinic-referred boys aged 7-12 years. Factor analysis of the scores of the combined school and clinic samples yielded two factors which corresponded to the Boredom Susceptibility (BS) and Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) factors of the adult Sensation Seeking Scales. Boys with diagnoses of conduct disorder (CD), childhood anxiety disorders (ANX), and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were compared to a clinic control group in a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. Main effects for ADHD and CD were significant for the BS subscale, reflecting higher scores in children with CD and lower scores in children with ADHD. A marginally significant CD x ANX interaction for total SSSC score may indicate a moderating effect of anxiety on sensation seeking in children with CD. These results tentatively suggest that sensation seeking can be validly measured in prepubertal children, but argue for further refinements in the SSSC.
INTRODUCTION Sensation seeking as an adult personality trait has been well-researched since the development of the Sensation Seeking Scales (SSS; Zuckerman, Kolin, Price & Zoob, 1964). Sensation seeking, as defined by Zuckerman (1979), is “. . . the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such expriences” (p. IO). The SSS yield a total sensation seeking score as well as four subscale scores: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (Dis) and Boredom Susceptibility (BS). High scorers on the SSS have been documented as engaging in risky activities such as driving over the speed limit (Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980), skydiving (Hymbaugh & Garrett, 1974) and skiing (Calhoon, 1988). Sensation seeking scores of adults differ according to sex and age. Comparison of the sexes in both England and America resulted in significantly higher sensation seeking scores in males than in females (Kurtz & Zuckerman, 1978; Zuckerman, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980). A clear increase in sensation seeking from adolescence to adulthood has also been demonstrated (Farley, 1977; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980) and among adults, sensation seeking has been shown to decrease with increasing age (Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980; Zuckerman et al., 1978). The biological basis of sensation seeking has been explored in a number of studies. Psychophysiological study of the orienting response (OR) has demonstrated a stronger OR to novel stimuli in high sensation seeking males as measured both by changes in electrodermal skin conductance level (Neary & Zuckerman, 1976; Feij, Orlebeke, Gazendam & van Zuilen, 1985), and by heart rate response (Como, 1984; as cited in Zuckerman, 1984; Orlebeke & Feij, 1979; Ridgeway & Hare, 198 1). In addition, positive correlations have been found between sex hormones and scores on the Dis subscale in both males and females (Daitzman & Zuckerman, 1980; Daitzman, Zuckerman, Sammelwitz & Ganjam, 1978). A significant inverse relationship between platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) levels and SSS scores has been demonstrated (Murphy, Belmaker, Buchsbaum, Martin, Ciaranello & Wyatt, 1977; Schooler, Zahn, Murphy & Buchsbaum, 1978; von Knorring, Oreland & Winblad, 1984). In addition, plasma dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) and cerebrospinal fluid norepinephrine (NE) have also been found to be negatively related to sensation seeking (Ballenger, Post, Jimerson, Lake, Murphy, Zuckerman & Cronin, 1983; Zuckerman, Ballenger & 399
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MARY F. Russo et al.
Post, 1984) whereas DBH is positively related to state anxiety (Zuckerman, 1988; Zuckerman & Como, 1983). There is some evidence suggesting a genetic component to sensation seeking. In one study (Kish & Donnenwerth, 1972), high school and college students’ SSS scores tended to resemble those of their parents, but only the father-daughter correlation reached significance. More importantly, a study of 422 pairs of adult MZ and DZ twins of both sexes yielded a sensation seeking heritability estimate of 58% (Fulker, Eysenck & Zuckerman, 1980). It has been hypothesized that underarousal and resultant high sensation seeking is manifested as hyperactivity in children (Rosenthal & Allen, 1978; Satterfield, 1976; Zentall & Zentall, 1983) and sociopathy in adults (Blackburn, 1983; Hare, 1978; Quay, 1965). Sociopathy in adults has been positively related to SSS scores through the use of personality measures (Blackburn, 1969; Got-man, 1970), and SSS scores differentiate diagnosed sociopaths from controls (Emmons & Webb, 1974; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1979). Juvenile delinquents score higher than non-delinquents on total and all