- Email: [email protected]
Present and Future for Hydropower Developments in Kurdistan
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 632 – 639
Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment, EENVIRO 2016, 26-28 October 2016, Bucharest, Romania
Present and Future for Hydropower Developments in Kurdistan Khalid Ahmad-Rashid* PhD, Lecturer, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq
Abstract Kurdistan, Iraq, has a huge hydropower potential. Even if large hydropower developments are already in use, there is enough space for new developments. The paper presents the state of the art of hydropower in Iraq with emphasis on Kurdistan, the place in national power grid and further possible developments issued from a damsmaster plan accomplished this year. ©2017 2017Published The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. © by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license Peer-review under responsibility ofthe organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). and Environment 2016. Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016 Keywords:hydropower, electricity, water use, dams, Kurdistan
1. Introduction Tigris and Euphrates rivers were used since the ancient times for irrigation of the Mesopotamian lowlands, the canals were then rehabilitated in the 19th century for the same purpose at large scale [1]. In order to analyze the use of water of those transboundary rivers in Iraq there must be taken into account the two countries that affect water flows entering Iraq: Turkey and Syria, Fig. 1 [2]. In the '60s Iraq was the most developed among these three countries from the point of view of water use. Next ten years, other dams and canals have been added for various purposes as: irrigations, water supply, flood protection, electricity production. In 1984 the water use in Iraq was around 48 bcm/year of which 95% were used for irrigations [1].
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+9647707722224. E-mail address:[email protected]
1876-6102 © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016 doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1130
Khalid Ahmad-Rashid / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 632 – 639
Over the time many problems rise from the mainly unstable situation in this area. On Tigris and Euphrates rivers there are 32 important dams, 8 more are under construction and more than 13 are planned; the total installed capacity in hydropower is of 11.35 GW [2].
Fig. 1. Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq, [2].
From an agricultural country exporting wheat and other crops until 1958, Iraq turns to an oil-producing, semiindustrial country importing most of its own food. In 1972 the Iraq government nationalized the oil companies starting to receive more income from oil and giving more importance to agricultural production and hydropower development. The evolution of hydropower politics at national level has begun with centralized policies for promoting hydropower development since the 1950 to the liberalization of the hydropower sector since 2003 [2]. 2. Electricity production sector in Iraq with emphasis on hydropower Before 1990, the installed capacity of power plants in Iraq was 10,200 MW in 32 thermal and hydropower plants (HPPs) [3]. The Iraq’s electricity system, under the administration of the Ministry of Electricity, was one of the best in the region with the generation capacity exceeding the demand, with more power plants to be built. Because of the war, in time, about 90% of Iraq’s power generating and distribution systems were destroyed [4]. In 2002 the structure of the electricity production in Iraq was the following: seven thermal power plants, producing more than 54%, two hydroelectric power plants producing 24%, and nine gas-turbine power plants generating 21% [5]. After 2003, the amount of electrical power demand increased rapidly; there is no problem for the transmission lines but of the power generation capacity in the national power system [6]. Rich in natural resources with a broad spectrum including water and oil, the main energy production is due to oil use. Using data from Index Mundi [7],in Fig. 2 it is represented, for the period 2000-2014, production, consumption and imported electricity. It can be observed that until 2004, there was no need for Iraq to import electricity from neighboring countries. In a special report for Iraq Energy [8], it is underlined that hydropower and other renewable energy sources play a small supporting role in the energy mix for the Middle East region. In the primary energy consumption mix presented in table 1, for 1980 and 2010 and estimated for 2020 and 2035 [8], it can be observed the major part covered by oil and the small contribution of the hydropower and also other renewable energy sources (RES). Small part of energy consumption is covered by imported energy from neighboring countries: Iran and Turkey [9]. In [10] it is specified that the consumption of electricity in Iraq is covered mainly by energy produced in fossil fuel power plants (approximately 80%), followed by electricity generated in hydropower plants (9.22%), and the difference by imported electricity respectively. Even if the hydropower potential is estimated to be around 80 TWh/year, in energy strategy of Iraq for 20122017 period, from the 24,400 MW of new installed capacity only 400 MW will be from renewable energy sources (RES), the main part being allocated to gas, 13,000 MW, thermal, 7,000 MW and conversion to combined cycle power plants [11].
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Fig. 2. Production, consumption and import ofelectricpowerin Iraq for theperiod 2000–2014. Table 1. Iraq primary energy consumption by fuel, in Mtoe [8]. Type of energy Oil Gas Hydro Biomass Other renewables Total
1980 9 1 0.1 0 0
2010 32 6 0.4 0 0
10
38
Estimated 2020 75 37 0.5 0.1 0.1 113
2035 92 66 1.2 0.1 0.3 160
On the site of national dispatcher - Operating and Control Office [12] for the Iraqi network there can be seen in real time the units for electricity production for the national power system and the repartition on sources of energy. The display shows the 3 geographical zones: North, center and South. In Fig. 3 it is presented the daily electricity produced by hydropower plants for May 2016 comparing with the total electricity consumption. It can be easily observed that less than 4% of the total electricity production in Iraq is covered by hydropower.
Fig. 3. Daily electricity production for May 2016 and the part covered from hydropower plants.
