Primates

EXOTIC PET MEDICINE II

0195-5616/94 $0.00 + .20

PRIMATES Cathy A. Johnson-Delaney, DVM

The nonhuman primate pet is one of the most difficult exotic animals presented to the small animal practitioner. The practitioner must not only be familiar with the dietary, husbandry, regulatory, psychologic, and health care needs of the particular species presented but also must have a thorough background in the zoonoses and public health risks of contact with the animal to be able to counsel and educate the owner as well as to protect staff, other clients, and patients in the veterinary clinic. In general, nonhuman primates are poor pet candidates owing to the extensive requirements necessary to maintain their physical and mental health. They also can present a public health hazard owing to their intractability, lack of domestication, and communicable diseases. Many people who own nonhuman primates consider them child-substitutes, which often contributes to behavioral and health problems presented to the practitioner. Although they are no longer imported for pets, many species of nonhuman primates are raised domestically for the pet trade. Table 1 lists some of the most common nonhuman primates kept as pets, along with representative species and general characteristics. Table 2 lists life history information of selected "pet" species. Unless classified as endangered, most species can be kept with a minimum of permits or licenses depending on the municipality, county, or state. Animals purchased by an individual through a pet store or broker often slip through the regulatory system. Problems may be encountered later when documentation of birth and records of sale and shipment are needed to allow the veterinarian to issue a health certificate or documentation for transportation, or when background information is needed following a biting or public

From the Primate Information Center, Regional Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

VETERINARY CLINICS OF NORTH AMERICA: SMALL ANIMAL PRACTICE VOLUME 24 • NUMBER 1 • JANUARY 1994

121

122

JOHNSON-DELANEY

Table 1. PRIMATE IDENTIFICATION PROS/Mil-The Prosimians Lemuridae Representative species:

'· .,..

Lemur catta (ring-tailed lemur) Lemur fulvus (brown lemur)

Characteristics: Digits 5/5. Second toe of hind foot has claw-like nail for grooming Dentition: 0-2/2; 1/1; 3/3; 3/3 = 32-36, lower incisors and canines strongly project forward . Tail long and furry, like bottle brush Native to Madagascar L. catta.-.frugivore L. fulvus-folivore Lorisidae Representative species:

Galago crassicaudatus (greater; thick-tailed bushbaby) Ga/ago senegalensis (lesser; common bushbaby)

Characteristics: Digits 5/5, finger reduced, tarsus lengthened. Flat nails, second toe with claw. Dentition: 2/2; 1/1; 3/3; 3/3 = 36, lower incisiors project forward, canines long. Native to Africa Most tailless or stump-tailed, some with very long tail G. senegalensis.-.frugivore ANTHROPOIDEA-Anthropoid primates Old world monkeys Cercopithecidae (Old World Monkeys) Cercopithecinae Cercocebus: Example: C. atys (sooty mangabey) Cercopithecus: C. aethiops (African green monkey, verve!, guenon) Erythrocebus: E. patas (Patas or soldier monkey) Macaca: M. arctoides (stump-tailed macaque) M. fascicularis (Java, cynomolgus, longtailed, crab-eating macaque) M. fuscata (Japanese macaque, snow monkey) M. mulatta (rhesus monkey) M. nemestrina (pig-tailed macaque~ ;,•.Papio P. cynocephalus (savannah baboon)-;:, P. c. cynocephalus (yellow baboon) P. c. anubis (olive baboon) P. hamadryas (hamadryas, sacred baboon) P. sphinx (mandrill) Coloblnae Colobus: C. guereza (guereza or black and white colobus) Presytis: P. entellus (sacred or Hanuman langur) P. cristata (silvered or leaf langur) Characteristics: Digits 5/5, nails flat, thumb and great toe opposable (except Colobinae-thumb small or absent). Dentition: 2/2; 1/1; 2/2; 3/3 = 32, upper canines long, M3 five-cusped. No prehensile tails, some have ischial callosites Nares orifices close together, some have cheek pouches. Native to Asia and Africa Cercopithecus sp, Macaca sp, E. patas, Papio sp: frugivores Co/obus sp, Presbytis sp: folivores Hylobatidae (Lesser Apes-Gibbons) Hylobates: Example: H. lar (lar or white-handed gibbon) H. syndactylus (siamang)

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Table 1. PRIMATE IDENTIFICATION Continued Pongidae (Great Apes) Pan Pongo Gorilla

P. troglodytes (chimpanzee) P. paniscus (bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee) P. pyrmaeus (orangutan) G. g. berengei (mountain gorilla) G. g. gorilla (lowland gorilla)

Characteristics: Dentition: 2/2; 1/1; 2/2; 3/3 = 32. Canines larger than incisors and premolars Great apes: tailless Native to Africa and Asia Arms longer than legs, great toe opposable Hylobates sp: frugivore; Pan sp frugivore Pongo sp: folivore; Gorilla sp: folivore New world monkeys Callitrichidae Callimico: Example: Callithrix: Cebuella: Saguinus:

C. goeldi (Goeldi's marmoset, monkey)

C. jacchus (common marmoset) C. pygmaeus (pygmy marmoset) S. fuscicollis (saddleback tamarin) S. mystax (moustached tamarin) S. oedipus (cottontop tamarin)

Cebidae Alouatta: Example: Ateles: Aotus: Callicebus: Cebus:

A. pal/iata (golden, mantled howler monkey) A. geoffroyi (Geoffroy's or black handed spider monkey) A. trivirgatus (owl monkey, night monkey, dourocouli) C. moloch (dusky titi monkey) C. apella (tufted capuchin) C. capucinus (black & white; white-faced capuchin) C. nigrivittatus (weeper capuchin) L. lagotricha (Humboldt's woolly monkey) S. sciureus (squirrel monkey)

Lagothrix: Saimiri: Characteristics: Dentition: 2/2; 1/1; 3/3; 3/3 Some have prehensile tails, no ischial callosites Native to Central and South America Nares orifices wide apart No cheek pouches Alouatta sp: folivore Ateles sp, Callithrix sp, Cebus sp, Callimico sp, Callicebus sp, Saguinus sp, Lagothrix sp, Saimiri sp: frugivore Cebuella: insectivore

health incident. The practitioner should be familiar with aspects of the Animal Welfare Act dealing with nonhuman primates, as it lists basic requirements for the keeping of nonhuman primates as well as regulations involving transportation, licensing, and registration. Although private owners are not required to meet the husbandry, diet, and enrichment criteria set forth as minimums by the Act, practitioners can use these articles as guidelines to provide owners with baseline criteria for the care and housing of nonhuman primates. Many private owners exceed the minimums, but the author has found that many pet animals are kept far below minimum standards required by the Act. Table 3 lists

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Table 2. LIFE HISTORY OF SELECTED PRIMATES

