Preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions as predictors of involvement and children’s school readiness

Journal Pre-proofs Preschool Teachers’ Transition Practices and Parents’ Perceptions as Predictors of Involvement and Children’s School Readiness Jaime Puccioni, John Mark Froiland, Mariola Moeyaert PII: DOI: Reference:

S0190-7409(19)30254-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104742 CYSR 104742

To appear in:

Children and Youth Services Review

Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:

14 March 2019 30 December 2019 31 December 2019

Please cite this article as: J. Puccioni, J. Mark Froiland, M. Moeyaert, Preschool Teachers’ Transition Practices and Parents’ Perceptions as Predictors of Involvement and Children’s School Readiness, Children and Youth Services Review (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104742

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Running head: PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES Preschool Teachers’ Transition Practices and Parents’ Perceptions as Predictors of Involvement and Children’s School Readiness

Jaime Puccioni University at Albany John Mark Froiland Purdue University Mariola Moeyaert University at Albany

Author Note This research was supported by a grant funded by the Foundation for Child Development. The views presented in the article belong solely to the authors and do not reflect the view of the Foundation for Child Development. Declarations of interest: none. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jaime Puccioni, Department of Literacy Teaching and Learning, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222. Email: [email protected]

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

2

Preschool Teachers’ Transition Practices and Parents’ Perceptions as Predictors of Involvement and Children’s School Readiness Abstract Preschool teachers can help support families and children successfully transition to kindergarten by utilizing transition practices that support parental involvement and create smooth linkages between early care settings and formal schooling. Additionally, parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement may also play an important role in shaping parental involvement. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth cohort (N ≈ 4,100) a structural equation model was estimated to examine the relationship among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and measures of school readiness during the transition to kindergarten. Results indicate that parent’s perceptions of invitations for involvement are positively associated with homebased parental involvement. Additionally, home-based involvement was predictive of school readiness measures. More specifically, findings suggest that parents who have more positive perceptions

about preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement report engaging in more home-based involvement activities, which in turn, was positively associated with children’s academic achievement and prosocial behaviors and negatively associated with conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention. Results from this study have important practical implications for educators who aim to encourage parental involvement that supports children’s transition to elementary school.

Keywords: transition practices, parental perceptions, parental involvement, academic achievement, socio-emotional, school readiness.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

1

1. Introduction Early educators can play an important role in supporting children’s readiness for school by reaching out to parents to encourage parental involvement that supports children’s transition to kindergarten (Pianta, Cox, Taylor, & Early, 1999). The most common types of outreach efforts during the transition to kindergarten, which are commonly referred to as transition practices, include sending information about kindergarten home to parents and having an orientation, while the least frequent activities include having preschool age children spend time in the kindergarten classroom and conducting home visit (Cook & Coley, 2017; Little, CohenVogel, & Curran, 2016). Hoover-Dempsey et al., (2005) suggest that parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for involvement also have the potential to shape parental involvement, which in turn influences children’s outcomes. In fact, a few studies have demonstrated that parents of elementary school age children who have positive perceptions about teachers’ invitations for involvement report engaging in more home and school-based involvement activities (Anderson & Minke, 2007; Walker, Ice, Hoover-Dempsey, & Sandler, 2011). Although studies have linked kindergarten teachers’ transition practices to improved outcomes for children in kindergarten (Cook & Coley, 2017; Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Jung & Han, 2013; Schulting, Malone, & Dodge, 2005), few studies have explored the link between preschool teachers’ transition practices and kindergarten outcomes (see Ahtola et al., 2011; LoCasaleCrouch, Mashburn, Downer, & Pianta, 2008 for exception), and no studies to date, have examined the associations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parental perceptions about invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and children’s readiness for school. Entering kindergarten is a critical transition in children’s lives, a time in which early academic achievement and socio-emotional competencies lays the foundation for later learning

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

2

and development (Claessens, Duncan, & Engel, 2009; Claessens & Engel, 2013; Sabol & Pianta, 2012). Given the importance of school readiness and the transition to kindergarten, it is important to understand the ways in which preschool teachers’ transition practices can support families and children. This study utilizes data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth cohort (ECLS-B) to estimate a structural equation model that examines the associations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parental perceptions and involvement, and measures of school readiness. Findings from this study have the potential to broaden our understanding of children’s early educational opportunities and subsequent outcomes during the transition to elementary school. More specifically, findings have the potential to demonstrate the degree to which preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions about educators’ invitations for involvement shape parental involvement, which in turn, has the potential to positively shape children’s academic and socio-emotional outcomes at the onset of kindergarten. 1.2 Parental Involvement and School Readiness A wealth of scholarship shows that parental involvement during early childhood has a strong positive influence on a range of child outcomes during the transition to kindergarten (Booth & Crouter, 2008; Huat See & Gorard, 2015; Van Voorhis, Mailer, Epstein, & Lloyd, 2013). Van Voorhis et al. (2013) review of over 95 studies provide a clear link between parents’ engagement in cognitively stimulating literacy and mathematics activities and young children’s early learning and socio-emotional development. Research has shown that literacy-related activities like reading to your child (Mol, 2009), singing songs (Dunst, Meter, & Hamby, 2011), telling stories, and making books (Boyce, Innocenti, Roggman, Norman, & Ortiz, 2010) support children’s early literacy learning and development.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

3

Home-based parental involvement has also been shown to support children’s mathematical learning (Froiland, Peterson, & Davison, 2013; Kleemans, Peeters, Segers, & Verhoeven, 2012; Sonnenschein & Galindo, 2015). More specifically, children whose parents engage their young child in more numeracy-related activities tend to have higher levels of early numeracy skills (LeFevre, Clarke, & Stringer, 2002; LeFevre et al., 2009; Van Voorhis et al., 2013). Research has shown that parent-child activities such as counting or identifying shapes (Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996) and playing board games (Ramani & Siegler, 2008) positively influence children’s early mathematical development. Interestingly, the home literacy environment has also been shown to predict the acquisition of early numeracy skills (Manolitsis, Georgiou, & Tziraki, 2013; Sonnenschein & Galindo, 2015) and later mathematics development (Froiland et al., 2013). Overall meta-analyses have demonstrated that parental involvement and more specifically literacy-related activities have a positive impact on academic achievement (Castro et al., 2015; Mol, 2009). Home-based parental involvement also predicts other important school readiness skills, such as better social skills, reduced externalizing behaviors, and self-regulation of attention (Puccioni, Baker, & Froiland, 2019). Importantly, this nationally representative study entailed rigorous control variables, such as SES, gender, ethnicity, and age (Puccioni et al., 2019), whereas most related studies have included smaller samples and limited control variables. For instance, in a study of 144 Head Start students (96% African American), Fantuzzo, McWayne, Perry, and Childs (2004) found that home-based parent involvement was positively associated with attention and receptive vocabulary, while negatively associated with conduct problems and hyperactivity. However, these effects were established without employing any control variables.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

4

Importantly, school-based involvement was not significantly associated with any of these outcomes, but it is important to examine this with larger and more diverse samples. Home-based parent involvement may provide children with practice in self‐regulatory behaviors that help in school, such as sitting still and paying attention (Froiland & Davison, 2016; Son & Tineo, 2016). Froiland and Davison (2016) found that parent home-based involvement in the form of parent-child shared reading frequency, number of books at home, and visits to the library put children at a lower risk for developing inattention and hyperactivity. This nationally representative study involved rigorous control variables, such as SES, ethnicity, gender, diagnosis of autism or emotional disturbance, and family structure. However, it did not examine other key social-emotional school readiness outcomes, such as conduct problems and prosocial behaviors. Studies have also shown that parental involvement at school can have a positive impact on children’s academic achievement, however the evidence is mixed. Several studies have demonstrated that school-based involvement, in the form of attending school meetings, volunteering in classrooms, and serving on committees, are positively associated with children’s achievement (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Hill, 2001; Hill & Craft, 2003). While other studies have demonstrated a negative (Desimone, 1999; Fan, 2001), or no association (Domina, 2005; El Nokali, Bachman, & Vortruba-Drzal, 2010), between school-based involvement activities and achievement. For instance, Powell, Son, File, and Froiland (2012) found that school-based involvement was not related to math achievement, whereas home-based involvement predicted math achievement growth from preschool to first grade. Jeynes (2005) conducted a metaanalysis to examine the effects of parental involvement on urban elementary school students and found that attending school functions did not yield statistically significant effects on academic