In [13] it is presented an overview of the electricity sector in Iraq, including hydropower and small hydropower. With a population of around 32 mil. inhabitants, from which a third lives in rural areas, the electricity access is 86%, considering that the capacity is 9000 MW, providing a power output of around 49 GWh/year, from which hydropower represents 2500 MW installed capacity and 5 GWh/year energy, respectively.
Khalid Ahmad-Rashid / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 632 – 639
Small hydropower plants (SHPPs) in Iraq are defined as hydropower plants having the installed capacity as much as 80 MW. According to this limit, the installed capacity of SHPPs is about 10% of the total hydropower capacity and it is considered that there are 30 potential small hydropower project sites. Applying the small hydropower definition of up to 10 MW, as in the EU, Iraq has 6 MW installed in SHPPs from a technically feasible potential of 26.38 MW corresponding to 12 potential SHPP sites. From the point of view of the renewable energy policy, the Ministry of Electricity has established a Renewable Energy Center having as main focus at present to develop solar and wind energy. The Ministry of Heavy Industry commissioned a study on hydropower resources use in Iraq in 1988. The study was undertaken by Technopromexport, an entity that belonged to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and addressed, among other issues, hydropower development and its contribution to the coverage of the load curve in the national power grid. However, there is no renewable energy policy or framework supporting deployment of sustainable renewable energy sources. Some obstacles to small hydropower development are: x x x x x
war and sanctions have hit the energy sector, rural agriculture, water infrastructure in a very poor state; cancelled tenders; risks associated with payments and security.
In Iraq the costs of exploiting other RES than water for power generation remain high comparing with fossil fuel technologies. This is the reason that, in the framework of the existing policies, there is only a negligible increase in RES use as solar or wind, remaining under the country potential. 3. Hydropower developments in Kurdistan In other studies than [11], the technically feasible hydropower potential for Iraq was estimated at 90 TWh/year, from which the economically feasible hydropower potential represents only 10 TWh/year,[14]. Despite the fact that Iraq region benefits of the large hydropower potential of Tigris and Euphrates river basins, hydropower has not been an important source for electricity generation. The first hydropower developments in Middle East region were developed on the main tributaries of the Tigris (Greater Zab, Lesser Zab and Diyala). In 1959 it was constructed the Dokan dam having the height of 116.5 m on Lesser Zab river and the associated hydropower plant with the installed capacity of 400 MW. The second dam, Derbandikhan dam on the Diyala river, was constructed in 1961 and it has the height of 128 m with the related hydropower plant having the installed capacity of 249 MW [15]. At that time, only 6% of installed capacity for electrical energy production in Iraq has been built inside the Kurdistan region [3]. The most important hydropower plants in Iraq have a total installed capacity of 2493 MW and are presented in table 2 [17]. Table 2. The most important hydropower plants in Iraq. Site name Mosul Haditha Hamrin Samarra Dokan Derbandikhan
River/Lake
Installed capacity (MW)
Tigris Euphrates Diyala Tigris Doukhan Lake Diyala
1050 660 50 84 400 249
Even if the total installed capacity of the six largest hydropower plants in Iraq is around 2500 MW, the operating capacity is no more than 1300 MW because of low water levels in reservoirs or constraints imposed by the different other water uses as irrigations [17].
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Besides those hydropower plants, there are also other major storage dams in Iraq, like Duhok, Ramadi and Fallujah built for irrigation or irrigation and flood control. There are also reservoirs used to collect excess water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers during flood seasons and to recharge those rivers during dry seasons, when there is decrease of flow in both rivers (Tharthar, Gharaff and Habbaniyah) [18]. In Iraq there are 12 large dams for irrigation projects, 275 irrigation pump stations, 27,000 km of irrigation channels and 3.25 million hectares irrigated. According to UNESCO studies about hydropower development in Iraq [17] the most important hydropower development (HPD) in this country is Mosul dam, located in the governorate of Ninewa, being also the fourth largest HPD in the Middle East. The volume of the reservoir is of 11.1 km3 (Lake Dahuk), the toe of the dam hydropower plant Mosul 1 has 750 MW as installed capacity, downstream there is the Mosul regulation dam with the 62 MW hydropower plant Mosul 2 and closely, upstream, it is the pumped storage plant Mosul 3 with the installed capacity of 240 MW, which uses the water between this lower reservoir and Lake Dahuk as upper reservoir[Wikipedia]. The entire hydropower development has an installed capacity of 1052 MW, of which the available capacity is 470 MW. Other HPDs are located in the governorates of Anbar (Haditha dam) with the installed capacity of 660 MW, Salah al-Din (Samarra dam) with the installed capacity of 84 MW, Diyala (Hamrin dam) with the installed capacity of 50 MW and Sulaimani with the most two important operating hydropower plants from Kurdistan: Doukhan and Derbandikhan dams with total installed/available capacities of 400/75 MW and 249/70 MW, respectively. Each HPP is part of a multipurpose scheme for power production and irrigation in its area. The Dokan dam is located on the Lesser Zab River, approximately 220 km upstream from its confluence with the Tigris River. The site is located adjacent to the town of Dokan. The Derbandikhan dam is located on the Sirwan River, immediately upstream of the town of Derbandikhan, approximately 150 km upstream of the Hemren Dam. The site is approximately 395 km North-East of Baghdad and 65 km South-East of Sulaimani city. It is also located within 15 km of Iran South-East border [19]. Dokan and Derbandikhan storage reservoirs have large volumes of