adult SSS subscales except TAS (Wallbank, 1985). Furthermore, using an earlier modified child version of the SSS, a positive relation between sensation seeking and endorsement of delinquent behaviors was demonstrated among elementary school children (Kafry, 1982). In contrast, although hyperactive children display behaviors that may be interpreted as sensation seeking, there is no direct evidence that sensation seeking, as operationalized in the SSS, is associated with hyperactivity. Indeed, because of the frequent comorbidity of hyperactivity and conduct disorder in childhood (Stewart, Cummings, Singer & deBlois, 1981) and the stronger association of conduct disorder than hyperactivity with later adult sociopathy (Lahey, Piacentini, McBurnett, Stone, Hartdagen & Hynd, 1988), it seems plausible that it is conduct disorder rather than hyperactivity that is associated with high sensation seeking. At the other end of the continuum, it has been suggested that fearfulness and anxiety are associated with overarousal and low sensation seeking (Zentall & Zentall, 1983; Zuckerman, Buchsbaum & Murphy, 1980). The absence of anxiety has been associated with higher complexity and novelty preferences in juvenile psychopaths (Skrzypek, 1969). In addition, psychopathic delinquents exhibit lower galvanic skin responses (GSRs) and less variability in heart rate and skin conductance changes than neurotic delinquents (Borkovec, 1970) and children with conduct problems exhibit less phasic GSR to tones than children with both conduct problems and anxiety (Delamater & Lahey, 1983). Thus, we might expect the relation between serious conduct problems and sensation seeking to be modified by the presence of anxiety. The purpose of the present study is to develop and begin validation of a preliminary Sensation Seeking Scale for Children (SSSC). The psychometric properties of the scale will be assessed among a sample of elementary school and clinic-referred children. Validation of the scale will be sought through analyses of sex differences among SSSC scores in the school sample and the association between the SSSC scores of clinic-referred children and SSS scores of their parents. Construct validity will be assessed among clinic-referred children via the relation between SSSC scores and hyperactivity, conduct disorder, and anxiety. The SSSC is similar to the scale used by Kafry (1982), except that the more recent Form V of the adult SSS was used as the basis.
METHOD
Subjects
A total of 303 children participated in the study. One hundred and twenty-six children were drawn from an elementary school population. There were 65 males and 61 females in the school sample; 29 were black and 97 were white. All children in the school sample were between 7 and 12 years of age, inclusive. Of the 177 clinic-referred Ss, data from one child were deleted due to the absence of SSSC scores. Sixty-six children were outpatients of the Georgia Children’s Center for psychological assessment and 15 were referred to Emory Clinic in Atlanta. These clinics receive referrals from physicians, school personnel, parents, juvenile courts and community mental health centers from a broad area of northeast Georgia. The remaining 96 Ss were volunteers from the child psychiatric outpatient clinic of the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in metropolitan Pittsburgh,
401
Child sensation seeking
Pennsylvania. All clinic-referred children were males between 7 and 12 years of age, inclusive. None of the clinic-referred Ss exhibited I.Q. scores less than 70, and none displayed overt neurological or psychotic disorder. Their families ranged across all levels of the Myers and Bean (1968) index of socioeconomic status (SES), with the majority falling in the lower-middle to lower SES levels. All procedures were in accordance with the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists” (American Psychological Association, 1981). Procedure
Twelve items from the original SSS were deleted from the SSSC due to the adult nature of these items. The language and content of the remaining 28 items were modified for use with children. The SSSC is presented in Table 1. Separate interviews were conducted of clinic-referred boys, their teachers (by telephone), and at least one biological parent, using the child, teacher and parent versions of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC; Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Dulcan & Klaric, 1984). The DISC version used in this study was revised to incorporate questions concerning all symptoms used in the Revised Third Edition of the Diagnostic and Table
I, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IO. II. 12. 13. 14. IS. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. 8. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B.