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

5

achievement. While Puccioni (2018) found that parents’ school-based involvement during preschool was negatively associated with children’s reading achievement at the beginning of kindergarten. Due to the inconsistent findings related to the impact of school-based involvement on children’s achievement and the lack of studies examining the degree to which parents’ schoolbased involvement during preschool shapes later achievement, additional research is warranted. Given the important role parents play in contributing to children’s early learning and transition to school (Booth & Crouter, 2008), it is important to recognize that parental involvement may vary by one’s race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status (Cheadle & Amato, 2011; Phillips, 2011; Puccioni, 2018). Research has shown that children of color and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds spent less time engaged in language, literacy, and educationrelated activities with their parent (Philips, 2011) and children from lower income families engage in fewer numeracy-related activities in their home environment than their middle-income peers (Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996; Vandermaas-Peeler, Nelson, Bumpass, & Sassine, 2009). Cheadle and Amato (2011) developed a latent construct representing concerted cultivation which was comprised of school-based involvement, extra-curricular activities, and learning related materials in the home and found that parents of color and parents from lower SES backgrounds engaged in concerted cultivation less than their white counterparts and those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. Similar patterns emerge with regards to school-based involvement, such that children of color and those living in poverty are less likely to have parents who attend general meetings, school events, or volunteer their time in the school or classroom (Child Trends, 2013). In order to isolate the relations among preschool teachers’ transition practices , parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, and parental

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

6

involvement it is important to include child and family background characteristics as controls in the analysis. 1.3 Early Educators’ Transition Practices Early educators can support children during the transition to kindergarten by reaching out to parents in ways that encourage and support family involvement. These transition practices, which may also be conceptualized as invitations for involvement have the potential to serve as a bridge for children and families during this important educational transition. The most common transition practices include inviting parents and children to kindergarten orientations and sending information about kindergarten to parents, while the least common practices consist of conducting home visits prior to the start of kindergarten and coordinating efforts with preschool programs (Cook & Coley, 2017; Pianta et al., 1999; Schulting et al., 2005). Several studies have linked kindergarten teachers’ transition practices to children’s outcomes during the transition to elementary school using nationally representative data drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten cohort 1998-1999 (ECLS-K). For example, Schulting et al., (2005) demonstrated that more transition practices implemented in the fall of kindergarten was positively associated with children’s academic achievement at the end of kindergarten and this relationship was stronger for children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Moreover, the authors demonstrated that school-based parental involvement partially mediated the relationship between transition practices and children’s outcomes. Building upon the work by Schulting et al., (2005), Galindo and Sheldon (2012) demonstrated that kindergarten teachers’ ongoing outreach efforts during the kindergarten school year were positively associated with achievement gains in kindergarten and this relationship was also mediated by school-based parental involvement. Jung and Han (2013) found that kindergarten teachers’ outreach efforts in the fall

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

7

were positively associated with sharper gains in reading achievement, and these gains were greater for children who entered kindergarten with lower reading levels and for those who read more outside of school. More recently, Cook and Coley (2017) analyzed data from ECLS-B and found that kindergarten teachers’ transition practices were positively associated with children’s prosocial behaviors but not academic achievement. Overall, these studies demonstrate a link between kindergarten teachers’ transition practices and child outcomes during kindergarten. Some findings indicate that this link is mediated by parental involvement and that children from disadvantaged backgrounds may benefit more from kindergarten teachers’ transition practices. Although most studies have focused on kindergarten teachers’ transition practices, a few studies have examined preschool teachers’ outreach efforts and children’s achievement in elementary school. For example, study by LoCasale-Crouch et al., (2008) examined the association between pre-kindergarten teachers’ transition practices and kindergarten children’s academic and socio-emotional outcomes using a sample of approximately 700 children participating in the National Center for Early Development and Learning Multi-State Prekindergarten study. The authors reported that the total number of practices, and more specifically, practices that children experienced directly were positively linked to kindergarten teachers’ perceptions of children’s academic achievement and socio-emotional competencies. Furthermore, these positive associations were stronger for children who were from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. In a study of approximately 400 children transitioning to formal schooling in Finland conducted by Ahtola et al., (2011), pairs of preschool and elementary school teachers provided reports of their collaborative outreach efforts intended to support children’s transition to formal schooling. The authors found that the more transition practices the pairs implemented the greater children’s growth in children’s reading, writing, and

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

8

mathematics skills. Even though these studies demonstrate a link between preschool educators’ transition practices and child outcomes during the transition to kindergarten, they do not examine the mediating role of parental involvement. Although transition practices have been positively linked to parental involvement and children’s outcomes during the transition to kindergarten by way of parental involvement (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Schulting et al., 2005) scholars suggest that parents’ perceptions about educators’ invitations for involvement also have the potential to shape parental involvement and child outcomes. Invitations for involvement may be conceptualized as outreach efforts to support and encourage parental involvement. A few studies have examined the relation between parents’ perceptions of teachers’ invitations for involvement and parental involvement. For example, in a study with over 850 parents of children attending an urban elementary school, Anderson and Minke (2007) found that parents who held more positive perceptions of elementary school teachers’ invitations for involvement reported engaging in more home and school-based involvement practices. While Walker et al., (2011) found that Latino parents’ who held more positive perceptions of teachers’ invitations for involvement reported engaging in more school-based involvement practices with their elementary age children. Murray, McFarland-Piazza, and Harrison (2015) found that parents’ satisfaction with information positively predicted their home-based involvement during the transition to formal schooling. The current study extends previous research by linking preschool teachers’ transition practices parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and children’s readiness for school. Despite the fact that many educators, researchers, and policymakers alike advocate for the implementation of outreach efforts, studies have shown that schools and teachers serving

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

9

historically disadvantaged student populations report using fewer transition practices (Daley, Munk, & Carlson, 2011; Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999). More specifically, research has shown that elementary schools in urban locations and those serving a larger population of students living in poverty (Daley et al., 2011; Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999), as well as those schools serving larger populations of students of color (Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999) utilize fewer transition practices. Additionally, research suggests that kindergarten teachers with more years of experience report engaging in more overall transition practices (Cook & Coley, year) and those with primary certification report engaging in more individualized practices (Early, Pianta, Taylor, & Cox, 2001). Overall, research suggests that kindergarten students from disadvantaged backgrounds may be exposed to fewer outreach efforts than children from more advantaged backgrounds (Cook & Coley, 2017; Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999), yet few studies explore the types or frequency of transition practices preschool teachers utilize and no studies to this date examine parents’ perceptions about preschool teachers’ transition practices. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that educators’ outreach efforts are positively associated with child outcomes during the transition to formal schooling. Although some of these studies have demonstrated that the relationship between early educators’ outreach efforts are partially-mediated by school-based parental involvement and moderated by children’s socioeconomic status and children’s beginning levels of achievement, no studies to date, have simultaneously examined the relationship among preschool teachers’ transition practices , parental involvement, and measures of school readiness during the transition to elementary school. This study contributes to the literature by using nationally representative data drawn from ECLS-B to estimate a structural equation model that examines the associations among

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

10

preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and children’s academic and socio-emotional competencies during the transition to kindergarten while accounting for potential variation in preschool teachers’ transition practices as well as parental perceptions and involvement. 1.4 Control Variables for Measures of School Readiness In order to isolate the associations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and children’s readiness for school it is important to account for a variety of control variables that have been shown to be associated with measures of school readiness. Research suggests that socioeconomic and racial/ethnic gaps in academic (Coley, 2002; Rouse, Brooks-Gunn, & Mclanahan, 2005) and socio-emotional competencies (Baker, Jensen, & Tisak, 2017; Martin et al., 2010; Weimer & Guajardo, 2005) exist when children start kindergarten. Studies have also demonstrated that children’s gender (Ready, LoGerfo, Lee, & Burkam, 2005) and age (Datar, 2006; Lin, Freeman, & Chu, 2009) are also associated with measures of school readiness. Our analysis includes a rich set of controls to help disentangle the associations among transition practices, parental perceptions and involvement, and measures of school readiness. 1.5 Research Questions and Hypotheses The present study draws upon nationally representative data from ECLS-B to estimate a structural equation model which examines the relationship among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and measures of school readiness. The following research questions and hypotheses guide the present study:

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

11

1. Are preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement associated with measures of school readiness? Few studies have demonstrated a link between preschool teachers’ transition practices and children’s kindergarten achievement, and no studies to date have examined the link between parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement and measures of school readiness. Therefore, analyses are somewhat exploratory in nature. 2. Is home and school-based parental involvement associated with measures of school readiness? We expect home and school-based involvement to be associated with measures of school readiness. 3. Are preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement associated with parental involvement? We expect preschool teachers’ transition practices to be associated with parental involvement. Since there are no previous studies examining the relations between preschool parents’ perceptions of early educators’ invitations for involvement and parental involvement, our analyses are somewhat exploratory in nature. 2. Method 2.1 Data Source and Sample This study draws upon data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth cohort (ECLS-B), which is a longitudinal study that follows a nationally representative sample of children born in the U.S. from birth to kindergarten (Snow et al., 2009). Developed primarily under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the ECLS-B is a multiple-method, multiple-respondent study guided by a conceptual