water, together reaching 9.87 km3, and are now used exclusively for the production of electricity. Their large storage capacity allows super-annual storage of annual average flow by a factor of 152% (Dokan) and 135% (Derbandikhan). This super-annual regulation of flows allows a complete change of seasonal distribution of flows downstream of dams. A third large storage dam, Bekhme (about 17 km3 capacity) was planned on Greater Zab River, but now, its construction, started before 1990, is abandoned. Finally, another important existing dam is Duhok dam, with a water volume of 52 mcm in his reservoir which is currently used for both water supply for irrigation and electricity generation. Besides these large dams, a total of six dams that gather a water volume of about 6 mcm are inventoried. A total of 17 more dams that allows the storage of a volume of water amounted to about 123 mcm, are under construction, following to be completed in short time. In 2010, HPP Bekal with the installed capacity of 1200 MW was put into operation and in 2015 HPP Deralok with 30 MW installed capacity. HPPs Delga and Deralok-Rachawa are proposed to be built until 2017 having installed capacities of 97 and 72 MW, respectively. Kurdistan with a territory of 48,834 km2, occupies partially or totally the catchment areas of five tributaries on the left part of Tigris River. Partially, the tributaries Khabur (45% of the catchment basin located in Kurdistan), Greater Zab (67%), Lesser Zab (74%), Sirwan (63%) and totally the Basara and Awa Spi tributaries, at which a surface of 2,927 km2 is added, corresponding to Tigris River. In Fig. 4 it is represented the total installed capacity in electric power plants in Kurdistan, the imported power, the planned capacity and the demand [3]. From the figure it can be easily observed that it is still a demand not covered by production. Regarding hydropower, it is planned to produce 14 TWh until 2035, a small increase, focused in the North of the country where there is also potential for some small-scale hydro in more remote communities. Kurdistan Regional Government is planning to increase electricity produced from hydropower and proposed feasibility studies for new hydropower developments [8]. Hydropower is subordinated to water supply and irrigations in Kurdistan. In order to establish proper development strategies for irrigation in Kurdistan region, it is important to know the demand of water used in the farms and irrigation [20].
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Fig. 4. Evolution of power balance in power system in Kurdistan [3].
4. Further development of hydropower in Kurdistan In Kurdistan Hydropower, the long term strategy is more focused on developing large dams for flood protection and irrigation than for hydropower, even if the potential is significant (around 80 TWh/year [16]). In 2014, SETEC Company in cooperation with Aquaproiect SA, Romania, drawn up the Kurdistan Dams Master Plan(DMP) for the Ministry of Agriculture of Kurdistan Region. This represents a well-structured guide for the future of water management and a paper [21] was prepared on the basis of this master plan. In this paper, it is presented a plan for the development of future hydrotechnical schemes power plants for electricity production, water supply and irrigations. The goal of the project is of great importance as the particularities of the hydrology indicate high flood inflows and long drought periods, with great social impact. The main conclusion is that financial losses can be avoided and social benefits achieved with the elaboration of a proper Master Plan for water resources management. For surface water balance it was taken into account a drought year 1999, and the projection to 2030, considered mean year.The authors [21] specify that in the water balance calculations between demands and resources for the entire period up to 2030 was taken into consideration, so that the water intake from the streams outside Kurdistan border will remain unmodified as stocks and time distribution, thus avoiding any downstream political and social problems. The used annual water balance model with the formulation for monthly climate inputs was the one presented in [22]. Thus, the water balance equation for the revised single bucket model is: ds t dt
p t qss t qse t eb t ev t ,
(1)
where: s t represent the volume of soil water storage, p t - the precipitation intensity, qss -the subsurface runoff, qse -the saturation excess runoff rate, eb -the bare soil evaporation rate, ev -the transpiration rate. The results are presented for three hypothesis [21]: x current scenario:with year 2010 as reference, x comparison scenario 2030: the users are supposed to be the ones forecasted at the level of 2030 but with the existing dams, x proposed scenario 2030: the users are supposed to be those forecasted at the level of 2030 and the dams will be those proposed by the DMP. In [21] it was performed a database with details about planning and management of water resources in Kurdistan and the calibration of the water demand growths required by socioeconomic development with water infrastructure
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works required to cover the water management and fulfil the demands. At the beginning, it was done a demarcation of hydrographical basins, characterization of surface water and availability of underground water within basin, establishing the water demands, evaluation of water balance between availabilities and demands in various parts of the basin. The water balance calculation was performed for the years of mean flow and for the driest year of the period taken into account. From the calculus it resulted that, in order to fulfil the water demands of 2030, it is necessary to accomplish a number of 245 storage reservoirs in order to regulate the flows, number that includes the existing or under construction dams. Fig. 5 shows the results for the surface water balance at Bardasur dam site. As it can be observed, without the implementation of the DMP, most of the regions will be without water resources, and if we further mind the growth predicted in the water demand, there remains no other way than the coherent implementation of this plan.
Fig. 5. Example of water balance results for a drought year, 1999, and for mean yearfor Bardasur dam site[21].