I. Sensation
Seeking Scale for Children
(SSSC)
I like to watch the same movie over and over again. I can’t stand watching a movie I’ve seen before. I’d like to lx a mountain climber. I think people who do dangerous things like mountain climbing are foolish. I don’t like the way people’s bodies smell. I like the way people’s bodies smell without perfume. I get bored seeing the same friends all the time. I like seeing only my old friends all the time. I’m happy to look around a strange, new place by myself even if I might get lost. When I’m in a new place, I like to look around with someone who knows the place already. 1 would like to try smoking marijuana. I would never smoke marijuana. I don’t like friends who say or do things that surprise me. F riends who say or do surprising things are fun to play with. I don’t like a TV show or movie when I can guess what will happen next. I like watching a TV show or movie when I can guess what will happen next. I’ d never do anything that’s dangerous. I sometimes like to do things that are a little scary. I like to try new foods that I have never tasted before. I don’t like to try new foods that I have never tasted before because I might not like them. I like to look at pictures of other people’s vacation trips. I think it’s boring to look at pictures of other people’s vacation trips. I’d like to be able to water-ski. I wouldn’t want to water-ski. I would like to try surf-board riding. I would not like to try surf-board riding. Before I go on a trip, I like to know where I’m going and what I’ll be doing. When I go on a trip, I do not mind if I don’t know where I’ll be staying or what I’ll be doing. I make friends with kids who go along with the crowd. I like to make friends with kids who are different from all the rest. I would not like to learn to fly an airplane. I think it would be fun to learn to fly an airplane. I like to swim in water that is not over my head. I like to swim in deep water. I would like to try jumping from a plane with a parachute. I would never try jumping from a plane with a parachute. Friends who always play with the same things are boring. I like friends who I can always count on to play the same things with me. Good art work has pretty colors and looks neat. Good art work can sometimes look messy and have strange colors. I like spending time at home. I get bored and restless if I have to stay at home for very long. I like to jump or dive off a diving board. I don’t like the feeling I get when standing on a diving board; I don’t even go near it. The worst thing a kid can do is be rude to his friends. The worst thing a kid can do is be boring around his friends. I like kids who make jokes even if they sometimes hurt other kids’ feelings. I don’t like kids who think it’s fun to hurt other kids’ feelings. I like to dress in the same kinds of clothes all the other kids wear. I like to dress in clothes that I like, even if all the other kids don’t wear the same kinds of clothes I do. Sailing on the ocean in a small boat would be dangerous and foolish. I think it would be fun to sail on the ocean in a small boat. I don’t like to be around kids who are boring. I like to be around almost every kid I know, even if some of them are boring. I think skiing fast down a snowy mountain would be dangerous. I think skiing fast down a snowy mountain would be fun.
402.
MARY F. Rvsso er al.
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R) (American Psychiatric Association, 1987) for the following syndromes: conduct disorder, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, oppositionaldefiant disorder, overanxious disorder, separation anxiety disorder, major depressive episode, dysthymia, obsessive
Child sensation
seeking
403
Table 2. Results of SSSC factor analysis Rotated factor pattern sssc item number 4 5 6 8 9 I2 13 16 17 18 19 22 24 26 27 28
Factor (BS)
I
Factor 2 (TAS)
0.61 0.46 0.78 0.46 0.53 -0.67 -0.65 0.45 0.49 0.51 0.49 -0.68 0.6 I 0.46 0.42 0.56
between clinic-referred boys’ total and subscale SSSC scores and demographic variables yielded significant correlations with race and SES on both the BS and TAS subscales. Three separate 2 (CD, not-CD) = 2 (ADHD, not-ADHD) x 2 (ANX, not-ANX) analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted to determine whether the clinic groups differed on full-scale I.Q., SES and age. No significant differences in full-scale I.Q. were demonstrated. The ANOVA conducted with SES as the dependent variable resulted in a significant main effect for CD, F( 1,168) = 7.80, P < 0.006; as such, children diagnosed with CD came from higher SES backgrounds than children in other diagnostic groups. A significant main effect for ADHD was obtained in the ANOVA conducted for age differences, F( 1,168) = 27.20, P < 0.000 1, as well as a significant interaction for ADHD x ANX, F(l,l68) = 7.86, P < 0.006, thus indicating that children diagnosed with ADHD were younger than other clinic-referred children. Chi-square analyses to determine differences in the racial composition of the groups were significant for CD, x’( 1,176) = 