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

12

model of children’s development that emphasizes the interaction between child, family, school, and community. Data for this study was collected in five waves beginning when children were approximately 9 months of age. The second wave of data collection occurred when children were approximately 24 months of age. The preschool wave (wave 3) of data collection was intended to represent the year before most of the children would be expected to enter kindergarten. There are two waves of data representing when children began kindergarten based on age-eligibility, that is, the kindergarten entry in 2006 (wave 4) or kindergarten entry in 2007 (wave 5). Based upon recommendations from the ECLS-B staff, outcome measures from waves 4 and 5 were pooled in order to measure children’s academic achievement and socio-emotional competencies in kindergarten. More specifically, we used the wave 4 kindergarten data for children who were eligible to begin kindergarten that year; and for those who were not eligible to enter in 2006, we utilized the data from 2007. Initial kindergarten scores were used for any child who repeated kindergarten and was assessed more than once. ECLS-B includes data from parents, early childcare providers, kindergarten teachers, as well as child assessment instruments in cognitive and psychosocial domains. As such, the ECLS-B data set allows one to analyze the complex relationships between children’s early learning experiences across home and school contexts to a variety of child outcomes. Additional information about the sampling design, instruments, and measures can be found in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Kindergarten 2006 and 2007 Data File User’s Manual (2010-010) (Snow et al., 2009). This study makes use of data drawn from wave 2 (approximately 2 years of age), wave 3 (preschool), and waves 4 and 5 representing the year in which the sampled child entered kindergarten. The analytical sample was selected based on several steps. First, children with a

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

13

valid non-zero panel weight (WKR0), which is a specific weight designed for longitudinal analyses using the sample of children from wave 2 (24 months), wave 3 (preschool), and waves 4 and 5 (kindergarten waves) were selected. Second, because this study examines the role of school-based parental involvement, children who only experienced parental care during preschool were excluded from the study. This process yielded an approximate sample of 3,650 children. All sample sizes reported in this analysis are rounded to the nearest 50 in accordance with IES reporting rules to account for the restricted nature of ECLS-B data. 2.2 Academic Achievement Measures The ECLS-B includes direct cognitive assessments specifically designed to measure children’s early reading and mathematical skills. This study makes use of individually administered, oral, and untimed reading and mathematics assessments administered in the fall of kindergarten (2006 or 2007 waves) to develop a latent construct representing a global measure of academic achievement. 2.2.1 Early reading achievement. The early reading assessment was intended to measure children’s performance in language and literacy-related domains. Therefore, the assessment contained items measuring children’s performance on certain language-based items (receptive language and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test items) and literacy items (e.g., conventions of print, letter recognition, understanding of letter-sound relationships, phonological awareness, sight word recognition, understanding words in the context of simple sentences). The reliability estimate for the kindergarten reading assessment was .84 (Bethel, Green, Kalton, & Nord, 2005; Snow et al., 2009).

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

14

2.2.2. Early mathematics achievement. The mathematics assessment included items assessing number sense, properties, and operations; measurement; geometry and spatial sense; data analysis, statistics, and probability; and patterns, algebra, and functions. The reliability estimate for the kindergarten mathematics assessments was .89 (Bethel et al., 2005; Snow et al., 2009). 2.3 Social-Emotional Outcomes. The ECLS-B includes an indirect child assessment which is intended to measure social-emotional constructs. The assessment draws upon items from the Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales – Second Edition (PKBS-2) (Merrell, 2003) and the Social Skills Rating System (Gresham & Elliott, 1990). Guided by previous research by Ferreti and Bub (2017) we drew upon kindergarten teacher responses in the fall of kindergarten to develop three latent constructs to measure children’s conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and prosocial skills. 2.3.1 Conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention. The latent constructs representing conduct problems and hyperactivity consists of indicator variables measuring the frequency the child displayed certain behaviors using a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (often). The construct representing conduct problems consists of the following items: child has temper tantrums; child annoys other children; child has disruptive behavior; and child displays aggression. The construct representing hyperactivity consisted of the following items: child displays impulsive behavior; child is over active; child keeps working until task finished (reverse coded); child pays attention well (reverse coded); child has difficulty concentrating or staying on task; and child is restless and fidgety.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

15

2.3.2 Prosocial behaviors. The latent constructs representing prosocial behaviors consists of indicator variables measuring the frequency the child displayed the following behaviors using a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (often): child is invited by other children to play; child shows eagerness to learn new things; child is accepted and liked by other children; child comforts other children who are upset; child works independently; child stands up for other’s rights; child tries to understand others; and child shares. 2.4 Preschool teachers’ transition practices. Three items were used from the preschool wave of data collection to measure preschool teachers’ transition practices. Preschool teachers reported whether or not the following practices (1 = yes, 0 = no) were utilized: phoned or sent home information about the kindergarten program to parents; preschoolers spend some time in the kindergarten classroom; and parents and children visit kindergarten prior to the start of the school year. These items were summed and scores ranged from zero to three. 2.5 Parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for involvement. A latent construct representing parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement was comprised of five items from the preschool wave of data collection. Using a scale of 1 = does it very well to 3 = not at all, parents rated how well the preschool teacher provided information about their child’s progress in school; helped you gain understanding of what children are like at that age; made you aware of chances to volunteer; provided workshops, materials, or advice about how to help child learn at home; and provided information on community services to help with your child or your family. Items were reverse coded with values ranging from 0 = does not at all to 2 = does it very well. Cronbach’s alpha for the five manifest variables representing parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement was .75 for the subsample.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

16

2.5 Home-based parental involvement. A latent construct representing home-based parental involvement was estimated using four items from the preschool wave parent interviews. Using a scale of 1 = not at all to 4 = every day, parents reported how often they read books, tell stories, and sing songs with their child during the week. These items were recoded so that values ranged from 0 = not at all to 3 = every day. Parents were also asked how often they played together with toys to build things using a scale of 1 = more than once a day to 6 = not at all. This item was reverse coded with values ranging from 0 = not at all to 5 = more than once a day, so that higher numbers indicate more home-based parental involvement. Cronbach’s alpha for the four home-based parental involvement items was .60 for the subsample. 2.6 School-based parental involvement. Five items were used from the preschool wave of data collection to measure parental school-based involvement. Parents reported whether or not (1 = yes, 0 = no) they attended a general meeting (e.g., open house, back-to-school night); a regularly scheduled parent-teacher conference; a school or class event (e.g., play); acted as a volunteer; or chaperoned a field trip. These items were summed to create composite variable with a range of zero to five. 2.7 Family and child-related controls for measures of school readiness. This study included a set of family and child background characteristics as controls for the analyses. Socioeconomic status was a continuous composite variable provided in the ECLS-B data set that was comprised of: (a) father/male guardian’s level of education; (b) mother/female guardian’s level of education; (c) father/male guardian’s occupation; (d) mother/female guardian’s occupation; and (e) household income. There were categories of race/ethnicity included in the analysis: European American/non-Hispanic (reference group), African American/non-Hispanic, Hispanic, Asian American, and Other. In addition to socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity,

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

17

children’s age at time of kindergarten assessment which (measured in months), and gender which was represented by a dummy variable indicating whether the child was female were included as controls. 2.8 Preschool measures of academic achievement and socio-emotional outcomes as controls for school readiness. This study also estimated a set of latent constructs to represent children’s preschool level of academic achievement and socio-emotional competencies as controls for subsequent measures of school readiness. The preschool wave of direct child assessments measuring children’s early reading and mathematics were used as manifest variables for the latent construct representing preschool children’s academic achievement. The preschool wave of data collection also included the same measures used in the kindergarten waves to assess children’s socio-emotional competencies. Drawing upon preschool teacher responses about the frequency in which children displayed certain social skills and behaviors three latent constructs were developed to measure children’s conduct problems, hyperactivity, and prosocial skills. 2.9 Controls to account for potential variation in educators’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions and involvement. We included a set of variables measuring preschool teacher characteristics and type of school setting to account for potential variation in preschool teachers’ transition practices and parent perceptions of invitations for involvement. Preschool teachers’ reported what type of educational degree had been obtained in addition to years of experience working in early care and education. Dummy codes indicating if the preschool teacher held an Associate’s degree in child development and/or a Bachelor’s degree in early education were included as controls. A set of dummy codes indicating type of preschool setting using the following categories: public prekindergarten (reference category), private prekindergarten, center-based prekindergarten, Head Start, and other type prekindergarten.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

18

In addition to preschool teacher characteristics and type of preschool, we also included children’s race/ethnicity and family socioeconomic status as a control for transition practices and parents’ perceptions. We also included a latent variable representing parental involvement at approximately 24 months of age to account for potential variation parents’ perceptions of teachers’ invitations for involvement. During the second wave of data collection parents reported how often they read books, tell stories, and sing songs with their child during the week using a scale of 1 = not at all to 4 = every day. These items were recoded so values ranged from 0 = not at all to 3 = every day. Parents also reported on how often they play indoor games using a scale of 1 = more than once a day to 6 = not at all. These items were reverse coded so that 0 = not at all to 5 = more than once a day. In order to account for variation in preschool parental involvement we included the child’s race/ethnicity, family socioeconomic status, gender, and parental involvement at 24 months as controls for home and school-based involvement. 2.6 Analytical Plan In order to account for the complex survey design employed by ECLS-B all analyses in this study used the paired jackknife replication method (JK2) by specifying the full sample weight (WKR0) and the corresponding replicate weights (WKR1-WKR90). This process adjusts for disproportionate sampling, survey nonresponse, and undercoverage of the target population when analyzing complex survey data. Weighted means and proportions of model variables were estimated in Stata 13 (StataCorp., 2013) using the svyset command. Use of the appropriate weight allows findings to be generalized to the national population of children born in the United States in 2001 (Snow et al., 2009).