For the future development of hydropower sector it has been conceived a prioritization process using a multicriteria analysis, which has taken into consideration characteristic factors for each dam and storage reservoir. The decision criteria [23] were: economic (investment costs and maintenance expenses, side effects costs), social (aesthetics, landscape; recreation, tourism, sports;quality of riparian water;riparian flood protection), ecological (artificiality aggression upon the river, deterioration of the existing ecosystems), conformity with restrictions (respect water storage areas during floods, protected areas restrictions, protection of public services). The dam construction and storage reservoirs prioritization will be required by the identification of supplementary water demands and by the financing capacity, mostly done by the Regional Government, and through the water infrastructure works. For the new dams, additionally proposed to the existing or under construction ones, it was carried out a four steps prioritization in order to achieve them and the results are presented in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Storage volumes and installed capacities on Kurdistan river basins as result of DMP.
Khalid Ahmad-Rashid / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 632 – 639
5. Conclusion Unfortunately, the water crisis in Iraq and, of course, Kurdistan affects many people because of the unstable situation of the last decades. Nevertheless, the proper use of the existing know-how and the determination of the decision makers can lead to a framework for a further logical development of water resources which can solve both the water supply for population and irrigations and electricity problem. The existing developments and of the DMP for Kurdistan are the proof that this could be possible. It is not an easy task for the authorities, but with the help of the DMP it can be implemented a better approach for the development of water resources in order to fulfill the present and future requirements for irrigation, water supply for the population and electricity generation. Acknowledgements The author expresses his gratitude to associated professor Cătălin Popescu from Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest for bibliography, data and encouragements. References [1] Degefu GT. The Nile: Historical, legal and developmental perspectives. Canada; 2003. [2] Kibaroglu A. Politics of hydropower development in the Euphrates Tigris basin. International conference: Sustainability in the water-energyfood nexus. Bonn, Germany; 2014. [3] Husami MS. Energy crisis in Kurdistan and the impact of renewable energy. University of Strathclyde. Glasgow; 2007. [4] Reda M, Saied N, Khaldi A, Abdul-Hussain M, Ekwue A. Iraq electrical power infrastructure - Past, present and future developments and expectations. IEEE PES Power systems conference and exposition. Atlanta, Georgia; 2006 [5] Global security. Iraq electricity. Available from: (www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/electricity.htm). [6] Hassan LH, Moghavvemi M, Mohamed HAF. Impact of UPFC-based damping controller on dynamic stability of Iraqi power network. Scientific Research and Essays.Vol 6(1); 2011. p. 136-145. [7] Index Mundi. Available from: (www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=82&c=iz&l=en). [8] IEA - International Energy Agency. Iraq energy outlook. France; 2012. [9] Rashid S. Electricity Problem in Iraq, Hamburg; 2012. [10] Pilesjo P, Al-Juboori SS. Modelling the effects of climate change on hydroelectric power in Dokan, Iraq. International journal of energy and power engineering. Vol. 5, issue 2-1; 2016. p. 7-12. [11] Ratcliffe V. Power generation a top priority in Iraq. Middle East business intelligence. Available from: (www.meed.com/countries/ iraq/power-generation-a-top-priority-in-iraq/3129589.fullarticle). [12] OCO - Operating and control office. Available from: (www.oco.moelc.gov.iq/index.php). [13] UNIDO, ICSHP. World small hydropower development report 2013. Published by United Nations Industrial Development Organization and International Center on Small Hydro Power, 2013. [14] UNESCO – United nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. Hydropower Generation. Available from: (www.unesco.org/ new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/temp/wwap_pdf/Table_Hydropower_Generation.pdf). [15] Stansfield GRV. Iraqi Kurdistan. Political development and emergent democracy. In: Taylor&Francis e-Library. London; 2003. [16] Google maps. Available from: (www.maps.google.com). [17] UNESCO – United nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. Integrated drought risk management – DRM national framework for Iraq. An Analysis Report.2nd ed. 2014. [18] Theriot EA. Reconstruction assistance for Iraq’s water sector. US Army - Corps of Engineers. Available from: (www.waterforum.jp/ jpn/iraq/doc/expert_meeting/plenary/3.pdf). [19] Kurdistan Regional Government. Invitation to tender: Hydropower plant equipment supply and installation. Available from: (cabinet.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&s=02010100&r=223&a=27481&s=010000). [20] Harun R, Arion FH, Muresan IC. The Source and Consumption of Using Water for Irrigation in Rural Area: Study Case of Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Bulletin UASVM Horticulture. Vol 70(2); 2013. p. 326-330. [21] Popescu C, Mazilu P, Dragan I, Mihai A, Sirbu N, Sarghiuta R, Segarceanu M. The dams master plan for Kurdistan region – Iraq. Getting the job done.ICOLD 2016 – International Symposium on “Appropriate technology to ensure proper Development, Operation and Maintenance of Dams in Developing Countries”, Johannesburg, South Africa,18 May 2016. [22] Jothityuangkoon C, Sivapalan M, Farmer DL. Process Controls of Water Balance Variability in a Large Semi-Arid Catchment: Downward Approach to Hydrological Model Development. Journal of Hydrology 254 (2001) 174-198. [23] Abdulamit A. Promoting eco-friendly river basin development solutions. Presentation at ICOLD 2016 – International Symposium on “Appropriate technology to ensure proper Development, Operation and Maintenance of Dams in Developing Countries”, Theme 1: Social and environmental impacts and mitigation measures, Johannesburg, South Africa,18 May 2016.