Species Aotus trivirgatus (Owl monkey) Ate/es geoffroyi (Geoffrey's spider monkey) Callithrix jacchus (Common marmoset) Cebus ape/fa (Tufted capuchin) Cebus capucinus (White-faced capuchin) Cercopithecus aethiops (African green monkey) Colobus guereza (Guereza/Biack & white colobus) Galago crassicaudatus (Greater bushbaby) Galago senegalensis (Lesser bushbaby) Hylobates far (White-handed gibbon) Lagothrix lagotricha (Woolly monkey) Lemur catta (Ring-tailed lemur) Lemur fulvus (Brown lemur) Macaca fascicularis (Java/Cynomolgus macaque) Macaca fuscata (Japanese/Snow macaque) Macaca mulatta

(Rhesus macaque) Pan troglodytes (Chimpanzee) Papio c. anubis (Olive baboon) Presbytis entel/us (Sacred langur) Saguinus fuscicollis (Saddleback tamarin) Saguinus oedipus (Cotton-top tamarin) Saimiri sciuresus (Squirrel monkey)

Female Adult Body W!Avg (kg)

Male Adult Body WI Avg (kg)

Birth WI (g)

t 5.8

0.9 6.2

80-98 426

24 48

0.29

0.3t

28

t2

2.t 2.7

2.86 3.8

3.56

4.75

9.3

t1.8

t .3

t.4

0.2t

0.24

248 230

Length Estrus (days)

Gestation (days)

lnterbirth Interval (days)

Number in Litter

Weaning Age (days)

Life Span Recorded Max (yrs)

24 60

t5-t6 26

t33 229

220 870

t t

75 365

20 20

t7

t6

t48

t57

2.t

60-t80

t2

t 0,56,68,69

270 270

44 46.9

56,65,68 56,65,68,69

Female Age Male Age Sex Mature Sex Mature (mos) (mos)

References

t6,56,68,69 56,68,69

t8 t6-20

t80 t60

657 578

t t

60-72

30

t63

365

t

t82

3t

t 0,56,68,69

72

not doc'mntd

t70

365

t

390

30.5

27,56,68,69.

20

44

t35

360

t .t

90

t5

tO

32

t24

200

t .6

75

t6.5

54,56,68 54a,56,68,69

42 48

56 96

3t4

30-47

445

48-55

47.4

t2

t1.5

6.7

5.3

5.7

4t0

t08-ttt

78

t9-22

205

969

t

730

3t .5

5.8

6.8

450

48

60

25

225

720

t

3t5

t2

2.5 t.9 4.t

2.9 2.5 5.9

88.2 8t.4 346

30 tO 46.3

30 23 42-60

39 39 28

t35 tt8 t62

5tt 547 390

1.2 t t

t05 t35 365-547

27 30.8 37

4.t

tt.7

503

3

6.2

r;:a'1

3t t2-t5 tt.4

42 2t t8.4

0.37 0.5t 0.58

54,56

56,68,69 34,54,56,68 34,54,56,68 6, 1Jl.56,68,69

60

54

28

t73

548

t

t80-260

33

t 0,5t,56,68,69

34-43

38

28

t67

360

t

2t0-425

30+

t0,3t ,56,68,69

t756 854-t068

-

tt8-t38 5t-73 42-5t

t56 73 72-84

36 3t 22-24

228 t75-t80 t68

t825 630 456-730

t t t

547-t460 t80-456 304-365

53 40-45 25

t0,3t,56,68,69 t0,3t,56,69 56,68

0.42

0

t8-24

24

t5

t49

242

1.5

90

20.4

0.45

43.2

t8

24

t6

t45

280

t.9

60-90

t3

t 0,56,68,69

0.75

t95

36-46

60

t8

t70

4t4

t

t82

20.t

t 0,56,68,69

56,69,80

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PRIMATES

Table 3. ANIMAL WELFARE ACT-HIGHLIGHTS FOR THE PRIMATE PRACTITIONER Part 2: Regulations: Subpart A: Licensing Subpart B: Registration Subpart C: Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee and Other Requirements for Research Facilities Subpart D: Attending Veterinarian and Adequate Veterinary Care Subpart E: Identification of Animals Subpart F: Stolen Animals Subpart G: Records Subpart H: Compliance with Standards and Holding Period Subpart 1: Miscellaneous Main: Section 3 Subpart D: Specifications for the Humane Handling, Care, Treatment, and Transportation of Nonhuman Primates Specifies requirements for general housing facilities: construction, storage, maintenance, cleaning and sanitation; water and electric power, ventilation, lighting, drainage and waste disposal, washrooms and sink provisions for caretakers. Specifies requirements for indoor housing facilities as well as mixed "sheltered" facilities or outdoor facilities: heating, cooling, and temperature control, ventilation, lighting, shelter, perimeter fencing and protection, public barriers, acclimatization procedures. Mobile or traveling housing facilities requirements. Nonhuman primate primary enclosures must meet minimum defined requirements: MINIMUM SPACE REQUIREMENTS NONHUMAN PRIMATEsANIMAL WELFARE ACT 3.8(b)(1 ), (b)(2) The minimum space provided to each nonhuman primate whether housed individually or with other nonhuman primates will be determined by the typical weight of animals of its species except for brachiating species and great apes, and will be calculated by using the following: Weight Group 1 2 3 4 5 6

lbs Under 2.2 2.2-6.6 6.6-22.0 22.Q-33.0 33.0-55.0 Over55.0

Floor area/animal

Height

kg

ft'

m'

in

em

(Under 1) (1-3) (3-10) (1Q-15) (15- 25) (Over 25)

1.6 3.0 4.3 6.0 8.0 25.1

(0.15) (0.28) (0.40) (0.56) (0.74) (2.33)

20 30 30 32 36

(50.8) (76.2) (76.2) (81 .28) (91.44) (213.66)

84

Examples of kinds of nonhuman primates included in each weight group: Group 1:- marmosets, tamarins, infants (less than 6 months) of various species. Group 2:-capuchins, squirrel monkeys, juveniles (6 mos-3 yrs of age) various species. Group 3:-macaques and African species. Group 4:-male macaques and large African species. Group 5:-baboons, nonbrachiating species larger than 33.0 lbs (15 kg). Group 6:-great apes over 55.0 lbs (25 kg) except as provided in (b)(2) of this section, and brachiating species. Paragraph (b)(2) specifies that great apes weighing over 110 lbs (50 kg) must be provided with additional volumes of space in excess of that required for Group 6 animals to allow for normal postural adjustments. Additionally, the Animal Welfare Act specifies requirements for environment enhancement to promote psychological well-being which includes social grouping, environmental enrichment including objects, food varieties, foraging/task oriented feeding methods, interactions with caregivers, etc. The Act also specifies requirements for veterinary health care, feeding and food receptacles, water access, primary enclosure cleaning, sanitization, housekeeping and pest control. Animal transportation and shipping requirements for nonhuman primates are detailed. From Animal Welfare Act 1991. Hyattsville, MD, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection/ Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care.