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

19

We investigated the missingness mechanism in this multivariate setting using the R Package maniar (Tierney et al., 2019) and are able to assume that the patterns of missingess are arbitrary. Only for the kindergartner variables, a small proportion of missing data for a subset of variables across participants with different background characteristics was identified. However, formal tests of the missing at random assumption versus the missing completely at random assumption were conducted using the littleMCAR function within the BaylorEdPsych package (Beaujean, 2015) and the mice package (van Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011). Although missing completely at random could not be assumed for the kindergartner variables, we can conclude missing at random for these variables (which is commonly the case in survey data). For the other variables, missing completely at random can be assumed. As a consequence nonresponse can be ignored (Rubin, 1976; van Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011) and no missing data imputations were necessary. A structural equation model was estimated to examine the relationship among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions and involvement, and measures of school readiness using raw data analyzed in Mplus version 7 with a mean and covariance structure (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012). The analytic strategy occurred in several steps in accordance with recommendations from Kline (2011). The first step involved estimating the measurement model in which measured variables were estimated as indicators of the proposed latent variables (Figure 1 displays the primary latent constructs under study and does not include the latent constructs used as controls). After goodness-of-fit for the measurement model was established, the second step involved estimating the full structural model to estimate the hypothesized relations among the variables of interest. Maximum likelihood estimation (ML), which uses the full information maximum likelihood (FIML) approach to handle missing data, was used as the

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

20

estimator in analyses (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012). Model fit was primarily evaluated using a two-index strategy recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999): root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA) and the standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR). RMSEA less than or equal to .06 and a SRMR less than .08 indicate good model fit for the data. 3. Results 3.1 Descriptive Statistics Table 1 presents the weighted means and proportions estimated in Stata 13 (StataCorp, 2011). The analytic sample consisted of approximately 3,650 children with a racial/ethnic composition of 57% European American, 15% African American, 21% Hispanic, 3% Asian, and 4% Other. Bivariate correlations among primary latent variable indicators were also examined and are displayed in Table 2. 3.2 Model Estimation Following the two-step estimation procedure recommended by Kline (2011), the measurement model (Figure 1) was assessed first. Acceptable model fit was indicted for the overall measurement model with an RMSEA = .06 (90 % CI [.063–.065]), and a SRMR = .06. Figure 1 includes the standardized factor loadings for the indicator variables for the latent constructs representing parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, home-based parental involvement, and measures of school readiness which include academic achievement and socioemotional outcomes. The next step involved estimating the full structural model which included a set of family and child characteristics and teacher characteristics as controls for transition practices, parents’ perceptions and involvement, and measures of school readiness (Figure 2 does not display controls). Resulting fit statistics indicate good fit for the data, with a RMSEA = .06

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

21

(90 % CI [.055 –.057], and a SRMR = .07. Therefore, the structural model was retained and parameter estimates were evaluated as they pertained to the research questions addressed by this study. 3.3 Associations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and measures of school readiness Table 3 presents the unstandardized coefficients of model estimates. For ease of interpretation Figure 2 presents the standardized model estimates as related to the primary research questions under study. The unstandardized and standardized regression coefficients can be interpreted in a similar way as a conventional linear regression model. Contrary to hypothesized associations, preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement were not significantly directly associated with measures of school readiness. However, in support of hypothesized associations, the results show significant associations of home-based involvement with academic achievement and socio-emotional outcomes. More specifically, home-based parental involvement was positively associated with children’s academic achievement (ß = .06, p < .05), and negatively associated with conduct problems (ß = -.10, p < .05) and hyperactivity/inattention (ß = -.10, p < .01), holding all else constant. In general, children whose parents report engaging in more home-based involvement activities had children with higher average levels of academic achievement, and lower levels of conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention. Results also showed that school-based involvement was negatively associated with academic achievement (ß = -.04, p < .05). Comparison of standardized estimates in Figure 2 suggests that home-based involvement is more strongly associated with socioemotional outcomes in comparison to academic achievement.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

22

Findings also indicate that parents’ perceptions about educators’ invitations for involvement were positively associated with home (ß = .12, p < .01) and school-based involvement (ß = .35, p < .001), holding all else constant. In other words, parents who held more positive beliefs about preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement reported engaging in more parental involvement activities. Although there was no direct association between parents’ perceptions and measures of school readiness, results show that parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement were positively associated with home-based involvement, which in turn was positively associated with measures of school readiness. As displayed in Figure 3 the standardized covariance between transition practices and the latent construct representing parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement is .13 ( p <.001). Although not displayed in Figure 3, the latent constructs representing children’s academic achievement were negatively correlated with conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention, and positively associated with prosocial skills. While the latent construct representing prosocial behaviors was negatively correlated with the latent constructs representing conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention. This indicates a reciprocal relationship between achievement and socio-emotional competencies. The model accounted for 67% of the variation in academic achievement, 31% of the variation in conduct problems, 34% of the variation in hyperactivity/inattention, and 22% of the variation in prosocial behavior. 3.4 Controls for Measures of School Readiness, Preschool Teachers’ Transition Practices, Parents’ Perceptions of Invitations for Involvement, and Parental Involvement Table 3 indicates child and family characteristics were associated with measures of school readiness. All things being equal, socioeconomic status had positive and significant associations with academic achievement and prosocial skills and a significant negative

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

23

association with hyperactivity/inattention. A similar pattern emerged for the relations between children’s age at assessment and measures of school readiness. As expected, control measures of academic achievement and socio-emotional outcomes in preschool were significantly associated with respective measures in kindergarten. There was evidence that children’s academic achievement and socio-emotional outcomes varied by race/ethnicity. On average, Asian American children had higher levels of academic achievement in comparison to European American children, holding all else constant. Kindergarten teachers’ reported that African American children displayed more conduct problems in comparison to their European American counterparts, while Asian American displayed fewer conduct problems. Kindergarten teachers also reported that girls displayed fewer conduct problems and less hyperactive/inattentive behavior in comparison to boys. Table 3 also indicates that several preschool teacher characteristics included as controls in the analyses were associated with use of transition practices. Preschool teachers who hold an Associate’s Degree in Child Development and/or a Bachelor’s Degree in Early Childhood degree reported utilizing more transition practices in comparison to those preschool teachers who did not report holding a respective degree. Additionally, preschool teachers who reported having more years of experience also reported utilizing more transition practices. Results also indicate transition practices varied in relation to the type of preschool program. In comparison to teachers at public prekindergarten programs, preschool teachers at center-based programs reported using fewer transition practices, while teachers at Head Start Programs reported utilizing more transition practices. Variation in parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement also emerged. Parents of children who had preschool teachers with a degree in early childhood reported having more positive feelings about invitations for involvement.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

24

Furthermore, parents’ whose children attended Head Start held more positive perceptions about preschool teachers’ transition practices in comparison to children who did not attend Head Start. There were also a set of child and family characteristics included as controls for parental involvement during preschool. Other things being equal, parents from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds reported engaging in more parental involvement activities. On average, parents of African American children reported engaging in fewer home-based involvement activities than parents of European American children, holding all else constant. Results also showed that parents of girls reported engaging in more home-based involvement in comparison to parents of boys. In contrast, parents of children who are African American, Hispanic, and Asian American reported engaging in more school-based involvement activities in comparison to their European American counterparts. In addition, the latent construct representing parental involvement when children were approximately 24 months of age was also positively associated with preschool reports of parental involvement. The model explained 8% of preschool teachers’ transition practices, 6% of parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, 65% of homebased parental involvement, and 17% of school-based involvement. 4. Discussion The transition to formal schooling is an important time in the life of children and families. During the transition to kindergarten children experience a uniquely different environment than their homes and early educational settings, one that can be characterized as placing an increased demand on children’s cognitive and socio-emotional competencies. In order to support children and families during this important point of transition the National Education Goals Panel (National Education Goals Panel, 1998) recommended that “ready

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

25

schools” create smooth linkages between home and school and to strive for continuity between early care and education programs and kindergarten. Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta’s (2000) Ecological and Dynamic Model of Transition emphasizes that successful transitions to kindergarten occur in an environment consisting of interactions among child, school, classroom, family, and community factors. As such, the transition process can be considered as beginning the year prior to kindergarten entrance and emphasizing the interrelated connections between children, families, early educators, and kindergarten teachers (Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta, 2000). Early educators can help build strong linkages between home and school, and preschool and kindergarten by utilizing transition practices that invite parents to become involved in their child’s early learning and schooling experiences. These practices have the potential to support families and children during the formal transition to kindergarten. The present study utilized data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth cohort (ECLS-B) to estimate a structural equation model that examined the associations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and children’s academic and socio-emotional competencies during the transition to kindergarten. Our findings support the Ecological and Dynamic Model of Transition, in that parental perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement predicted home-based involvement, which in turn predicted higher average academic achievement, fewer conduct problems, and less hyperactivity/inattention. Parent perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement also predicted school-based involvement, but school-based involvement was not significantly related to social-emotional outcomes and it had a negative relationship with academic achievement. Overall, these findings suggests that preschool teachers may want to place more emphasis on creating positive home-school partnerships which