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ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 632 – 639
Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment, EENVIRO 2016, 26-28 October 2016, Bucharest, Romania
Present and Future for Hydropower Developments in Kurdistan Khalid Ahmad-Rashid* PhD, Lecturer, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq
Abstract Kurdistan, Iraq, has a huge hydropower potential. Even if large hydropower developments are already in use, there is enough space for new developments. The paper presents the state of the art of hydropower in Iraq with emphasis on Kurdistan, the place in national power grid and further possible developments issued from a damsmaster plan accomplished this year. ©2017 2017Published The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. © by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license Peer-review under responsibility ofthe organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). and Environment 2016. Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016 Keywords:hydropower, electricity, water use, dams, Kurdistan
1. Introduction Tigris and Euphrates rivers were used since the ancient times for irrigation of the Mesopotamian lowlands, the canals were then rehabilitated in the 19th century for the same purpose at large scale [1]. In order to analyze the use of water of those transboundary rivers in Iraq there must be taken into account the two countries that affect water flows entering Iraq: Turkey and Syria, Fig. 1 [2]. In the '60s Iraq was the most developed among these three countries from the point of view of water use. Next ten years, other dams and canals have been added for various purposes as: irrigations, water supply, flood protection, electricity production. In 1984 the water use in Iraq was around 48 bcm/year of which 95% were used for irrigations [1].
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+9647707722224. E-mail address:[email protected]
1876-6102 © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016 doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1130
Khalid Ahmad-Rashid / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 632 – 639
Over the time many problems rise from the mainly unstable situation in this area. On Tigris and Euphrates rivers there are 32 important dams, 8 more are under construction and more than 13 are planned; the total installed capacity in hydropower is of 11.35 GW [2].
Fig. 1. Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq, [2].
From an agricultural country exporting wheat and other crops until 1958, Iraq turns to an oil-producing, semiindustrial country importing most of its own food. In 1972 the Iraq government nationalized the oil companies starting to receive more income from oil and giving more importance to agricultural production and hydropower development. The evolution of hydropower politics at national level has begun with centralized policies for promoting hydropower development since the 1950 to the liberalization of the hydropower sector since 2003 [2]. 2. Electricity production sector in Iraq with emphasis on hydropower Before 1990, the installed capacity of power plants in Iraq was 10,200 MW in 32 thermal and hydropower plants (HPPs) [3]. The Iraq’s electricity system, under the administration of the Ministry of Electricity, was one of the best in the region with the generation capacity exceeding the demand, with more power plants to be built. Because of the war, in time, about 90% of Iraq’s power generating and distribution systems were destroyed [4]. In 2002 the structure of the electricity production in Iraq was the following: seven thermal power plants, producing more than 54%, two hydroelectric power plants producing 24%, and nine gas-turbine power plants generating 21% [5]. After 2003, the amount of electrical power demand increased rapidly; there is no problem for the transmission lines but of the power generation capacity in the national power system [6]. Rich in natural resources with a broad spectrum including water and oil, the main energy production is due to oil use. Using data from Index Mundi [7],in Fig. 2 it is represented, for the period 2000-2014, production, consumption and imported electricity. It can be observed that until 2004, there was no need for Iraq to import electricity from neighboring countries. In a special report for Iraq Energy [8], it is underlined that hydropower and other renewable energy sources play a small supporting role in the energy mix for the Middle East region. In the primary energy consumption mix presented in table 1, for 1980 and 2010 and estimated for 2020 and 2035 [8], it can be observed the major part covered by oil and the small contribution of the hydropower and also other renewable energy sources (RES). Small part of energy consumption is covered by imported energy from neighboring countries: Iran and Turkey [9]. In [10] it is specified that the consumption of electricity in Iraq is covered mainly by energy produced in fossil fuel power plants (approximately 80%), followed by electricity generated in hydropower plants (9.22%), and the difference by imported electricity respectively. Even if the hydropower potential is estimated to be around 80 TWh/year, in energy strategy of Iraq for 20122017 period, from the 24,400 MW of new installed capacity only 400 MW will be from renewable energy sources (RES), the main part being allocated to gas, 13,000 MW, thermal, 7,000 MW and conversion to combined cycle power plants [11].
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Fig. 2. Production, consumption and import ofelectricpowerin Iraq for theperiod 2000–2014. Table 1. Iraq primary energy consumption by fuel, in Mtoe [8]. Type of energy Oil Gas Hydro Biomass Other renewables Total
1980 9 1 0.1 0 0
2010 32 6 0.4 0 0
10
38
Estimated 2020 75 37 0.5 0.1 0.1 113
2035 92 66 1.2 0.1 0.3 160
On the site of national dispatcher - Operating and Control Office [12] for the Iraqi network there can be seen in real time the units for electricity production for the national power system and the repartition on sources of energy. The display shows the 3 geographical zones: North, center and South. In Fig. 3 it is presented the daily electricity produced by hydropower plants for May 2016 comparing with the total electricity consumption. It can be easily observed that less than 4% of the total electricity production in Iraq is covered by hydropower.
Fig. 3. Daily electricity production for May 2016 and the part covered from hydropower plants.