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JOHNSON-DELANEY

sections of the Animal Welfare Act that provide information concerning nonhuman primates as well as recommendations f~r cage sizing. HOUSING

Nonhuman primates should be housed in caging designed for monkeys, not in adapted bird caging, which is not strong enough and is usually inadequate for maintaining sanitation. Squeeze cages are highly desirable in both private homes and in veterinary clinics. Practitioners who treat nonhuman primates should have squeeze cages in a variety of sizes to facilitate physical examinations. Appropriate primate caging is available through commercial suppliers, and surplus caging is often available from laboratory primate facilities. Cage accessories to provide for the special housing needs of arboreal, nocturnal, or ranging species must be incorporated into caging design, and provisions must be made for full-spectrum lighting and climate controls. Lighting and heating should be on automatic controls and not dependent on the owner being at home to regulate them. Ambient temperatures for most nonhuman primate species should be between 18-l7°C (65-80°F) with no rapid fluctuations in temperature. Ideal humidity is between 55% and 70%, although some New World monkeys such as marmosets require slightly higher humidity (70-80%), particularly when raising young. 32• 9° Caging for reproductive activities may require additional furnishings such as nest boxes and hiding places along with additional floor space. As a general rule, primates of one species should not be housed with those of another, not only to prevent disease transmission, but also because of species-specific behaviors and interspecies aggression. Squirrel and spider monkeys may carry Herpes tamarinus as a latent infection, but H. tamarinus will cause death in marmosets and owl ~nkeys housed adjacent or in close proximity to carrier monkeys.31·,.ss. 5~'When designing a habitat for a particular species, it may be useful to consult zoos and primate facilities that have housed that species successfully. Housing should be constructed to facilitate cleaning with a minimum of disruption to the animals. Cage accessories such as perches and nest boxes must be constructed of durable and easy-to-clean materials. Commercially available perches and platforms are usually constructed of PVC piping and are designed to allow for squeeze-cage function as well as ease of sanitation and adaptability to many cage designs. Disinfectants recommended for cleaning cages, dishes, and toys include Roccal-D (Winthrop, New York, NY) and One-Stroke Environ (Ceva Laboratories, Overland Park, KS). The veterinarian should be able to provide appropriate disinfectants as well as training in sanitation procedures. Toys and enrichment devices primarily constructed for laboratory primates can be of great benefit for pet primates because they are safe, durable, and provide the animal with manipulative activities while confined in its cage. Different species of primates prefer different types of enrichment devices and vary in the amount of time they will play with an object. Thus, no single primate toy is ideal for all. Owners should be

PRIMATES

127

encouraged to try different toys and to rotate the choices available to the animal to prevent boredom during cage confinement. All nonhuman primates should be caged while unattended and should not be allowed to run loose in the home. If a monkey is allowed to leave its cage, a collar or harness worn continuously may be helpful in controlling the anj.mal or retrieving it to return it to the cage. FEEDING

Dietary requirements for many of the laboratory species have been well characterized.31 • 36• 40 Several commercial brands of food are available to pet owners for the different genera (Table 4). Unfortunately, many pet owners prefer to feed table foods and treats rather than commercial biscuits or canned diets, citing problems with getting their animals to eat Table 4. COMMERCIAL DIETS FOR NONHUMAN PRIMATES Manufacturer

Address

Diet

Animal Spectrum

Box 6307, Lincoln, NE 68506; 1-800-228-4005

Pro-plus Diet; Marmoset!Tarmarin Dry Diet; Leafeater Primate Diet (for Colobus, Langurs)

Bio-Serve (Holton Industries)

P.O. Box 450, Frenchtown, NJ 08825 1-800-473-2155 908-996-2155

Primilac infant primate diet; PRIMABurgers; PRIMA-Gel; PRIMA-Treats; Marmoset Diets (Marmo Jelly, Marma-Lac, Marmo-Bits); PRIMAPellets for Rhesus and Cebus; Primate Chows (various sizes, with/ without bananas, etc.)

ZuPreem Diets Premium Nutritional Products, Inc

550 SW 7th St, Topeka, KS 66606 1-800-345-4767 913-273-9700 Fax: 913-273-3406

ZuPreem Primate Diet (biscuits or canned); ZuPreem Marmoset Diet (canned)

PMIFeeds, Inc (formerly Purina Mills, Inc) Lab Diet Product Line

Suite L-1 03; One Woodside Drive, Richmond, IN 47374 1-800-227-8941 317-996-6660 Fax: 317-962-8169

Monkey Diet; New World Primate Diet; High Protein Monkey Diet; Fiber-Balanced Diet (all biscuits); Monkey Multi-Vitamins (tablets, several sizes); Monkey Yums (enrichment treat); Transit-Pak Primate Diet

PMIFeeds, Inc Mazuri Zoo Feeding Resource Product Line

P.O. Box 66812, St. Louis, MO, 63166-6812 314-768-4592 Fax: 314-768-4644

High Protein Primate; Leaf-Eater Primate Diet; Marmoset Jelly; Monkey Yums (4 flavors) ; New World Primate; Old World Primate; Vita-Zu Primate Vitamins

Premier Laboratory Diets

7401 S. Adams St; Bartonville, IL 61607 307-697-5566

Wayne Primate Diets (20% protein, 25% protein dry biscuits); New World Primate Diet; 15% Primate Diet for Old World Species; Hi-Fiber 15% Primate Diet

Zeigler Bros, Inc.

P.O. Box 95, Gardners, PA 17324-0095 1-800-841-6800 717-677-6181 Fax: 717-677-6826

New World Maintenance (17% protein); New World Starter and Reproduction Diet (17% protein); Marmoset Diet (20% protein)

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JOHNSON-DELANEY

the prepared diets. Most of the nutritional disease problems such as scurvy or rickets occur in animals that are not fecl, commercial diets. New World primate diets contain approximately 20% to 25% protein, whereas Old World primate diets contain approximately 15% protein. New World monkeys require vitamin 0 3 (cholecalciferol), but Old World primates can metabolize vitamin 0 2 (ergocalciferol); however, most commercial diets now contain 0 3 for all species.32• 36 Vitamin C is another important requirement for nonhuman primates. Although added to prepared biscuits, it is a perishable vitamin, and additional supplementation with daily fresh fruits or monkey vitamins is recommended, This is particularly the case if biscuits are soaked in milk or fruit juices or ground and mixed into applesauce to encourage consumption. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is oxidized in any aqueous solution by reaction with dissolved oxygen. It is degraded by exposure to light as well as exposure to metals such as copper, which act as catalysts. Rates of degradation vary depending on temperature, and the presence of other chemicals or amino acids such as cysteine and cystine, which may inhibit the action of catalysts such as copper. Because degradation is difficult to estimate for any given foodstuff, an excess should be added beyond the recommended 1 to 4 mg/kg body weight daily for active primates.31 Biscuits should be properly stored and used within 90 days of milling. Vitamin C tablets for supplementation should be stored in light-resistant air-tight containers. Most adult primates consume approximately 3% to 5% of their body weight daily (dry-weight); however, most waste a great deal of food, and a greater quantity needs to be offered.32• 36• 90 Waste is decreased by offering food as "meals" two or three times a day rather than putting all of it into a feed hopper once daily. One or more commercial food brands of the appropriate diet should provide approximately 80% to 90% of the daily intake. The remainder is provided as fresh fruits, vegetables, commercial primate "treats," or, in the case of some New World monkeys (marmosets, tamarins, spider monkeys, squirrel mo~ys) and Prosimians (bushbabies), mealworms, crickets, pinkie mice, and small amounts of canned dog foods. 77 Animals currently eating only table foods can be converted to commercial chows by soaking the biscuits in juice or milk or by pulverizing the biscuit and mixing it with favorite table foods. The biscuit amount and size of granules are gradually increased until the animal is presented with the whole biscuit. Offering food only twice daily and removing uneaten portions with no between-meal snacks will ensure that the animal is hungry when the proper food is presented and will expedite conversion. Training the owner to be diligent on conversion depends on educating him or her about the necessity of feeding a proper diet for the health and longevity of the pet. Fresh, clean water should be available at all times, preferably from a sipper-tube or valved water system. Fruit juices can be offered occasionally as a treat. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION AND RESTRAINT