9.70, P -z0.002, and ANX, ~‘(1,176) = 4.58, P < 0.04. The CD groups contained higher percentages of black children while the ANX groups contained predominantly white children. Hypotheses as to the relationship between sensation seeking, CD and ANX were marginally confirmed in the clinic sample by the results of the SSSC total score analysis. A 2 (CD, not-CD) x 2 (ADHD, not-ADHD) x 2 (ANX, not-ANX) ANOVA conducted with total SSSC score was the dependent variable resulted in a CD x ANX interaction effect, F( 1,168) = 3.86, P < 0.06. A similar 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA conducted with TAS as the dependent variable resulted in nonsignificant effects. However, the 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA conducted with BS as the dependent variable yielded significant main effects for ADHD, F( 1,168) = 4.23, P < 0.05, and CD, F( 1,168) = 5.74, P < 0.02. The differences between the means for SSSC total score and BS subscale analyses are presented in Table 3. To address the possibility that significant effects were the result of abnormal scores in the clinic control group (i.e. those children who did not receive diagnoses of CD, ADHD or ANX; N = 28) comparison of the clinic control group with a normal control group (65 boys from the elementary school sample) was conducted. A one-way ANCOVA with age as the covariate revealed no significant differences between the two control groups on any score: SSSC total, F( 1,90) = 1.87, BS F&90) = 2.71, TAS F(l,90) = 0.33. Analyses of the relation between children’s SSSC scores and the SSS scores of their parents resulted in significant correlations between mothers’ and sons’ total scores, r(48) = 0.29, P < 0.05, Table 3. Differences between means for SSSC total and BS subscale analvses (h’tD26) SSSC total
15.23 (h’%4)
BS subscale
5.88’
CD + ANX (,V = 42)
ANX (N = 60)
Control (N = 48)
14.05
14.63
14.25
CD + ADHD (‘V = 44)
ADHD (IV = 54)
Control (IV = 54)
5.231b
4.54b
Means with different superscripts are different at the 0.05 level.
5.3 I’b
404
MARY F. Russo
et al.
and between mothers’ total scores and the BS scores of their sons, r(48) = 0.33, P < 0.03. All correlations between SSSC scores of clinic-referred children and SSS scores of their fathers were nonsignificant. DISCUSSION The results are in support of sensation seeking as a quantifiable trait in children that has predictable associations with conduct problems. The SSSC was demonstrated as a reliable and valid measure in the normal and clinic-referred children sampled. On total and subscale scores, the significant demographic differences obtained in the normal and clinic-referred samples are in agreement with results obtained in adult populations (Kurtz & Zuckerman, 1978; Zuckerman et al., 1978; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980). Familial transmission is supported in the clinic sample with the significant positive correlation between the sensation seeking scores of boys and their mothers. Among the clinic children sampled, the hypothesized relationship between CD and ADHD in relation to sensation seeking was demonstrated with respect to the BS subscale. Although the presence of CD was associated with elevated BS scores, the presence of ADHD was associated with significantly low BS scores. The relationship between CD and ANX relative to sensation seeking was marginal in relation to total SSSC score. The results may indicate that boys diagnosed with CD alone score significantly higher on the SSSC than all other groups, except when the presence of anxiety exerts a moderating effect. It appears that, while boys with anxiety disorders are not low sensation seekers relative to clinic controls, boys diagnosed with CD seek stimulation from their environments due to boredom. However, those who are both anxious and exhibit CD are less susceptible to such stimulation seeking. The main effect for CD on the BS subscale is in partial agreement with the findings of Wallbank (1985) that delinquents score higher than nondelinquents on total and all SSS subscales except TAS, and the findings of Kafry (1982) that sensation seeking in children is positively related to endorsement of delinquent behaviors. Furthermore, the relationship between total score, anxiety and CD agrees with previous research on sensation seeking of anxious and nonanxious juvenile psychopaths (Borkovec, 1970; Skrzypek, 1969). Thus, it seems that anxiety is a factor which is not to be ignored in the assessment of conduct problems in children. The current version of the SSSC clearly should not be considered a final revision of the adult SSS. The scale is currently under revision to eliminate items which did not exhibit adequate internal consistency. In addition, new items will be added which are more relevant to the experiences of childhood than are some of the adult items. Such a revision of the SSSC may overcome the difficulties inherent in obtaining self-report information from children and result in a scale which is psychometrically sound and thereby more accurately differentiates between clinical syndromes.