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

26

encourage and support home-based involvement, as it is home-based parent involvement that better promotes school readiness. Contrary to hypothesized associations, preschool teachers’ transition practices were not directly associated with measures of school readiness at the onset of kindergarten. These findings are in contrast to previous studies which demonstrated a direct link between preschool (Ahtola et al., 2011; LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2008) and kindergarten teachers (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Jung & Han, 2013; Schulting et al., 2005) use of transition practices and child outcomes during the transition to formal schooling. However, the results presented in this study are consistent with recent findings from Cook and Coley (2017) who also found no direct association between kindergarten teachers’ outreach efforts and children’s academic achievement at the onset of kindergarten (Cook & Coley, 2017). One possible explanation for the lack of direct association between preschool teachers’ transition practices and measures of school readiness in this study could stem from the narrow operational definition of transition practices. For example, there were only three items available in the ECLS-B dataset that were intended to measure preschool teachers’ transition practices. As such, there may not have been sufficient variation to capture an association between transition practices and measures of school readiness. In other studies examining the relations between early educators’ outreach efforts and child outcomes there are a greater number of items intended to measure transition practices. Although there was no significant direct association between parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement and measures of school readiness, it is important to note that we found a significant positive correlation between preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement. This suggests that preschool teachers’ transition

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

27

practices are not in vain, but may have an impact on parental involvement and children’s readiness for school by way of parental perceptions. As predicted, the findings from this study demonstrate a positive association between parental involvement and measures of school readiness. More specifically, results indicate that parents who engaged in more home-based parental involvement had children with higher average levels of academic achievement, and lower levels of conduct problems and fewer instances of hyperactivity/inattention. These findings are consistent with a range of studies linking homebased involvement to young children’s early academic achievement and socio-emotional competencies (Booth & Crouter, 2008; Van Voorhis et al., 2013). Previous studies have found that home-based parent involvement in the form of home literacy predicts better attention, less hyperactivity, and less diagnosis of ADHD across the U.S. (Froiland & Davison, 2016) and Son and Tineo (2016) also found that parents often give students cues to pay attention during shared book reading. In addition, Fantuzzo et al. (2004) found that home-based involvement was concurrently associated with less hyperactivity, more attention, and less conduct problems among a small sample of African American Head Start students. On the other hand, Fantuzzo et al. (2004) found that school-based involvement was not related to these important mental health outcomes. Our study replicated the Fantuzzo et al. (2004) findings and extends them to a national level by finding that home-based involvement during preschool predicted inattention/hyperactivity and conduct problems in kindergarten, while school-based parent involvement in preschool did not predict inattention/hyperactivity and conduct problems. The most salient finding from this study supports the assertion parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005) have the potential to shape parental involvement, which in turn has a positive influence on child outcomes. Our findings indicate

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

28

that parents who have more positive perceptions about preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement reported engaging children in more home-based involvement, which in turn was predictive of children’s academic achievement and socio-emotional wellbeing. These findings are new and noteworthy because no studies to date have used nationally representative data to link parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement to measures of school readiness by way of home-based parental involvement. Furthermore, this is the first study that we know of that links parent perceptions to home-based involvement, and children’s socialemotional wellbeing at the onset of kindergarten. Given that parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement in this study emphasized the sharing of information about children’s progress and development in addition to information about materials and resources intended to help families and children, these findings may be framed within a broader range of scholarship that highlights parents’ desire to know more about how to help their child learn and succeed at school (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; McIntyre, Eckert, Fiese, DiGennaro, & Wildenger, 2007). Parents of young children want information about the transition to kindergarten in general and ways to help prepare children for kindergarten more specifically (McIntyre et al., 2007), and early educators are uniquely poised to provide parents with this type of information. Therefore, the evidence linking parents’ perceptions about invitations for involvement and parental involvement is encouraging given that schools and policymakers alike are often interested in increasing parental involvement as way to support young children’s early learning and development. Given that findings from this study provide evidence linking preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement, and parental involvement to measures of school readiness it is important to consider the ways in

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

29

which transition practices, parents’ perceptions and involvement varied. Consistent with a range of previous studies, findings presented in this study indicate there is a demographic divide in measures of school readiness, such that children from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds (Reardon, 2011) and children who are older (Lin et al., 2009) begin kindergarten with higher average levels of achievement and demonstrate more socio-emotional wellbeing (Dee & Sievertsen, 2015). Importantly, children from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds are more likely to be given the gift of time and be older at the beginning of kindergarten (Graue & DiPerna, 2000). Therefore, children from less affluent families may benefit from having a preschool teacher who helps build reciprocal home-school connections that engender positive beliefs among families in ways that encourage and support parental involvement. Findings presented in this study suggest that parents with children attending Head Start held more positive perceptions about preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement in comparison to children who did not attend Head Start. These are interesting and important findings considering that Head Start performance standards emphasize the importance of practices that support children’s transition to elementary school (Rous, Hallam, McCormick, & Cox, 2010) and more importantly, that Head Start programs make concerted efforts to build home-school partnerships (Ansari & Gershoff, 2015; Hatcher, Nuner, & Paulsel, 2012). In fact, Ansari and Gershoff (2015) found that parents of children attending Head Start who engaged in more school-based involvement engaged their children in more cognitive stimulating activities at home, which in turn was positively associated with gains in literacy and mathematics. The authors also found that teacher and staff training focused on how to involve parents was linked to more parental involvement. Furthermore, research indicates that preschool teachers (Rous et al., 2010) who received specialized training to enhance children’s transition to kindergarten reported

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

30

using more types of transition practices before and after the school year began in comparison to those teachers who did not have any special training. Additionally, preschool teachers who held a degree in Early Childhood Education reported utilizing more transition practices and parents of children who were taught by a preschool teacher who held a degree in Early Childhood Education held more positive beliefs about teachers’ invitations for involvement. These findings point to the importance of advanced coursework for early educators and ongoing professional development focused on building productive home-school partnerships which aim to shape parental involvement. There were also differences in parental involvement by sociodemographic characteristics. Consistent with previous research parents from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds reported engaging in more parental involvement activities (Cheadle & Amato, 2011; Phillips, 2011). Also consistent with previous research, parents of African American children reported engaging in fewer home-based involvement activities in comparison to their European American counterparts (Phillips, 2011; Puccioni, 2018; Rouse et al., 2005). Importantly, we also found that Hispanic and African American families engaged in more school-based involvement, whereas European American families engaged in more home-based involvement. This suggests that Hispanic and African American families may benefit even more than European American families from shifting preschool outreach efforts toward a greater focus on home-based involvement. Importantly, we also found that parent home-based involvement when children were 24 months of age predicted home-based involvement during preschool. This suggests that some outreach to parents about home-based involvement could begin during late infancy, so that parents create strong home-based involvement habits well before preschool. 5.1 Conclusion

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

31

This study contributes to the literature by using a nationally representative sample drawn from ECLS-B to examine the associations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parental perceptions and involvement, and measures of school readiness. The most salient finding was that parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement were positively associated with home-based involvement, which in turn was associated with children’s academic achievement and socio-emotional wellbeing during the transition to kindergarten. Although findings presented in this study provide an important contribution to the field, there are several limitations that should be considered. Despite the benefits of using longitudinal secondary data, this study is correlational and direct causation cannot be assumed. Another issue pertains to measurement error, or the use of imprecise measures, which may underestimate the influence of preschool teachers’ transition practices and parental involvement on measures of school readiness. For example, this study includes few measures for preschool teachers’ transition practices and these items do not capture information about which families participated in these activities. In addition, preschool teachers only reported if they engaged in these transition practices and do not capture the quality of the actual outreach efforts. Future research should examine a wider range of preschool teachers’ transition practices and seek to measure family participation in such efforts. Similar limitations can be found with regards to parental involvement. Although parents report on the frequency of engaging in different types of parental involvement, there is no measure of the quality of those engagements. Despite these limitations there are several important strengths of this study that should be discussed. Most studies examining the role educators’ transition practices have on child outcomes primarily focus on academic achievement and these studies generally occur during kindergarten. Fewer studies have used longitudinal nationally representative data to examine

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

32

how preschool teachers’ transition practices have the potential to help support children’s transition to elementary school by way of parental involvement. Findings from this study have important implications for encouraging parental involvement by demonstrating the degree to which parents’ perceptions about preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement shape parental involvement, which in turn, has the potential to positively impact children’s academic outcomes during the transition to elementary school. Subsequent research should explore how parents role construction and invitations for involvement simultaneously contribute to parental involvement decision making processes (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005). Future studies should also explore if preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement are differentially associated with parental involvement activities and measures of readiness for children living in poverty and those from historically marginalized communities.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