Preventive health care for nonhuman primates is important not only for monkeys, but also to minimize the risk of zoonotic disease to humans

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129

in contact with them. Because of the great number of disease organisms that can be transmitted from nonhuman primates to humans and vice versa (Table 5), a comprehensive annual examination and testing program is recommended (Table 6). A thorough history should be taken and updated at each office visit. The veterinarian and owner should review public health procedures and keep track of the animal's contacts with Table 5. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF NONHUMAN PRIMATES Bacterial Tuberculosis (human. bovine, avian) Shigellosis Mycoplasma infections Leptospirosis Pseudotuberculosis

Pasteurellosis Respiratory (Pneumococcus, Staphylococcus Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Klebsiella, Bordetella) Enteric (Proteus, Shigella, Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter, Helicobacter, others) Meningitis (Neisseria, Pneumococcus, Staphylococcus Haemophilus, others)

Mycotic (Fungal) Aspergillosis Moniliasis

Coccidiomycosis Nocardiosis

Cryptococcosis Dermatomycosis

Histoplasmosis Blastomycosis

Parasitic Amebiasis Trichomoniasis Acanthocephala Trichostrongylosis Ascariasis

Balantidiasis Giardiasis Strongyloidiasis Filariasis Ancylostomiasis

Trypanosomiasis Malaria Oesophagostomiasis Acariasis (Pulmonary, Cutaneous)

Cryptosporidiasis Leishmaniasis Coccidia Pentastomid lnf.

Viral Herpesviruses H. simiae (B·virus) H. hominis (simplex) H. tamarinus H. varicellae H. saimiri Cytomegalovirus SA8 Patas Monkey virus H. aotus Chimpanzee herpesvirus Gorilla herpesvirus Poxviruses Monkeypox Molluscum contagiosum Yaba and Yaba-like Arboviruses Yellow Fever Kyasanur Forest Dengue and others

Myxoviruses Measles Respiratory Syncytial Parainfluenza-Influenza Mumps Adenoviruses Retroviruses Type D-SRV, Mason-Pfizer Type C-STLV, gibbon ape leukemia virus SIV Foamy (Spuma) virus Miscellaneous Marburg (African Green Monkey Disease) Ebola Rubella Hepatitis B, Delta, HCV, Callitrichid Hepatitis Rabies

Disease Transmitted From Human to Nonhuman Primates: Adenovirus Chickenpox (Varicella} Herpes simplex Parainfluenza type 2 (SV5) Influenza type A, etc. Respiratory syncytial virus Poliovirus Dermatomycosis (Ringworm) Campylobacter Rotavirus Streptococcus Rhinovirus Rhinoviruses Salmonella

Toxoplasmosis Schistomiasis Troglodytella Trematode lnf.

Picornaviruses Poliovirus Coxsackievirus Echovirus Hepatitis A Reoviruses Rotaviruses

Molluscum contagiosum Measles Mumps Parasites (various) Shigella Staphylococcus Tuberculosis Rubella Hepatitis A, B

Other Companion Pets in the Household-Potential Diseases Traded Between Nonhuman Primates and: Birds: Psittacosis, Avian TB, Salmonella, Giardia, Coccidia Reptiles: Salmonella, Shigella, Balantidium, Entamoeba Dogs, Cats, Ferrets: Campylobacter, Toxoplasmosis, Ascariasis, Acariasis, Dermatomycosis, Bordetella, Pasteurellosis, Coccidia Rabbits, Rodents: Pasteurellosis, Dermatomycosis, Coccidia, Mycoplasma, Salmonella, Balantidium, Acariasis

130

JOHNSON-DELANEY

.•. Table 6- ANNUAL PRIMATE EXAMINATION History, including diet, husbandry, reproductive, beha~oral observations Physical examination ' Weight Dental examination CBC, clinical chemistries Serology Fecal parasite examination Fecal Salmonella/Shigella culture Tuberculosis testing Radiography Urinalysis Ophthalmic, gynecologic, dermatologic examinations, cytology as indicated Vaccination as indicated

humans other than family members. They also should review the owner's sanitation and handling procedures at home, the diet, husbandry practices, and any noted health or behavior problems seen since the last visit. A review of reproductive activity and outcome should be noted. After initial observation of the animal in its carrier to note general condition, respiration, and attitude, the animal should be sedated with either ketamine hydrochloride (5-10 mg/kg IM (Fort Dodge Laboratories, Ft. Dodge, lA) or Telazol (2-6 mg/kg IM (A.H. Robins, Richmond, VA.). 31, 32, 36 These doses usually provide adequate chemical restraint for examination, tuberculosis testing, and blood collection. Atropine sulfate (0.02-0.04 mg/kg IM) should be given to prevent hypersalivation, particularly if dental prophylaxis is to be done as part of the examination. Slightly higher doses of ketamine may be needed in smaller or younger animals than in larger or older primates. Ketamine given at 15 to 20 mg/ kg will produce chemical immobilization for short procedures such as dentistries. Inhalation anesthetics can be administer~d~f...prolonged procedures are necessary?uo Intubation is done as with other small animals following the spraying of larynx and pharynx with a local anesthetic (Cetacaine, Cetylite).32 The animal can be maintained on halothane, isoflurane, or nitrous oxide-oxygen combinations, similarly to dogs and cats, using a semiclosed system. Transfer of Monkeys into Squeeze Cages

The examination room should be properly equipped for handling and examination of the nonhuman primate. Preferably, the animal has been brought to the clinic in a carrier or on harness and leash, but the clinic and staff must be prepared in the event of an escape. The room should be secured: most counter-top items removed, doors securely fastened, capture net(s), primate gloves and towels available, squeeze cage ready, and sedative dose drawn. Only personnel familiar with the handling of nonhuman primates should be present. Most escapes take place during the transfer of the monkey from the carrier to the squeeze cage,