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0191~8869,‘91
1991
53.00 + 0.00
CopyrightC 1991PcrgamonPress
plc
PRELIMINARY DEVELOPMENT OF A SENSATION SEEKING SCALE FOR CHILDREN MARY F. Russo,’
BENJAMINB. LAHEY,’ MARY ANNE G. CHRIST,’
PAUL J. FRICK,’ KEITH MCBURNETT,’JASON L. WALKER,’ ROLF LOEBER,* MAGDA STOUTHAMER-LOEBER~and STEPHANIEGREEN’ ‘Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602 and ‘Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, U.S.A. (Received 20 September
1990)
Summary-A sensation seeking scale designed for use with school-aged children (SSSC) was standardized on an elementary school population. Test-retest reliability was adequate and gender differences were comparable to the adult sensation seeking scale. The SSSC was administered to 176 clinic-referred boys aged 7-12 years. Factor analysis of the scores of the combined school and clinic samples yielded two factors which corresponded to the Boredom Susceptibility (BS) and Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) factors of the adult Sensation Seeking Scales. Boys with diagnoses of conduct disorder (CD), childhood anxiety disorders (ANX), and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were compared to a clinic control group in a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. Main effects for ADHD and CD were significant for the BS subscale, reflecting higher scores in children with CD and lower scores in children with ADHD. A marginally significant CD x ANX interaction for total SSSC score may indicate a moderating effect of anxiety on sensation seeking in children with CD. These results tentatively suggest that sensation seeking can be validly measured in prepubertal children, but argue for further refinements in the SSSC.
INTRODUCTION Sensation seeking as an adult personality trait has been well-researched since the development of the Sensation Seeking Scales (SSS; Zuckerman, Kolin, Price & Zoob, 1964). Sensation seeking, as defined by Zuckerman (1979), is “. . . the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such expriences” (p. IO). The SSS yield a total sensation seeking score as well as four subscale scores: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (Dis) and Boredom Susceptibility (BS). High scorers on the SSS have been documented as engaging in risky activities such as driving over the speed limit (Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980), skydiving (Hymbaugh & Garrett, 1974) and skiing (Calhoon, 1988). Sensation seeking scores of adults differ according to sex and age. Comparison of the sexes in both England and America resulted in significantly higher sensation seeking scores in males than in females (Kurtz & Zuckerman, 1978; Zuckerman, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980). A clear increase in sensation seeking from adolescence to adulthood has also been demonstrated (Farley, 1977; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980) and among adults, sensation seeking has been shown to decrease with increasing age (Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980; Zuckerman et al., 1978). The biological basis of sensation seeking has been explored in a number of studies. Psychophysiological study of the orienting response (OR) has demonstrated a stronger OR to novel stimuli in high sensation seeking males as measured both by changes in electrodermal skin conductance level (Neary & Zuckerman, 1976; Feij, Orlebeke, Gazendam & van Zuilen, 1985), and by heart rate response (Como, 1984; as cited in Zuckerman, 1984; Orlebeke & Feij, 1979; Ridgeway & Hare, 198 1). In addition, positive correlations have been found between sex hormones and scores on the Dis subscale in both males and females (Daitzman & Zuckerman, 1980; Daitzman, Zuckerman, Sammelwitz & Ganjam, 1978). A significant inverse relationship between platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) levels and SSS scores has been demonstrated (Murphy, Belmaker, Buchsbaum, Martin, Ciaranello & Wyatt, 1977; Schooler, Zahn, Murphy & Buchsbaum, 1978; von Knorring, Oreland & Winblad, 1984). In addition, plasma dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) and cerebrospinal fluid norepinephrine (NE) have also been found to be negatively related to sensation seeking (Ballenger, Post, Jimerson, Lake, Murphy, Zuckerman & Cronin, 1983; Zuckerman, Ballenger & 399
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Post, 1984) whereas DBH is positively related to state anxiety (Zuckerman, 1988; Zuckerman & Como, 1983). There is some evidence suggesting a genetic component to sensation seeking. In one study (Kish & Donnenwerth, 1972), high school and college students’ SSS scores tended to resemble those of their parents, but only the father-daughter correlation reached significance. More importantly, a study of 422 pairs of adult MZ and DZ twins of both sexes yielded a sensation seeking heritability estimate of 58% (Fulker, Eysenck & Zuckerman, 1980). It has been hypothesized that underarousal and resultant high sensation seeking is manifested as hyperactivity in children (Rosenthal & Allen, 1978; Satterfield, 1976; Zentall & Zentall, 1983) and sociopathy in adults (Blackburn, 1983; Hare, 