In [13] it is presented an overview of the electricity sector in Iraq, including hydropower and small hydropower. With a population of around 32 mil. inhabitants, from which a third lives in rural areas, the electricity access is 86%, considering that the capacity is 9000 MW, providing a power output of around 49 GWh/year, from which hydropower represents 2500 MW installed capacity and 5 GWh/year energy, respectively.
Khalid Ahmad-Rashid / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 632 – 639
Small hydropower plants (SHPPs) in Iraq are defined as hydropower plants having the installed capacity as much as 80 MW. According to this limit, the installed capacity of SHPPs is about 10% of the total hydropower capacity and it is considered that there are 30 potential small hydropower project sites. Applying the small hydropower definition of up to 10 MW, as in the EU, Iraq has 6 MW installed in SHPPs from a technically feasible potential of 26.38 MW corresponding to 12 potential SHPP sites. From the point of view of the renewable energy policy, the Ministry of Electricity has established a Renewable Energy Center having as main focus at present to develop solar and wind energy. The Ministry of Heavy Industry commissioned a study on hydropower resources use in Iraq in 1988. The study was undertaken by Technopromexport, an entity that belonged to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and addressed, among other issues, hydropower development and its contribution to the coverage of the load curve in the national power grid. However, there is no renewable energy policy or framework supporting deployment of sustainable renewable energy sources. Some obstacles to small hydropower development are: x x x x x
war and sanctions have hit the energy sector, rural agriculture, water infrastructure in a very poor state; cancelled tenders; risks associated with payments and security.
In Iraq the costs of exploiting other RES than water for power generation remain high comparing with fossil fuel technologies. This is the reason that, in the framework of the existing policies, there is only a negligible increase in RES use as solar or wind, remaining under the country potential. 3. Hydropower developments in Kurdistan In other studies than [11], the technically feasible hydropower potential for Iraq was estimated at 90 TWh/year, from which the economically feasible hydropower potential represents only 10 TWh/year,[14]. Despite the fact that Iraq region benefits of the large hydropower potential of Tigris and Euphrates river basins, hydropower has not been an important source for electricity generation. The first hydropower developments in Middle East region were developed on the main tributaries of the Tigris (Greater Zab, Lesser Zab and Diyala). In 1959 it was constructed the Dokan dam having the height of 116.5 m on Lesser Zab river and the associated hydropower plant with the installed capacity of 400 MW. The second dam, Derbandikhan dam on the Diyala river, was constructed in 1961 and it has the height of 128 m with the related hydropower plant having the installed capacity of 249 MW [15]. At that time, only 6% of installed capacity for electrical energy production in Iraq has been built inside the Kurdistan region [3]. The most important hydropower plants in Iraq have a total installed capacity of 2493 MW and are presented in table 2 [17]. Table 2. The most important hydropower plants in Iraq. Site name Mosul Haditha Hamrin Samarra Dokan Derbandikhan
River/Lake
Installed capacity (MW)
Tigris Euphrates Diyala Tigris Doukhan Lake Diyala
1050 660 50 84 400 249
Even if the total installed capacity of the six largest hydropower plants in Iraq is around 2500 MW, the operating capacity is no more than 1300 MW because of low water levels in reservoirs or constraints imposed by the different other water uses as irrigations [17].
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Besides those hydropower plants, there are also other major storage dams in Iraq, like Duhok, Ramadi and Fallujah built for irrigation or irrigation and flood control. There are also reservoirs used to collect excess water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers during flood seasons and to recharge those rivers during dry seasons, when there is decrease of flow in both rivers (Tharthar, Gharaff and Habbaniyah) [18]. In Iraq there are 12 large dams for irrigation projects, 275 irrigation pump stations, 27,000 km of irrigation channels and 3.25 million hectares irrigated. According to UNESCO studies about hydropower development in Iraq [17] the most important hydropower development (HPD) in this country is Mosul dam, located in the governorate of Ninewa, being also the fourth largest HPD in the Middle East. The volume of the reservoir is of 11.1 km3 (Lake Dahuk), the toe of the dam hydropower plant Mosul 1 has 750 MW as installed capacity, downstream there is the Mosul regulation dam with the 62 MW hydropower plant Mosul 2 and closely, upstream, it is the pumped storage plant Mosul 3 with the installed capacity of 240 MW, which uses the water between this lower reservoir and Lake Dahuk as upper reservoir[Wikipedia]. The entire hydropower development has an installed capacity of 1052 MW, of which the available capacity is 470 MW. Other HPDs are located in the governorates of Anbar (Haditha dam) with the installed capacity of 660 MW, Salah al-Din (Samarra dam) with the installed capacity of 84 MW, Diyala (Hamrin dam) with the installed capacity of 50 MW and Sulaimani with the most two important operating hydropower plants from Kurdistan: Doukhan and Derbandikhan dams with total installed/available capacities of 400/75 MW and 249/70 MW, respectively. Each HPP is part of a multipurpose scheme for power production and irrigation in its area. The Dokan dam is located on the Lesser Zab River, approximately 220 km upstream from its confluence with the Tigris River. The site is located adjacent to the town of Dokan. The Derbandikhan dam is located on the Sirwan River, immediately upstream of the town of Derbandikhan, approximately 150 km upstream of the Hemren Dam. The site is approximately 395 km North-East of Baghdad and 65 km South-East of Sulaimani city. It is also located within 15 km of Iran South-East border [19]. Dokan and Derbandikhan storage reservoirs have large volumes of