PRIMATES

131

particularly if a kennel-type carrier with swing-door is used. The swingdoor kennel-type carrier does not fit directly against the cage, but leaves an area between the carrier and the cage, through which a monkey can escape. To minimize this avenue of escape, towels, gloves, and nets can be placed below and around this space to present a visual barrier to the monkey. Monkeys tend to move in vertical planes, so a glove below and netting above are good deterrents to escape in those directions. An alternative carrier to the kennel-type is a monkey-transfer box, available commercially,* which has a guillotine-type door (vertical slide opening) facilitating cage transfer. The practitioner may wish to have several sizes available that can be loaned to owners to transport animals to the clinic. The guillotine-type style minimizes space between the transfer carrier and the squeeze cage by fitting directly against the cage. It usually takes two to three people to properly transfer a monkey and guard against escapes: one or two to man the nets and hold barriers around the carrier I cage area; and one to hold the carrier. A treat placed in the waiting squeeze cage will facilitate the transfer. Occasionally a monkey will refuse to leave the transfer carrier, and with the kennel-type carrier, the animal may hold firmly onto the air-vents and metal bars. Tapping the back or bottom of the carrier may startle the animal into bolting into the waiting cage; however, repeated tapping may further frighten it. Dimming the lights in the room will help to calm the animal, and it is helpful to wait a few minutes before trying again. Turning the carrier on end while positioning a primate net over the opening may work with smaller animals; however, care must be taken to avoid letting them climb back up into the carrier. With some animals, it may be necessary to remove them from the carriers physically; however, the potential of being bitten, even through primate gloves, makes this method risky for the handler. If the monkey is wearing a collar or harness, it may be possible to retrieve it with a catch-pole, which can be clipped onto the collar or harness. If the animal has any way of holding onto the interior of the kennel, it may still be difficult to get the monkey out of the carrier, and another handler may need to detach the animal from the kennel while the primary handler has the animal secured by the collar or harness by the pole. An advantage of using a monkeytransfer box is that it is difficult for the monkey to get finger or toe-holds in this type of container. The clinical staff should wear suitable protective clothing, i.e., longsleeved laboratory coats, full shoes (not sandals), procedure/ surgical gloves, facial protection such as safety glasses/mask or facial shield, such as those worn by dentists, during handling of the animal and handling of any biological samples taken from the animal. Once restrained, the animal is weighed and basic physiologic parameters are taken, including rectal temperature and heart and respiratory

*Primate Products, 1755 E. Bayshore, Redwood City, CA, 94062; K.L.A.S.S., 4960 Almaden Expressway, Suite 233, San Jose, CA. 95118

132

JOHNSON-DELANEY

rates. Table 7 lists physiologic 'parameters of common species. A thorough physical examination should include careful chest aucultation and dental examination. Diagnostic testing should in~lude hematology and clinical chemistries, appropriate viral serology (Table 8), fecal parasite screen, and culture for Salmonella and Shigella. Normal blood values for some of the most common species are listed in Tables 9 and 10. As with other nondomesticated species, the animal's baseline-normal values should be established with annual blood collection and testing. Blood samples can be drawn easily from femoral, cephalic, or saphenous veins in most species. In primates, the saphenous vein is found on the caudal aspect of the tibial region. PREVENTIVE HEALTH CARE

Tuberculin skin testing should be done routinely on all nonhuman primates. Ideally Old World primates should be tested quarterly or at least semi-annually, particularly if they are in contact with humans whose tuberculosis status is not checked at least annually. N ew World monkeys, although thought to be more resistant to tuberculosis, should be tested at least annually. Newly acquired primates should be quaranTable 7. PHYSIOLOGIC PARAMETERS OF SELECTED NONHUMAN PRIMATES Rectal Temperature Species

(•C)

Respiratory Rate

Heart Rate

Ateles sp. (Spider monkey) Callithrix jaccus (Common marmoset) Cebus sp. (Capuchins) Cercopithecus aethiops (African green monkey) Galago crassicaudatus (Greater bushbaby) Lagothrix sp. (Wolly monkey) Lemursp. (Lemurs) Macaca fascicu/aris (Java/Cynomolgus macaque) Macaca fuscata (Japanese/Snow macaque) Macaca mulatta (Rhesus macaque) Pan troglodytes (Chimpanzee) Papiosp. (Baboon) Saguinus mystax (Moustached tamarin) Saimiri sciureus (Squirrel monkey)

36.0-39.4 35.4-39.7

18-30 20-50

160-210 240-350

17,73 73

37.0-38.5 36.8-39.6

30-50

165-225

73 13,84

162-:~*!

References

"--~

36.7-38.7 36.0-39.0

15-30

37.9-38.1 36.0-38.0

32-44

95-127

15, 32,35, 53

80-180

73

168-210

15, 70

107-215

26

175-253

48 73

36.0-40.0

10-25

150-333

35.5- 37.8

35-60

80- 150

11' 73

36.0-39.0

29

80-200

73

39.3- 40.1 33.5-38.8

15 20-50

225-350

73

PRIMATES

133

Table 8. VIRAL SEROLOGY PANELS AND LABORATORIES Microbiologic Associates, Inc. Life Sciences Center 9900 Blackwell Ad Rockville MD 20850 (301) 738-1000 FAX: (301) 738-1036 Simian Virus Diagnostic Lab Panels Macaque Antibody Screen IFA: SIV, SRV-1, SRV-2, CMV, B-virus, measles African Species Antibody Screen IFA: B-virus, SA8, SIV, CMV, measles Ape Antibody Screen IFA: CMV, HSV-1, V-Z. EBV, RSV Individual antigen testing available. Filovirus and other tests other than SRV isolations: 0.51.0 mL of serum or plasma should be sent undiluted and heat inactivated (56°C 30 minutes). Ship at room temperature (20-25°C) by overnight courier or on dry ice for longer time of shipment. Samples for retroviral isolation need special preparations-call ahead. Virus Reference Laboratory S.S. Kalter, PhD Virus Reference Laboratory Suite 205, 7540 Louis Pasteur San Antonio, TX 78229 (210) 614-7530 FAX: 614-7355

Julia Hilliard, PhD B-virus testing, Human/monkey bite, samples from both Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research PO Box 28147 San Antonio, TX 78254 (21 0) 673-3269

Colony Survey Panels Panel A (Recommended for macaques and Asian species): B Virus, HSV-1, SIV, SRV, measles Panel B (Recommended for African species): SAS, HSV-1, SIV, CMV, measles Panel C: (New World Species): H. tamarinus, H. saimiri, measles CMV-Sq Monkey Panel D (Recommended for apes): Para 1, 2, 3, Influenza A&B, RSV, measles Panel E: (Herpesvirus panel Ape): HSV-1 , HSV-2, EBV, varicella-zoster human, SAS, CMV human Panel E: (Herpesvirus panel African): HSV-1, HSV-2, EBV, varicella-zoster simian, SAS, CMV (SA6) Panel E: (Herpesvirus panel Asian): HSV-1, HSV-2, EBV, varicella-zoster simian, B. Virus, CMV rhesus Panel F (Retrovirus panel): SIV, SRV-1 , SRV-2, SRV-3, SRV-4, SRV-5, STLV-1 Panel G: (Choose any 5 antigens) Panel H (SRV panel): SRV-1, SRV-2, SRV-3, SRV-4, SRV-5 Panel I (SIV panel): SIV total, SIV mac, SIV sm, SIV afg Panel D & E are recommended for apes Individual antigen tests are available. 1-2 mL serum sent rapid air service. Need not be frozen or sent on ice. Alternate method is to send filter strips (supplied in mailer) saturated with blood. Special requirements for Filovirus testing. Call ahead. Human studies: (Medicare approved) of providing a similar diagnostic service on humans. Viral Isolationindicate suspect agent Panels: run $30 to 40 at both companies at press time

tined for 90 days and tested biweekly before introduction into the home or facility. Animals should have at least six negative tests before they are released from quarantine. Alternating eyelid sites or the abdominal site just off the umbilicus are the standardized sites for testing. OT (mammalian tuberculin, Jen Sal) at 0.1 mL intradermally via a 25- to 27-ga tuberculin needle/syringe is used . The test should be read at 24, 48, and

.....