1978; Quay, 1965). Sociopathy in adults has been positively related to SSS scores through the use of personality measures (Blackburn, 1969; Got-man, 1970), and SSS scores differentiate diagnosed sociopaths from controls (Emmons & Webb, 1974; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1979). Juvenile delinquents score higher than non-delinquents on total and all adult SSS subscales except TAS (Wallbank, 1985). Furthermore, using an earlier modified child version of the SSS, a positive relation between sensation seeking and endorsement of delinquent behaviors was demonstrated among elementary school children (Kafry, 1982). In contrast, although hyperactive children display behaviors that may be interpreted as sensation seeking, there is no direct evidence that sensation seeking, as operationalized in the SSS, is associated with hyperactivity. Indeed, because of the frequent comorbidity of hyperactivity and conduct disorder in childhood (Stewart, Cummings, Singer & deBlois, 1981) and the stronger association of conduct disorder than hyperactivity with later adult sociopathy (Lahey, Piacentini, McBurnett, Stone, Hartdagen & Hynd, 1988), it seems plausible that it is conduct disorder rather than hyperactivity that is associated with high sensation seeking. At the other end of the continuum, it has been suggested that fearfulness and anxiety are associated with overarousal and low sensation seeking (Zentall & Zentall, 1983; Zuckerman, Buchsbaum & Murphy, 1980). The absence of anxiety has been associated with higher complexity and novelty preferences in juvenile psychopaths (Skrzypek, 1969). In addition, psychopathic delinquents exhibit lower galvanic skin responses (GSRs) and less variability in heart rate and skin conductance changes than neurotic delinquents (Borkovec, 1970) and children with conduct problems exhibit less phasic GSR to tones than children with both conduct problems and anxiety (Delamater & Lahey, 1983). Thus, we might expect the relation between serious conduct problems and sensation seeking to be modified by the presence of anxiety. The purpose of the present study is to develop and begin validation of a preliminary Sensation Seeking Scale for Children (SSSC). The psychometric properties of the scale will be assessed among a sample of elementary school and clinic-referred children. Validation of the scale will be sought through analyses of sex differences among SSSC scores in the school sample and the association between the SSSC scores of clinic-referred children and SSS scores of their parents. Construct validity will be assessed among clinic-referred children via the relation between SSSC scores and hyperactivity, conduct disorder, and anxiety. The SSSC is similar to the scale used by Kafry (1982), except that the more recent Form V of the adult SSS was used as the basis.
METHOD
Subjects
A total of 303 children participated in the study. One hundred and twenty-six children were drawn from an elementary school population. There were 65 males and 61 females in the school sample; 29 were black and 97 were white. All children in the school sample were between 7 and 12 years of age, inclusive. Of the 177 clinic-referred Ss, data from one child were deleted due to the absence of SSSC scores. Sixty-six children were outpatients of the Georgia Children’s Center for psychological assessment and 15 were referred to Emory Clinic in Atlanta. These clinics receive referrals from physicians, school personnel, parents, juvenile courts and community mental health centers from a broad area of northeast Georgia. The remaining 96 Ss were volunteers from the child psychiatric outpatient clinic of the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in metropolitan Pittsburgh,
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Pennsylvania. All clinic-referred children were males between 7 and 12 years of age, inclusive. None of the clinic-referred Ss exhibited I.Q. scores less than 70, and none displayed overt neurological or psychotic disorder. Their families ranged across all levels of the Myers and Bean (1968) index of socioeconomic status (SES), with the majority falling in the lower-middle to lower SES levels. All procedures were in accordance with the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists” (American Psychological Association, 1981). Procedure
Twelve items from the original SSS were deleted from the SSSC due to the adult nature of these items. The language and content of the remaining 28 items were modified for use with children. The SSSC is presented in Table 1. Separate interviews were conducted of clinic-referred boys, their teachers (by telephone), and at least one biological parent, using the child, teacher and parent versions of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC; Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Dulcan & Klaric, 1984). The DISC version used in this study was revised to incorporate questions concerning all symptoms used in the Revised Third Edition of the Diagnostic and Table
I, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IO. II. 12. 13. 14. IS. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. 8. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B.