33

References Ahtola, A., Silinskas, G., Poikonen, P.-L., Kontoniemi, M., Niemi, P., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2011). Transition to formal schooling: Do transition practices matter for academic performance? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(3), 295-302. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.12.002 Anderson, K., & Minke, K. (2007). Parent involvement in education: Toward an understanding of parents' decision making. Journal of Education Research, 100, 311-323. Ansari, A., & Gershoff, E. (2015). Parent involvement in Head Start and children's development: Indirect effects through parenting. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 78(2), 562-579. Baker, E. R., Jensen, C. J., & Tisak, M. S. (2017). A closer examination of aggressive subtypes in early childhood: contributions of executive function and single-parent status. Early Child Development and Care. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1342079 Beaujean, A. (2015). R Package for Baylor University Educational Psychology Quantitative Courses. R Package. doi: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=BaylorEdPsych Bethel, J., Green, J. L., Kalton, G., & Nord, C. (2005). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, BirthCohort (ECLS-B), Sampling. Volume 2 of the ECLS-B Methodology Report for the 9-Month Data Collection, 2001-02 (NCES 2005-147). Retrieved from Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.: Blevins-Knabe, B., & Musun-Miller, L. (1996). Number use at home by children and their parents its relationship to early mathematical performance. Early Development and Parenting, 5, 35-45. Booth, A., & Crouter, A. C. (Eds.). (2008). Disparities in school readiness: How families contribute to transitions into school. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

34

Boyce, L. K., Innocenti, M. S., Roggman, L. A., Norman, V. K., & Ortiz, E. (2010). Telling stories and making books: Evidence for an intervention to help parents in migrant Head Start families support their children's language and literacy. Early Education and Development, 21(3), 343-371. Castro, M., Expósito-Casas, E., López-Martín, E., Lizasoain, L., Navarro-Asencio, E., & Gaviria, J. L. (2015). Parental involvement on student academic achievement: A metaanalysis. Educational Research Review, 14(Supplement C), 33-46. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.01.002 Cheadle, J. E., & Amato, P. R. (2011). A quantitative assessment of Lareau's qualitative conlcusions about class, race, and parenting. Journal of family Issues, 32(679-706). Child Trends. (2013). Parental involvement in schools. Retrieved from https://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=parental-involvement-in-schools Claessens, A., Duncan, G., & Engel, M. (2009). Kindergarten skills and fifth-grade achievement: Evidence form ECLS-K. Economics of Education Review, 28, 415-427. Claessens, A., & Engel, M. (2013). How important is where you start? Early mathematics knowledge and later school success. Teachers College Record, 115, 1-29. Coley, R. (2002). An uneven start: Indicators of inequality in school readiness. Retrieved from Educational Testing Service: https://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/PICUNEVENSTART.pdf Cook, K. D., & Coley, R. L. (2017). School transition practices and children’s social and academic adjustment in kindergarten. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(2), 166177.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

35

Daley, T. C., Munk, T., & Carlson, E. (2011). A national study of kindergarten transition practices for children with disabilities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(4), 409419. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.11.001 Datar, A. (2006). Does delaying kindergarten entrance give children a head start? . Economics of Education Review, 25, 43-62. Dee, T., & Sievertsen, H. H. (2015). The Gift of Time? School Starting Age and Mental Health. Health Economics, 27(5), 781-802. Desimone, L. (1999). Linking parent involvement with student achievement: Do race and income matter. Journal of Educational Research 93, 11-30. Domina, T. (2005). Leveling the home advantage: Assessing the effectiveness of parent involvement in elementary school. Sociology of Education, 78, 233-249. Dunst, C. J., Meter, D., & Hamby, D. W. (2011). Relationship between young children’s nursery rhyme experiences and knowledge and phonological and printrelated abilities. CELLreviews, 4(1), 1-12. Early, D., Pianta, R., Taylor, L., & Cox, M. (2001). Transition practices: Findings from a national survey of kindergarten teachers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 28(3), 199206. doi:10.1023/A:1026503520593 El Nokali, N. E., Bachman, H. J., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2010). Parent involvement and children's academic and social development in elementary school. Child Development, 81(3), 9881005. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01447.x Fan, X. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A growth modeling analysis. Journal of Experimental Education, 70, 27-61.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

36

Fantuzzo, J., McWayne, C., Perry, M., & Childs, S. (2004). Multiple dimensions of family involvement and their relations to behavioral and learning competencies for urban, lowincome children. School Psychology Review, 33, 467-480. Froiland, J. M., & Davison, M. L. (2016). Home literacy, television viewing, fidgeting and ADHD in young children. Educational Psychology, 36(8), 1337-1353. Froiland, J. M., Peterson, A., & Davison, M. L. (2013). The long-term effects of early parent involvement and parent expectation in the USA. School Psychology International, 34(1), 33-50. Galindo, C., & Sheldon, S. B. (2012). School and home connections and children's kindergarten achievement gains: The mediating role of family involvement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 90-103. Graue, M. E., & DiPerna, J. (2000). Redshirting and early retention: Who gets the "gift of time" and what are Its outcomes? American Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 509-534. Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). Social Skills Rating System manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service Hatcher, B., Nuner, J., & Paulsel, J. (2012). Kindergarten Readiness and Preschools: Teachers' and Parents' Beliefs within and across Programs. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 14(2). Hill, N. E. (2001). Parenting and academic socialization as they relate to school readiness: The roles of ethnicity and family income. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(4), 686-697. Hill, N. E., & Craft, S. A. (2003). Parent-school involvement and school performance: Mediated pathways among socioeconomically comparable African-American and Euro-American families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 74-83.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

37

Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Walker, J. M. T., Sandler, H. M., Whetsel, D., Green, C. L., Wilkins, A. S., & Closson, K. E. (2005). Why do parents become involved? Research findings and implications. . Elementary School Journal, 106(2), 105-130. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. Huat See, B., & Gorard, S. (2015). The role of parents in young people’s education-a critical review of the causal evidence. Oxford Review of Education, 41(3), 346-366. doi:10.1080/03054985.2015.1031648 Jeynes, W. H. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elementary school student academic achievement. Urban Education, 40(3), 237-269. Jung, E., & Han, H. S. (2013). Teacher outreach efforts and reading achievement in kindergarten. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 27, 93-110. Kleemans, T., Peeters, M., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2012). Child and home predictors of early numeracy skills in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 471477. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (Third edition ed.). New York: Guilford Press. LeFevre, J., Clarke, T., & Stringer, A. P. (2002). Influences of language and parental involvement on the development of counting skills: Comparison of French- and Englishspeaking Canadian children. Early Child Development and Care, 172, 283-300. LeFevre, J., Skwarchuk, S., Smith-Chant, B., Fast, L., Kamawar, D., & Bisanz, J. (2009). Home numeracy experiences and children's math performance in the early school years.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

38

Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science-Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 41, 55-66. Lin, H. H., Freeman, L., & Chu, K. L. (2009). The impact of kindergarten enrollment age on academic performance through kindergarten to fifth grade. European Journal of Social Science, 10, 45-54. Little, M. H., Cohen-Vogel, L., & Curran, F. C. (2016). Facilitating the transition to kindergarten: What ECLS-K data tell us about school practices then and now. AERA Open, 2(3), 2332858416655766. doi:10.1177/2332858416655766 LoCasale-Crouch, J., Mashburn, A. J., Downer, J. T., & Pianta, R. C. (2008). Pre-kindergarten teachers’ use of transition practices and children's adjustment to kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), 124-139. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.06.001 Manolitsis, G., Georgiou, G. K., & Tziraki, N. (2013). Examining the effects of home literacy and numeracy environment on early reading and math acquisition. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 692-703. doi:10.1016/j.ecrq.2013.05.004 Martin, M. J., Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Dogan, S. J., Widaman, K. F., Donnellan, M. B., & Neppl, T. K. (2010). Evaluation of the interactionist model of socioeconomic status and problem behavior: A developmental cascade across generations. Development and Psychopathology, 22(3), 695–713. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000374 McIntyre, L., Eckert, T., Fiese, B., DiGennaro, F., & Wildenger, L. (2007). Transition to kindergarten: Family experiences and involvement. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(1), 83-88. doi:10.1007/s10643-007-0175-6 Merrell, K. M. (2003). Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales (PKBS-2). Retrieved from