Table 9. HEMATOLOGIC VALUES FOR REPRESENTATIVE PRIMATES

V>

"" Species Aotus trivirgatus. (Owl monkey) Ateles sp (Spider monkey) Callithrix jacchus (Common marmoset) Cebus capucinus (White-faced capuchin) Cercopithecus aethiops (African green monkey) Galago crassicaudatus (Greater bushbaby) Galago senega/ensis (Lesser bushbaby) Hylobates tar (White-handed gibbon) Lagothrix lagotricha (Woolly monkey) Lemurcatta (Ring-tailed lemur) Lemur fulvus (Brown lemur) Macaca fascicu/aris (Java/Cynomolgus macaque) Macaca fuscata (Japanese/Snow macaque) Macaca mu/atta (Rhesus macaque) Pan troglody tes (Chimpanzee) Papio sp (Baboon) Saguinus oedipus (Cotton-top tamarin) Saimiri sciureus (Squirrel monkey)

Erythrocyte Count ( x 10 6 ~J.L)

3.5-7.7

Hemoglobin (g/dl)

11.9-16

Packed Cell Volume(%)

Leukocyte Count {X10 3 f.ll)

Neutrophils {%)

Lymphocytes {%)

Monocytes (%)

Eosinophils {%)

31-56

12 .7

55.4

35.5

1-8

9

< 0.1

397

31 .44,57,63

Basophils Platelets (%) ( X 10 3 f.ll) References

5.5

16

35-40

10-1 2

52

40

3

5

Q-1

239-343

28,36,63

6.9

15.1-15.5

45-48

7-12

28-55

43-67

0.4-2.1

0.5-0.6

0.3-1 .3

390-490

44,63

6

14-17

45-53

5-24

55

41

1.8

1.6

<1

108-187

28 ,63

4.6

11.9

39

5-14.9

20-70

19-78

0-8

Q-5

0- 2

308

43,57

4.9-13.9

9.0-21 .7

36-63

10-2 1.4

10-36

55-85

2

0-3

1

6.6- 7.3

15.9- 17.2

46-52

8.4- 9.0

19.0

78.0

2.0- 3.0

1.0-2.0

< 1.0

359-684

22

5.7-6.6

13.9

45

7.8-10.9

46-68

3

Q-2

0.5

158-264

14,36,38

5

12.7

38

11-14

63

32

3

2

0-1

-

36

15.6-20.2

6.2-9.8

48-53

6.2-16.9

14-40

49-81

4

0-4

<1

-

5,23

7.1-11 .9

39-5 1

5-17

11-41

45- 83

3

1-11

<1

-

5,23.44

12.8

39

45

52

1

1.9

0.1

115-435

13-20.3 5.1 4 .6 4.5-6.0 5.03-6.05

13 12.7,. x.

;'\

11.1

41

6.6- 24.8

39-43

11.5-12.4

20-56

7.4-1 7.6

12.5-14.5 39.7- 44.1

27-48.5

40.1- 63.3 35.1-57. 1

'

-

5,14,23.44

57,81 ... 23

3.0-6.2

<1

<1

140-470

40-76

0-2

1-3

0-1

130-144

36.44

37.4-66.6

29-57

Q-2.3

0-5.8

0-.7

216-482

31 .44

4.5-4.8

13

44.7

14.1

60.5

36

1.5

1.5

0.4

406

4,14,31

6.6

15.5

45

12.6-1 4 .4

43-64

34-49

2- 5

1-1.2

0.1

331-650

9,57,63

43-56

5.1- 10.9

36-66

27- 55

0-6

Q-11

<1

11 2

4,5,23,36.44

7. 1-10.9

12.9-1 7

Table 10. CLINICAL CHEMISTRY REFERENCE VALUES FOR REPRESENTATIVE PRIMATES

Species

""'

VJ t.11

Aotus trivirgatus (Owl monkey) Ate/essp (Spider monkey) Callithrix jacchus (Common marmoset) Cebusapella (Tuffted capuchin) Cebus capucinus (White-faced capuchin) Cercopithecus aethiops (African green monkey) Galago crassicaudatus (Greater bushbaby) Lagothrix sp (Woolly monkey) Lemurcatta (Ring-tailed lemur) Macaca fascicu/aris (Java/Cynomolgus macaque) Macaca fuscata (Japanese/Snow macaque) Macaca mulatta (Rhesus macaque) Pan troglodytes (Chimpanzee) Papiosp (Baboon) Presbytis entellus (Sacred langur) Saguinus oedipus (Cotton-top tamarin) Saimiri sciureus (Squirrel monkey)

Total Protein (g/dl)

Glucose (mg/dl)

BUN (mg/dl)

Calcium (mg/dl)

Phosphorus (mg/dl)

AST (SGOT)(IU)

ALT (SGPT) (IU)

Cholesterol (mg/dl)

Bilirubin (mg/dl)

LDH (IU/ml)