I. Sensation
Seeking Scale for Children
(SSSC)
I like to watch the same movie over and over again. I can’t stand watching a movie I’ve seen before. I’d like to lx a mountain climber. I think people who do dangerous things like mountain climbing are foolish. I don’t like the way people’s bodies smell. I like the way people’s bodies smell without perfume. I get bored seeing the same friends all the time. I like seeing only my old friends all the time. I’m happy to look around a strange, new place by myself even if I might get lost. When I’m in a new place, I like to look around with someone who knows the place already. 1 would like to try smoking marijuana. I would never smoke marijuana. I don’t like friends who say or do things that surprise me. F riends who say or do surprising things are fun to play with. I don’t like a TV show or movie when I can guess what will happen next. I like watching a TV show or movie when I can guess what will happen next. I’ d never do anything that’s dangerous. I sometimes like to do things that are a little scary. I like to try new foods that I have never tasted before. I don’t like to try new foods that I have never tasted before because I might not like them. I like to look at pictures of other people’s vacation trips. I think it’s boring to look at pictures of other people’s vacation trips. I’d like to be able to water-ski. I wouldn’t want to water-ski. I would like to try surf-board riding. I would not like to try surf-board riding. Before I go on a trip, I like to know where I’m going and what I’ll be doing. When I go on a trip, I do not mind if I don’t know where I’ll be staying or what I’ll be doing. I make friends with kids who go along with the crowd. I like to make friends with kids who are different from all the rest. I would not like to learn to fly an airplane. I think it would be fun to learn to fly an airplane. I like to swim in water that is not over my head. I like to swim in deep water. I would like to try jumping from a plane with a parachute. I would never try jumping from a plane with a parachute. Friends who always play with the same things are boring. I like friends who I can always count on to play the same things with me. Good art work has pretty colors and looks neat. Good art work can sometimes look messy and have strange colors. I like spending time at home. I get bored and restless if I have to stay at home for very long. I like to jump or dive off a diving board. I don’t like the feeling I get when standing on a diving board; I don’t even go near it. The worst thing a kid can do is be rude to his friends. The worst thing a kid can do is be boring around his friends. I like kids who make jokes even if they sometimes hurt other kids’ feelings. I don’t like kids who think it’s fun to hurt other kids’ feelings. I like to dress in the same kinds of clothes all the other kids wear. I like to dress in clothes that I like, even if all the other kids don’t wear the same kinds of clothes I do. Sailing on the ocean in a small boat would be dangerous and foolish. I think it would be fun to sail on the ocean in a small boat. I don’t like to be around kids who are boring. I like to be around almost every kid I know, even if some of them are boring. I think skiing fast down a snowy mountain would be dangerous. I think skiing fast down a snowy mountain would be fun.
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MARY F. Rvsso er al.
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R) (American Psychiatric Association, 1987) for the following syndromes: conduct disorder, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, oppositionaldefiant disorder, overanxious disorder, separation anxiety disorder, major depressive episode, dysthymia, obsessive
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403
Table 2. Results of SSSC factor analysis Rotated factor pattern sssc item number 4 5 6 8 9 I2 13 16 17 18 19 22 24 26 27 28
Factor (BS)
I
Factor 2 (TAS)
0.61 0.46 0.78 0.46 0.53 -0.67 -0.65 0.45 0.49 0.51 0.49 -0.68 0.6 I 0.46 0.42 0.56
between clinic-referred boys’ total and subscale SSSC scores and demographic variables yielded significant correlations with race and SES on both the BS and TAS subscales. Three separate 2 (CD, not-CD) = 2 (ADHD, not-ADHD) x 2 (ANX, not-ANX) analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted to determine whether the clinic groups differed on full-scale I.Q., SES and age. No significant differences in full-scale I.Q. were demonstrated. The ANOVA conducted with SES as the dependent variable resulted in a significant main effect for CD, F( 1,168) = 7.80, P < 0.006; as such, children diagnosed with CD came from higher SES backgrounds than children in other diagnostic groups. A significant main effect for ADHD was obtained in the ANOVA conducted for age differences, F( 1,168) = 27.20, P < 0.000 1, as well as a significant interaction for ADHD x ANX, F(l,l68) = 7.86, P < 0.006, thus indicating that children diagnosed with ADHD were younger than other clinic-referred children. Chi-square analyses to determine differences in the racial composition of the groups were significant for CD, x’( 1,176) = 9.70, P -z0.002, and ANX, ~‘(1,176) = 4.58, P < 0.04. The CD groups contained higher percentages of black children while the ANX groups contained predominantly white children. Hypotheses as to the relationship between sensation seeking, CD and ANX were marginally confirmed in the clinic sample by the results of the SSSC total score analysis. A 2 (CD, not-CD) x 2 (ADHD, not-ADHD) x 2 (ANX, not-ANX) ANOVA conducted with total SSSC score was the dependent variable resulted in a CD x ANX interaction effect, F( 1,168) = 3.86, P < 0.06. A similar 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA conducted with TAS as the dependent variable resulted in nonsignificant effects. However, the 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA conducted with BS as the dependent variable yielded significant main effects for ADHD, F( 1,168) = 4.23, P < 0.05, and CD, F( 1,168) = 5.74, P < 0.02. The differences between the means for SSSC total score and BS subscale analyses are presented in Table 3. To address the possibility that significant effects were the result of abnormal scores in the clinic control group (i.e. those children who did not receive diagnoses of CD, ADHD or ANX; N = 28) comparison of the clinic control group with a normal control group (65 boys from the elementary school sample) was conducted. A one-way ANCOVA with age as the covariate revealed no significant differences between the two control groups on any score: SSSC total, F( 1,90) = 1.87, BS F&90) = 2.71, TAS F(l,90) = 0.33. Analyses of the relation between children’s SSSC scores and the SSS scores of their parents resulted in significant correlations between mothers’ and sons’ total scores, r(48) = 0.29, P < 0.05, Table 3. Differences between means for SSSC total and BS subscale analvses (h’tD26) SSSC total
15.23 (h’%4)
BS subscale
5.88’
CD + ANX (,V = 42)
ANX (N = 60)
Control (N = 48)
14.05
14.63
14.25
CD + ADHD (‘V = 44)
ADHD (IV = 54)
Control (IV = 54)
5.231b
4.54b
Means with different superscripts are different at the 0.05 level.
5.3 I’b
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MARY F. Russo
et al.
and between mothers’ total scores and the BS scores of their sons, r(48) = 0.33, P < 0.03. All correlations between SSSC scores of clinic-referred children and SSS scores of their fathers were nonsignificant. DISCUSSION The results are in support of sensation seeking as a quantifiable trait in children that has predictable associations with conduct problems. The SSSC was demonstrated as a reliable and valid measure in the normal and clinic-referred children sampled. On total and subscale scores, the significant demographic differences obtained in the normal and clinic-referred samples are in agreement with results obtained in adult populations (Kurtz & Zuckerman, 1978; Zuckerman et al., 1978; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980). Familial transmission is supported in the clinic sample with the significant positive correlation between the sensation seeking scores of boys and their mothers. Among the clinic children sampled, the hypothesized relationship between CD and ADHD in relation to sensation seeking was demonstrated with respect to the BS subscale. Although the presence of CD was associated with elevated BS scores, the presence of ADHD was associated with significantly low BS scores. The relationship between CD and ANX relative to sensation seeking was marginal in relation to total SSSC score. The results may indicate that boys diagnosed with CD alone score significantly higher on the SSSC than all other groups, except when the presence of anxiety exerts a moderating effect. It appears that, while boys with anxiety disorders are not low sensation seekers relative to clinic controls, boys diagnosed with CD seek stimulation from their environments due to boredom. However, those who are both anxious and exhibit CD are less susceptible to such stimulation seeking. The main effect for CD on the BS subscale is in partial agreement with the findings of Wallbank (1985) that delinquents score higher than nondelinquents on total and all SSS subscales except TAS, and the findings of Kafry (1982) that sensation seeking in children is positively related to endorsement of delinquent behaviors. Furthermore, the relationship between total score, anxiety and CD agrees with previous research on sensation seeking of anxious and nonanxious juvenile psychopaths (Borkovec, 1970; Skrzypek, 1969). Thus, it seems that anxiety is a factor which is not to be ignored in the assessment of conduct problems in children. The current version of the SSSC clearly should not be considered a final revision of the adult SSS. The scale is currently under revision to eliminate items which did not exhibit adequate internal consistency. In addition, new items will be added which are more relevant to the experiences of childhood than are some of the adult items. Such a revision of the SSSC may overcome the difficulties inherent in obtaining self-report information from children and result in a scale which is psychometrically sound and thereby more accurately differentiates between clinical syndromes.
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