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

39

http://www.proedinc.com/customer/productView.aspx?ID=2285 Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., & de Jong, M. T. . (2009). Interactive book reading in early education: A tool to stimulate print knowledge as well as oral language. Review of Educational Research, 79, 979-1007. Murray, E., McFarland-Piazza, L., & Harrison, L. J. (2015). Changing patterns of parent–teacher communication and parent involvement from preschool to school. Early Child Development and Care, 185(7), 1031-1052. doi:10.1080/03004430.2014.975223 Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2012). Mplus User’s Guide. (Seventh ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. National Education Goals Panel. (1998). Ready schools. Retrieved from Washington, D.C.: https://govinfo.library.unt.edu/negp/reports/readysch.pdf Phillips, M. (2011). Parenting, time use, and disparities in academic outcomes. In G. Duncan & R. Murnane (Eds.), Whither Opportunity? (pp. 207-228). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Pianta, R. C., Cox, M. J., Taylor, L. C., & Early, D. M. (1999). Kindergarten teachers' practices related to the transition into school: Results from a national survey. Elementary School Journal, 100(71-86). Powell, D. R., Son, S., File, N., & Froiland, J. M. (2012). Changes in parent involvement across the transition from public school prekindergarten to first grade and children's academic outcomes. The Elementary School Journal, 113(2), 276-300. doi:10.1086/667726 Puccioni, J. (2018). Parental beliefs about school readiness, home and school-based involvement, and children’s academic achievement. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 120. doi:10.1080/02568543.2018.1494065

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

40

Puccioni, J., Baker, E. R., & Froiland, J. M. (2019). Academic socialization and the transition to kindergarten: Parental beliefs about school readiness and involvement. Infant and Child Development, 0(0), e2154. doi:10.1002/icd.2154 Ramani, G., & Siegler, R. (2008). Promoting broad and stable improvements in low-income children's numerical knowledge through playing number board games. Child Development, 79(2), 375-394. Ready, D. D., LoGerfo, L. F., Lee, V. E., & Burkam, D. T. (2005). Explaining girls’ advantage in kindergarten literacy learning: Do classroom behaviors make a difference? Elementary School Journal, 106(1), 21-38. Reardon, S. (2011). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In G. Duncan & R. Murname (Eds.), Whither Opportunity? (pp. 507-522). New York Russell Sage Foundation. Rimm-Kaufman, S., & Pianta, R. C. (2000). An ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten. A theoretical framework to guide empirical research. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21, 491-511. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(00)00051-4 Rous, B., Hallam, R., McCormick, K., & Cox, M. (2010). Practices that support the transition to public preschool programs: Results from a National Survey. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(1), 17-32. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.09.001 Rouse, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Mclanahan, S. (2005). School readiness: Closing racial and ethnic gaps. The Future of Children, 15(1), 5-14. Rubin, D. B. (1976). Inference and missing data. Biometrika, 63(3), 581-592.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

41

Sabol, T. J., & Pianta, R. (2012). Patterns of school readiness forecast achievement and socioemotional development at the end of elementary school. Child Development, 83(1), 282-299. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01678.x Schulting, A. B., Malone, P. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2005). The effect of school-based kindergarten transition policies and practices on child academic outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 860-871. Snow, K., Derecho, A., Wheeless, S., Lennon, J., Rosen, J., Rogers, J., . . . Einaudi, P. (2009). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Kindergarten 2006 and 2007 Data File User’s Manual (2010-010). Washington, DC.: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Son, S. C., & Tineo, M. F. (2016). Mothers’ attention-getting utterances during shared book reading: Links to low-income preschoolers’ engagement, visual attention, and early literacy. Infant and Child Development, 25, 259-282. doi:10.1002/icd.1932 Sonnenschein, S., & Galindo, C. (2015). Race/Ethnicity and Early Mathematics Skills: Relations Between Home, Classroom, and Mathematics Achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 108(4), 261-277. doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.880394 StataCorp. (2013). Stata: Release 13. Statistical Software. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP. Tierney, N., Cook, D., McBain, M., Fay, C., O'Hara-Wild, M., & Hester, J., Smith, L. (2019). Maniar: Data Structures, Summaries, and Visualisations for Missing Data. R Package. doi: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=naniar van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45(3), 1-67. doi:https://www.jstatsoft.org/v45/i03/.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

42

Van Voorhis, F. L., Mailer, M. F., Epstein, J. L., & Lloyd, C. M. (2013). The Impact of Family Involvementon the Education of Children Ages 3 to 8 A Focus on Literacy and Math Achievement Outcomes and Social-Emotional Skills. Retrieved from https://www.mdrc.org/publication/impact-family-involvement-education-children-ages-38 Vandermaas-Peeler, M., Nelson, J., Bumpass, C., & Sassine, B. (2009). Social contexts of development: Parent-child interactions during reading and play. Journal of Early Childhood Research Literacy, 9(3), 295-317. Walker, J. M. T., Ice, C. L., Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (2011). Latino parents' motivation for involvement in their children's schooling: An exploratory study. The Elementary School Journal, 111(3), 409-429. Weimer, A. A., & Guajardo, N. R. (2005). False belief, emotion understanding, and social skills among Head Start and non-Head Start children. Early Education & Development, 16(3), 341-366. doi:https://doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1603_3

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

43

Table 1. Weighted Descriptive Statistics Variable Kindergarten Achievement Indicators Reading Math Kindergarten Conduct Problem Indicators Temper tantrums Annoys other children Disruptive Aggressive Kindergarten Hyperactivity Indicators Impulsive Over active Finish tasks Pay attention Concentrate Fidget Kindergarten Prosocial Indicators Makes friends Eagerness to learn Accepted by other children Communicates with others Independent Stands up for others Understanding of others Shares Preschool Teacher Transition Practices Info home to parents Preschooler sent time in K class Parent/Child visit K class Composite Preschool transition practices Parent Perception of Invitations for Involvement Info child’s progress in preschool Info about child development Info about volunteering Info about learning at home Info about community services Preschool Home-based Parental involvement Read books to child Tell stories Sing songs Play with blocks Preschool School-based Parental Involvement Attend general meeting

Mean or Proportion

SD

Min

Max

45.22 44.76

14.05 10.00

12.84 11.23

82.48 69.69

.52 .85 1.22 .53

.88 .95 .98 .86

0 0 0 0

4 4 4 4

1.17 1.09 1.00 1.16 1.40 1.19

1.03 1.07 1.00 .99 1.13 1.10

0 0 0 0 0 0

4 4 4 4 4 4

3.22 3.15 3.45 2.44 3.07 2.53 2.39 3.21

.83 .91 .68 1.04 .89 1.04 1.03 .80

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

.85 .50 .78 2.13

.93

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 3

1.79 1.52 1.56 1.34 1.08

.46 .68 .73 .79 .85

0 0 0 0 0

2 2 2 2 2

2.13 1.66 2.22 2.84

.85 .93 .89 1.23

0 0 0 0

3 3 3 5

.76

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES Attend scheduled conference Attend class event Acted as a volunteer Chaperoned a field trip Composite school-based parental involvement Child and Family Characteristics Socioeconomic status European American African American Hispanic Asian American Other Female K Age at assessment 24 months of age Home-based Parental involvement Read books to child Tell stories Sing songs Play indoor games Preschool Achievement Indicators Reading assessment Mathematics assessment Preschool Conduct Problem Indicators Temper tantrums Annoys other children Disruptive Aggressive Preschool Hyperactivity/Inattention Indicators Impulsive Over active Finish tasks Pay attention Concentrate Fidget Preschool Prosocial Indicators Makes friends Eagerness to learn Accepted by other children Communicates with others Independent Stands up for others Understanding of others Shares Preschool Teacher Characteristics Early Childhood Degree

44

.50 .43 .40 .26 2.35

1.52

0

5

.05 .57 .15 .21 .03 .04 .48 67.81

.82

-1.99

2.09

4.21

57.30

84.50

2.20 1.69 2.53 4.28

.88 1.02 .77 .91

0 0 0 0

3 3 3 5

26.77 30.90

10.50 9.43

11.79 9.89

80.29 65.73

.76 .89 1.18 .70

1.01 .96 1.02 .94

0 0 0 0

4 4 4 4

1.24 1.20 1.11 1.21 1.34 1.28

1.12 1.11 .98 .90 1.07 1.08

0 0 0 0 0 0

4 4 4 4 4 4

3.14 3.06 3.42 2.27 2.99 2.37 2.20 2.91

.85 .90 .68 1.05 .87 1.09 1.04 .85

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

.63

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

45

Child Development Associate’s Degree .34 Years of experience 13.13 8.85 0 70 Type of Prekindergarten Program Public prekindergarten .19 Private prekindergarten .21 Center based prekindergarten .40 Head Start .17 Other Prekindergarten .03 Note: N≈3,650 SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003-2004), preschool data collection (2005-2006), Kindergarten 2006 (2006-2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007-2008) data collections.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

46

Table 2. Correlation matrix of primary variables under study 1 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