References

5.8- 8.2

73-153

11-17

10

1.8-9.9

40--108

11-33

48-192

0.27

111-203

14,44,63,73,74

10.2

82.3

25.9

12.8

7

126--150

27

9.5-10.2

7.33--7.73 75.6--81.6 23.2~28 . 2

7.4-7.8

1.6-10.4

-

160-182 10.35-14.55

-

7.5-8.7

44.3--93.5

24-44

10

7

6.8-8.4

80-128

15-27

9.3--10.9

3.8-6.5

15-35

6.6-7.8

57-195

15-39

10.5

2.6-6.9

24.7

7.6-10

71-131

9-45

10-14

18.1

10-12.3

4.3-7.6

77-99

23

8.8-12.8

109-113

6.4-76.2

6.1-7.1

53-87

14.2-19.6

6.7-8.1

62-94

6- 7

7.8

-

9.5-10.2

53-248

9.5-12.3 84.1-94.3

-

799

50,92

0.12-0.14

89-283

20,67

-

7-23

113-169

0.14-0.4

629

24,44

18.9

130

0.2-0.3

621-713

14,23,35,83

-

0.3-0.7

-

-

41,49

-

63

180-210

14,23,62,82

0.25

283

2,14

0.1-0.3

610--1010

23,46,47,79

94-162

0.10-0.66

201--665

42,44,64,83

1.4-10.0

161-257

0.06-0.28

22-28

12-20

60-134

0.3-0.4

4-7

9-25

7-15

143-203

0.13-0.43

10

3-6

49-59

7-14

69

0.14-0.26

8.3-9.7

3.3-7.7

59-99

127-207

0.1-0.53

54.6

3-8.9

24-38

11

121

2.9-4.9

23-52

15-31

135-151

8.1-11.3

4-6

20--34

145-171

9.0--19.0

8.0--10.0

3.6-6.0

4.0-13.4

80-95

8-14

8-10

5.5-8.5

7-8.4

87-127

20--30

10-13

6.2-8.6

125-189

6-12

6.9-8.1

52-108

23--39

8--8.2

0.5-0.6

170-254

20.3

8.2

17

8.8-11

56-118

244-1100

44 19,21,44 44

271-490

14,44 42,44,83

136

JOHNSON-DELANEY

.. 72 hours. A positive reaction is any erythema and/ or edema persisting for 48 hours or longer. A suspicious test should be repeated at 7 days in the opposite eyelic! or abdominal site. If an animal clearly tests positive, humans who have been in contact with the animal should be tested immediately and public health officials consulted. A chest radiograph of the animal is recommended to assess whether the test is a true positive; however, only rarely are pulmonary tubercular lesions calcified and radiographically visible in nonhuman primates. More indicative of tuberculosis are palpable femoral lymph nodes with intraabdominallymphadenopathy and/ or splenomegaly. Anergic animals will produce a negative response after the intradermal test although they may be in either an advanced state of the disease or acutely infected with an extremely pathogenic strain. Recently immunized animals, those receiving corticosteroid or other immunosuppressant therapy, or those infected with measles or any debilitating illness also may test negative. Anergic animals may show a slight, transient positive reaction at the intradermal site within 2 to 8 hours after injection. Animals with inconclusive responses at the initial test site should be closely watched at the retest for the transient reaction. Treatment of nonhuman primates that test positive is not usually recommended owing to the public health danger and potential for resistance to medications. Treatment may also diminish the response to tuberculin testing without completely curing the disease. Thus, tuberculin-positive animals should be euthanatized. However, with endangered or extremely valuable animals, treatment can be initiated using combinations of antibiotics such as isoniazid and rifampin, following human treatment protocols.I, 7, 31, 32, 36, s9, 76, 86, 90 Vaccinations should be given, if warranted, for tetanus, measles, polio, and so forth. Use of vaccines in the nonhuman primate depends on the age and species of the animal and the amount of exposure to human sources of disease. Vaccine use should be discussed thoroughly with the owner, as it constitutes "extralabel" usagEi{;and may not be appropriate for the situation. From the standpoirtt of the animal, it is probably more important that immunizations and tuberculin testing be current in the humans it is exposed to. Current recommendations for vaccination of nonhuman primates are listed in Tables 11 and 12.45 Dental examination and prophylaxis should be done as for any small animal. Endodontic procedures can be performed as needed. Blunting of the canine teeth of males in many species is recommended, as these can inflict a great deal of damage on humans or other monkeys. 12 • 36• 73• 87 One of the major reasons a nonhuman primate is unsuitable as a pet is that there is virtually no way to ensure that the animal will not bite or attempt to bite, inflicting injury on its owner(s). However, the practice of pulling all of the teeth to prevent injury from monkey bites is not recommended. Care must be taken during oral examination and dental procedures to protect the clinical staff from potential zoonotics, most notably Herpes B virus, particularly in macaques, if oral ulcers are detected. Herpes B virus is one of the most potentially hazardous zoonotic diseases humans are exposed to from contact with nonhuman primates (Table 13}. Animals with Herpes B lesions can transmit the disease and should be euthanatized?· 32

Table 11. VACCINATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NONHUMAN PRIMATES Disease Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus Poliomyelitis Measles Mumps Rubella Pneumococcus Hemophilus Rabies Hepatitis 8

,... <:.>

'I

Risk Susceptibility/Exposure very low very low low to moderate moderate to high5 moderate low low moderate moderate moderate moderate

low low moderate low low to moderate• low low variable variable variable variable

Severity

Vaccine Efficacy'

Adverse Reactions

unknown2 unknown2 • 3 can be fatal inapparent to fatal inapparent to fatal inapparent' inapparent>· • mild to fatal mild to fatal fatal inapparent to fatal

unknown unknown high• high high unknown unknown variable" unknown high high

numerous (to OPT) numerous (to OPT) numerous (to OPT) none reported none reported none reported none reported few few few few

Vaccination Recommendations no no yes-all species13 yes-great apes14 yes-all species15 no no questionable limited' 0 limited"· 16 no12

1. Efficacy is used here to denote the ability of the vaccine to induce a "protective" titer in the host. The titer may not be effective in preventing disease, but few challenge studies are available to effectively assess the efficacy. 2. No natural infections are reported. 3. One experimental fatal case produced in a baboon. 4. High titers are not necessarily protective. 5. Great apes are very susceptible. Other species can be experimentally infected. 6. Can be high during epidemics. 7. One questionable case reported. 8. Neonatal rubella syndrome is difficult to induce experimentally. 9. Ineffective in chimpanzees. Protective titers are short-lived in other species. 10. Vaccination recommended only in susceptible species with a previous history of disease. A conjugated vaccine should be used if vaccination is contemplated. 11. Vaccination recommended only in areas of enzootic rabies. 12. Vaccination prevents disease but does not prevent viral shedding and interferes with diagnostic serology. 13. Use aluminum salt absorbed toxoid vaccine on a human vaccination schedule. 14. Use oral trivalent modified live vaccine on a human vaccination schedule. 15. Monovalent modified live vaccine on a human vaccination schedule. 16. Human diploid or lmrab (Pitman-Moore, Inc. Washington Crossing, NJ) From Loomis MR: Update of vaccination recommendations for nonhuman primates. In Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, South Padre Island, TX, 1990, pp 257- 259; with permission.

138

JOHNSON-DELANEY

'· Table 12. RECOMMENDED VACCINATION SCHEDULE BASED ON THE HUMAN SCHEDULE lj, Age

Type of Vaccine

2 months 4 months 6 months 15 months 18 months 4-6 years 10-12 years 14-16 years every 10 years

Tetanus,* Trivalent oral Poliovirust§ Tetanus,* Trivalent oral Poliovirust§ Tetanus* Measles* Tetanus,* Trivalent oral Poliovirus,t§ Haemophilus type b (if given):j: Tetanus,* Trivalent oral Poliovirust§ Measles* Tetanus,* Trivalent oral Poliovirust§ Tetanus*

*All species; tGreat apes only; :j:not generally recommended; §or follow current human pediatric Poliovirus product/route recommendations. From Loomis MR: Update of vaccination recommendations for nonhuman primates. In Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, South Padre Island, TX, 1990, pp 257-259; with permission.