water, together reaching 9.87 km3, and are now used exclusively for the production of electricity. Their large storage capacity allows super-annual storage of annual average flow by a factor of 152% (Dokan) and 135% (Derbandikhan). This super-annual regulation of flows allows a complete change of seasonal distribution of flows downstream of dams. A third large storage dam, Bekhme (about 17 km3 capacity) was planned on Greater Zab River, but now, its construction, started before 1990, is abandoned. Finally, another important existing dam is Duhok dam, with a water volume of 52 mcm in his reservoir which is currently used for both water supply for irrigation and electricity generation. Besides these large dams, a total of six dams that gather a water volume of about 6 mcm are inventoried. A total of 17 more dams that allows the storage of a volume of water amounted to about 123 mcm, are under construction, following to be completed in short time. In 2010, HPP Bekal with the installed capacity of 1200 MW was put into operation and in 2015 HPP Deralok with 30 MW installed capacity. HPPs Delga and Deralok-Rachawa are proposed to be built until 2017 having installed capacities of 97 and 72 MW, respectively. Kurdistan with a territory of 48,834 km2, occupies partially or totally the catchment areas of five tributaries on the left part of Tigris River. Partially, the tributaries Khabur (45% of the catchment basin located in Kurdistan), Greater Zab (67%), Lesser Zab (74%), Sirwan (63%) and totally the Basara and Awa Spi tributaries, at which a surface of 2,927 km2 is added, corresponding to Tigris River. In Fig. 4 it is represented the total installed capacity in electric power plants in Kurdistan, the imported power, the planned capacity and the demand [3]. From the figure it can be easily observed that it is still a demand not covered by production. Regarding hydropower, it is planned to produce 14 TWh until 2035, a small increase, focused in the North of the country where there is also potential for some small-scale hydro in more remote communities. Kurdistan Regional Government is planning to increase electricity produced from hydropower and proposed feasibility studies for new hydropower developments [8]. Hydropower is subordinated to water supply and irrigations in Kurdistan. In order to establish proper development strategies for irrigation in Kurdistan region, it is important to know the demand of water used in the farms and irrigation [20].
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Fig. 4. Evolution of power balance in power system in Kurdistan [3].
4. Further development of hydropower in Kurdistan In Kurdistan Hydropower, the long term strategy is more focused on developing large dams for flood protection and irrigation than for hydropower, even if the potential is significant (around 80 TWh/year [16]). In 2014, SETEC Company in cooperation with Aquaproiect SA, Romania, drawn up the Kurdistan Dams Master Plan(DMP) for the Ministry of Agriculture of Kurdistan Region. This represents a well-structured guide for the future of water management and a paper [21] was prepared on the basis of this master plan. In this paper, it is presented a plan for the development of future hydrotechnical schemes power plants for electricity production, water supply and irrigations. The goal of the project is of great importance as the particularities of the hydrology indicate high flood inflows and long drought periods, with great social impact. The main conclusion is that financial losses can be avoided and social benefits achieved with the elaboration of a proper Master Plan for water resources management. For surface water balance it was taken into account a drought year 1999, and the projection to 2030, considered mean year.The authors [21] specify that in the water balance calculations between demands and resources for the entire period up to 2030 was taken into consideration, so that the water intake from the streams outside Kurdistan border will remain unmodified as stocks and time distribution, thus avoiding any downstream political and social problems. The used annual water balance model with the formulation for monthly climate inputs was the one presented in [22]. Thus, the water balance equation for the revised single bucket model is: ds t dt
p t qss t qse t eb t ev t ,
(1)
where: s t represent the volume of soil water storage, p t - the precipitation intensity, qss -the subsurface runoff, qse -the saturation excess runoff rate, eb -the bare soil evaporation rate, ev -the transpiration rate. The results are presented for three hypothesis [21]: x current scenario:with year 2010 as reference, x comparison scenario 2030: the users are supposed to be the ones forecasted at the level of 2030 but with the existing dams, x proposed scenario 2030: the users are supposed to be those forecasted at the level of 2030 and the dams will be those proposed by the DMP. In [21] it was performed a database with details about planning and management of water resources in Kurdistan and the calibration of the water demand growths required by socioeconomic development with water infrastructure
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works required to cover the water management and fulfil the demands. At the beginning, it was done a demarcation of hydrographical basins, characterization of surface water and availability of underground water within basin, establishing the water demands, evaluation of water balance between availabilities and demands in various parts of the basin. The water balance calculation was performed for the years of mean flow and for the driest year of the period taken into account. From the calculus it resulted that, in order to fulfil the water demands of 2030, it is necessary to accomplish a number of 245 storage reservoirs in order to regulate the flows, number that includes the existing or under construction dams. Fig. 5 shows the results for the surface water balance at Bardasur dam site. As it can be observed, without the implementation of the DMP, most of the regions will be without water resources, and if we further mind the growth predicted in the water demand, there remains no other way than the coherent implementation of this plan.
Fig. 5. Example of water balance results for a drought year, 1999, and for mean yearfor Bardasur dam site[21].