-

2

.80

-

3

-.16

-.16

-

4

-.17

-.18

.58

-

5

-.18

-.20

.51

.74

-

6

-.18

-.17

.64

.71

.59

-

7

-.20

-.22

.49

.61

.72

.52

-

8

-.19

-.22

.47

.66

.71

.53

.70

-

9

-.35

-.40

.35

.45

.50

.36

.50

.51

-

10

-.40

-.42

.36

.52

.54

.42

.55

.59

.71

-

11

-.33

-.38

.40

.55

.61

.42

.60

.68

.71

.74

-

12

-.23

-.26

.46

.63

.67

.50

.66

.84

.55

.62

.74

-

13

.23

.26

-.33

-.36

-.27

-.32

-.29

-.24

-.43

-.47

-.38

-.29

-

14

.40

.42

-.29

-.37

-.34

-.29

-.34

-.33

-.60

-.69

-.54

-.40

.59

-

15

.22

.24

-.41

-.50

-.41

-.43

-.40

-.36

-.46

-.52

-.42

-.38

.73

.53

-

16

.20

.21

-.26

-.31

-.26

-.31

-.27

-.23

-.37

-.42

-.34

-.26

.52

.50

.44

-

17

.36

.41

-.36

-.43

-.45

-.35

-.45

-.45

-.71

-.66

-.59

-.47

.49

.61

.49

.41

-

18

.25

.25

-.21

-.24

-.18

-.23

-.21

-.20

-.38

-.40

-.33

-.23

.50

.50

.41

.70

.41

-

19

.23

.24

-.24

-.28

-.21

-.27

-.23

-.21

-.34

-.39

-.31

-.23

.50

.49

.42

.80

.40

.67

-

20

.22

.24

-.51

-.56

-.53

-.51

-.49

-.48

-.54

-.55

-.47

-.46

.52

.49

.59

.48

.54

.43

.44

-

21

-.06

-.08

.04

.05

.08

.06

.05

.05

.06

.06

.07

.04

-.03

-.03

-.02

-.04

-.04

-.03

-.02

-.03

-

22

-.01

.00

.01

.01

.02

.01

.02

.02

.00

.01

.01

.01

.01

.01

.02

-.01

-.01

.01

.00

.02

.04

-

23

-.02

-.01

.01

.00

.00

.00

.00

.01

.01

.01

.03

.03

-.02

-.02

-.01

-.01

.00

-.02

-.02

-.01

.04

.49

-

24

.03

.04

-.03

-.03

-.02

-.04

-.02

-.03

-.02

-.02

-.01

-.02

.02

.01

.02

.03

.04

.04

.04

.03

.09

.32

.39

-

25

-.05

-.07

.05

.03

.04

.02

.04

.03

.06

.06

.05

.03

-.04

-.06

-.04

-.02

-.06

-.02

-.03

-.03

.09

.31

.41

.39

-

26

-.09

-.10

.04

.04

.05

.03

.03

.04

.05

.06

.06

.04

-.04

-.07

-.03

-.04

-.04

.05

-.05

-.03

.10

.29

.35

.37

.53

-

27

.22

.24

-.10

-.10

-.09

-.12

-.10

-.10

-.12

-.13

-.11

.09

.06

.13

.09

.10

.14

.09

.11

.14

-.06

.06

.06

.10

.02

.01

28

.11

.11

-.07

-.05

-.07

-.07

-.08

-.05

-.07

-.08

-.06

-.04

.07

.08

.09

.04

.08

.05

.04

.08

.00

.08

.10

.06

.08

.07

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

47

29

.07

.02

-.04

-.04

-.05

-.05

-.05

-.02

-.03

-.06

-.03

-.01

.07

.08

.07

.10

.05

.08

.08

.06

.01

.04

.02

.05

.03

.02

30

-.02

-.01

-.01

.00

-.01

.01

.00

.02

.00

.01

.02

.04

-.02

.02

.01

-.02

.00

-.04

-.02

.01

.02

.08

.12

.09

.09

.09

31

.11

.12

-.03

-.06

-.05

-.07

-.04

-.05

-.07

-.07

-.06

-.06

.04

.04

.04

.03

.07

.02

.05

.04

.04

.12

.19

.32

.22

.18

Note. 1 = Reading; 2 = Math; 3 = Temper tantrums; 4 = Annoys; 5 = Disruptive; 6 = Aggressive; 7 = Impulsive; 8 = Over active; 9 = Finishes task; 10 = Pays att Concentrate; 12= Fidget; 13 = Invited play; 14 = Eagerness learn; 15 = Accepted by others; 16= Comforts others; 17 = Works independently; 18 = Stands up for Understands others; 20 = Shares; 21= transition practices; 22 = Info child progress; 23 = Info child development; 24 = Info volunteer; 25 = Info help learning; 26 community; 27 = Read books; 28 = Tell stories; 29 = Sing songs; 30 = Play building games; 31 = School-based parental involvement. Bold coefficient is signific or less. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003 collection (2005-2006), Kindergarten 2006 (2006-2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007-2008) data collections.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

Info child progress

.52

Info child development

.64

Info to volunteer

.60

Info to help learning

.69

Academic Achievement

Parents’ Perceptions (Preschool wave)

.62

Conduct Problems (K wave)

48 .89 .90

.67 .89 .83

Hyperactivity/ Inattention (K wave)

Sing Songs

Temper tantrums Annoys other children Disruptive Aggressive

.75

Tell stories

Mathematics

.77

Info about community

Read books

Reading

.60 .48 .34

.83

Over active

.75

Finishes Task

.80 .86 .86

.64

Impulsive

Pays Attention Concentrate Fidget

Home-based involvement (Preschool wave)

.76

Play building games

Figure 1. Measurement model depicting primary latent constructs under study . N ≈ 3,650. Model fit statistics, RMSEA = .06 (90% CI: [.063– .065]); SRMR = .06. K wave represents the pooled kindergarten wave) Standardized factor loadings are all statistically significant at the p < .001 level. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003-2004), preschool data collection (2005-2006), Kindergarten 2006 (2006-2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007-2008) data .collections.

Prosocial behavior (K wave)

Invited to Play

.74

Eagerness to learn

.74

Accepted/liked by others

.72

Comforts others

.70 .69 .72 .72

Works Independently Stands up for others Understands others Shares

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

49

Table 3. Unstandardized regression coefficient for associations among transition practices, parental perceptions of invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and measures of school readiness

Child/Family Characteristic Controls SES African American Hispanic Asian American Other Female Age at assessment 24 month parental involvement Preschool Achievement Preschool Conduct Problems Preschool Hyperactivity Preschool Prosocial Skills Preschool Teacher and School Characteristics Controls BA degree

Preschool transition Practices

Parents’ Perceptions of Invitations for Involvement

Preschool Home-based Parental Involvement

Preschool Kindergarten Kindergarten Kindergarten Kindergarten SchoolAcademic Conduct Hyperactivity/ Prosocial based Achievement Problems Inattention Behaviors Parental Involvement

-.05 .09 .01 .11 .17

-.01 .03 .02 -.06** -.01

.10** -.16** -.09 -.08 -.02 .07*

.35*** .16 .18 .13 .24 -.09

.04*

.76***

.39***

2.37*** -.74 -.92 1.89** -.46 -.52 .97***

-.04 .11* -.03 -.08* .02 -.17*** -.01

-.06* .05 -.02 -.11 -.07 -.25*** -.02***

.11*** .02 .03 -.07 .02 .11** .01**

.86*** .41*** .48*** .43***

.10*

.04*

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

50

AA degree .12* -.02 Years of experience .01*** .00 Private Pre-k -.07 -.04 ** Center-based Pre-k -.26 -.02 *** Head Start .26 .10*** Other Pre-k -.15 -.06 Relation among primary model variables under study -.01 .03 .02 .03 -.01 Transition Practices .22 .05 .18 -.09 Parental Perceptions .27** 2.08*** .08 Preschool Home-based -.13** 1.21* -.10* Involvement -.02 -.02 .00 Preschool School-based -.33* Involvement Note. N ≈ 3,100. Unstandardized estimates are presented. Model fit statistics, RMSEA = .06 (90 % CI: .055–.057); SRMR = .07. R2 Transition Practices = .08; R2 Parent perception = .06; R2 Home-based Parental Involvement = .65; R2 School-based Parental Involvement = .17; R2 Academic Achievement = .67; R2 Conduct Problems = .31; R2 Hyperactivity/Inattention = .34; R2 Prosocial Behaviors = .22. Two tailed test: *p < .05, **p < .01, *** p < .001. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003-2004), preschool data collection (2005-2006), Kindergarten 2006 (2006-2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007-2008) data collections.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES

51

Figure 2. N ≈ 3,100. Standardized estimates are presented addressing research questions under study. Standardized covariance estimate between transition practices and parent perceptions reported in figure. Figure 2 does not depict controls. Model fit statistics, RMSEA = .056 (90 % CI: .055– .057); SRMR = .07. R2 Transition Practices = .08; R2 Parent perception = .06; R2 Home-based Parental Involvement = .65; R2 School-based Parental Involvement = .17; R2 Academic Achievement = .67; R2 Conduct Problems = .31; R2 Hyperactivity/Inattention = .34; R2 Prosocial Behaviors = .22. Solid lines indicate significance p<.05, and dashed line indicate no significant association. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003-2004), preschool data collection (2005-2006), Kindergarten 2006 (2006-2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007-2008) data collections.

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS’ TRANSITION PRACTICES Highlights 

Parental perceptions are positively associated with home-based parental involvement



Home-based involvement was positively related to children’s academic achievement



Home-based involvement was negatively related to children’s problem behaviors



Home-based involvement was negatively related to children’s hyperactivity

Declarations of interest: none.

52