For the future development of hydropower sector it has been conceived a prioritization process using a multicriteria analysis, which has taken into consideration characteristic factors for each dam and storage reservoir. The decision criteria [23] were: economic (investment costs and maintenance expenses, side effects costs), social (aesthetics, landscape; recreation, tourism, sports;quality of riparian water;riparian flood protection), ecological (artificiality aggression upon the river, deterioration of the existing ecosystems), conformity with restrictions (respect water storage areas during floods, protected areas restrictions, protection of public services). The dam construction and storage reservoirs prioritization will be required by the identification of supplementary water demands and by the financing capacity, mostly done by the Regional Government, and through the water infrastructure works. For the new dams, additionally proposed to the existing or under construction ones, it was carried out a four steps prioritization in order to achieve them and the results are presented in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Storage volumes and installed capacities on Kurdistan river basins as result of DMP.
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5. Conclusion Unfortunately, the water crisis in Iraq and, of course, Kurdistan affects many people because of the unstable situation of the last decades. Nevertheless, the proper use of the existing know-how and the determination of the decision makers can lead to a framework for a further logical development of water resources which can solve both the water supply for population and irrigations and electricity problem. The existing developments and of the DMP for Kurdistan are the proof that this could be possible. It is not an easy task for the authorities, but with the help of the DMP it can be implemented a better approach for the development of water resources in order to fulfill the present and future requirements for irrigation, water supply for the population and electricity generation. Acknowledgements The author expresses his gratitude to associated professor Cătălin Popescu from Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest for bibliography, data and encouragements. References [1] Degefu GT. The Nile: Historical, legal and developmental perspectives. Canada; 2003. [2] Kibaroglu A. Politics of hydropower development in the Euphrates Tigris basin. International conference: Sustainability in the water-energyfood nexus. Bonn, Germany; 2014. [3] Husami MS. Energy crisis in Kurdistan and the impact of renewable energy. University of Strathclyde. Glasgow; 2007. [4] Reda M, Saied N, Khaldi A, Abdul-Hussain M, Ekwue A. Iraq electrical power infrastructure - Past, present and future developments and expectations. IEEE PES Power systems conference and exposition. Atlanta, Georgia; 2006 [5] Global security. Iraq electricity. Available from: (www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/electricity.htm). [6] Hassan LH, Moghavvemi M, Mohamed HAF. Impact of UPFC-based damping controller on dynamic stability of Iraqi power network. Scientific Research and Essays.Vol 6(1); 2011. p. 136-145. [7] Index Mundi. Available from: (www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=82&c=iz&l=en). [8] IEA - International Energy Agency. Iraq energy outlook. France; 2012. [9] Rashid S. Electricity Problem in Iraq, Hamburg; 2012. [10] Pilesjo P, Al-Juboori SS. Modelling the effects of climate change on hydroelectric power in Dokan, Iraq. International journal of energy and power engineering. Vol. 5, issue 2-1; 2016. p. 7-12. [11] Ratcliffe V. Power generation a top priority in Iraq. Middle East business intelligence. Available from: (www.meed.com/countries/ iraq/power-generation-a-top-priority-in-iraq/3129589.fullarticle). [12] OCO - Operating and control office. Available from: (www.oco.moelc.gov.iq/index.php). [13] UNIDO, ICSHP. World small hydropower development report 2013. Published by United Nations Industrial Development Organization and International Center on Small Hydro Power, 2013. [14] UNESCO – United nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. Hydropower Generation. Available from: (www.unesco.org/ new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/temp/wwap_pdf/Table_Hydropower_Generation.pdf). [15] Stansfield GRV. Iraqi Kurdistan. Political development and emergent democracy. In: Taylor&Francis e-Library. London; 2003. [16] Google maps. Available from: (www.maps.google.com). [17] UNESCO – United nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. Integrated drought risk management – DRM national framework for Iraq. An Analysis Report.2nd ed. 2014. [18] Theriot EA. Reconstruction assistance for Iraq’s water sector. US Army - Corps of Engineers. Available from: (www.waterforum.jp/ jpn/iraq/doc/expert_meeting/plenary/3.pdf). [19] Kurdistan Regional Government. Invitation to tender: Hydropower plant equipment supply and installation. Available from: (cabinet.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&s=02010100&r=223&a=27481&s=010000). [20] Harun R, Arion FH, Muresan IC. The Source and Consumption of Using Water for Irrigation in Rural Area: Study Case of Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Bulletin UASVM Horticulture. Vol 70(2); 2013. p. 326-330. [21] Popescu C, Mazilu P, Dragan I, Mihai A, Sirbu N, Sarghiuta R, Segarceanu M. The dams master plan for Kurdistan region – Iraq. Getting the job done.ICOLD 2016 – International Symposium on “Appropriate technology to ensure proper Development, Operation and Maintenance of Dams in Developing Countries”, Johannesburg, South Africa,18 May 2016. [22] Jothityuangkoon C, Sivapalan M, Farmer DL. Process Controls of Water Balance Variability in a Large Semi-Arid Catchment: Downward Approach to Hydrological Model Development. Journal of Hydrology 254 (2001) 174-198. [23] Abdulamit A. Promoting eco-friendly river basin development solutions. Presentation at ICOLD 2016 – International Symposium on “Appropriate technology to ensure proper Development, Operation and Maintenance of Dams in Developing Countries”, Theme 1: Social and environmental impacts and mitigation measures, Johannesburg, South Africa,18 May 2016.
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