Behavioral problems are common in pet primates as a result of inadequate husbandry, lack of adequate social contacts, onset of puberty, or frustrations due to reproductive needs. Castration or ovariohysterectomy may eliminate some of the reproductive-associated behavior problems, but these procedures seldom eliminate all aggressive or antagonistic behaviors, unlike the response in domesticated species. Unpredictable behaviors towards the owner(s), particularly aggressive attacks, may increase as the animal grows older. Some of the most common undesirable behaviors are listed in Table 14.5• 31 • 89 Unfortunately, it is not possible to provide all variables necessary to stop aggressive or selfabusive behaviors; frequently, the only solution is to find an alternative home for the animal. Placement is often difficult, because the number of human-socialized, unmanageable and unsuitable pet~..,r#r exceeds space in zoos, sanctuaries, or breeding colonies. A neutered animal is even harder to place, as it cannot contribute to a colony or zoo. Sources of information and resource contacts available to help with all aspects of nonhuman primate husbandry and medicine are listed in Table 15. Table 13. HERPES B Macaque harmless short duration mild clinical signs vesicular lesion in oral cavity (canker sores, oral ulcer) nonresponsive mild conjunctivitis light nasal discharge mild pneumonia

Human high mortality if infection occurs acute onset neurotropic disease (high fever, encephalitis, coma, respiratory arrest, death) available antiviral agents can control the course of the disease early detection increases chance for successful treatment low frequency for transmission; however, of course, lower still if no exposure

The virus may be shed by the macaque with or without clinical signs. The virus is shed intermittently. All adult macaques should be considered infected.

PRIMATES

139

Table 14. BEHAVIORS CONSIDERED ABNORMAL Behavior

Type Locomotor Postural Self-directed Cage-directed

Circling, pacing, bouncing, rocking, spinning, somersaulting Saluting, self-clasping, huddling (awake-exhibiting depression) Self-abusive, auto-erotic, sucking, hair-plucking (excessive grooming), copraphagia, psychologic urine drinking Excessive cage manipulation, cage biting, wall slamming

Monkey owners and clinical staff should be trained in first-aid procedures should a bite or scratch occur. A monkey bite aid kit should be present in the clinic as well as in the owner's home (Table 16). Local hospitals or emergency facilities may need instruction in the correct handling of a bite or scratch from a monkey. Several copies of the protocol should be kept in the first-aid kit, and the victim should take a copy to the emergency room. No bite or scratch from a monkey should be overlooked or treated as inconsequential-the risk of infection from such an injury is quite high.8• 25 Pet owners who require shipment or transport of their animal should check with the area USDA veterinarian, the agriculture department of the state or country of destination, and, if transportation is by air, the airlines. If shipment by air is necessary, the owner should contact a commercial animal shipper that has experience with nonhuman primates and has a good reputation with the air carriers. Many air carriers will not handle nonhuman primates because of zoonotic disease potential and regulatory requirements. Resources for information and shipment of nonhuman primates are listed in Table 17. COMMON CLINICAL PROBLEMS OF PET NONHUMAN PRIMATES

Gastrointestinal Diseases

The most common presenting problem seen by the author in nonhuman primates is gastroenteritis, usually manifested as diarrhea. A variety of etiologies are possible, including but not limited to bacteria (such as Salmonella sp, Shigella sp, Campylobacter sp), improper diet (overindulgence in treat foods), ingestion of non-food items such as pieces of toys or furnishings, or intestinal parasites such as Strongyloides, Oesophagostomum, pinworms (Enterobius sp), Entamoeba sp, and Balantidium sp. Diagnosis is aided by fecal culture and sensitivity testing and fecal examination by flotation and direct smear. Supportive care includes parenteral fluids, antidiarrheal medications such as Pepto-Bismol (Proctor & Gamble), and bland or liquid diets as needed. Strict attention must be paid to the zoonotic potential of the etiologic agent, and care must be taken in handling, cleaning, and medicating the animal. The veterinarian should make gloves, masks, and, possibly, disposable protective clothing

'"""" 0

Table 15. RESOURCES FOR THE PRACTITIONER INTERNATIONAL DIRECTORY OF PRIMATOLOGY 1992 available from Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center contact: Larry Jacobsen, IDP Coordinator WRPRC University of Wisconsin 1220 Capitol Court Madison, Wl53715-1299, USA (608) 263-3512, FAX: (608) 263-4031, E-mail: [email protected] ASSOCIATION OF PRIMATE VETERINARIANS contact: Sec. Dan Dalgard, DVM 9200 Leesburg Pike Vienna, VA 22151 (703) 893-5400, FAX: (703) 759-6847 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARIANS contact: Dr. Wilbur Amand, Exec. Director 34th St & Girard Ave Philadelphia, PA, 19104 .· ·\'«·· (215) 387-9094 '":, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO KEEPERS, INC. 635 S. W. Gage Boulevard Topeka, KS 66606 ISIS (International Species Inventory System) 12101 Johnny Cake Ridge Ad Apple Valley, MN 55124 (612) 431-9301, FAX: (612) 432-2757

TRAFFIC (USA)/World Wildlife 1250 24th St NW Washington, DC, 20037 (202) 293-4800 SIMIAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2625 Watson Ad St Louis, MO 63109 PRIMATE INFORMATION CENTER Bibliographic Reference Service Washington Regional Primate Research Center, SJ-50 University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195 (206) 543-4376, FAX: (206) 685-0305 PRIMATE SUPPLY INFORMATION CLEARINGHOUSE Animai!Tissue/Equipment matching referral service contact: PSIC Coordinator Washington Regional Primate Research Center, SJ-50 University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195 (206) 543-5178, FAX: (206) 685-0305, E-mail: [email protected]

··~·

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO PARKS AND AQUARIA Oglebay Park Wheeling, WV, 26003- 1698 (304) 242-2160, FAX: (304) 242-2283

DUMOND CONSERVANCY FOR PRIMATES & TROPICAL FORESTS contact: Sian Evans 14805 SW 216 St Miami, FL 98373 (305) 238-9981 INTERNATIONAL PRIMATE PROTECTION LEAGUE contact: Shirley McGreal PO Drawer 766 Summerville, SC 29484 (803) 871-2280, FAX: (803) 871-7988 ANIMAL WELFARE INFORMATION CENTER National Agricultural Library., Am 304 10301 Baltimore Blvd Beltsville, MD 20705 (301) 504-6212 email awic @ nalosdagor

Regional Primate Centers California Primate Research Center, University of California at Davis, Davis, Ca, 95616, (916) 752-0420, FAX: (916) 752-2880 New England Regional Primate Research Center, One Pine Hill Dr, PO Box 9102, Southborough, MA, 01772-9102, (508) 624-8002, FAX: (508) 460-1209. Oregon Regional Primate Research Center, 505 NW 185th Ave, Beaverton, OR, 97006, (503) 645-1141 , FAX: (503) 690-5532 Tulane Regional Primate Research Center, 18703 Three Rivers Ad, Covington, LA, 70433, (504) 892-2040, FAX: (504) 893-1352 Washington Regional Primate Research Center, Health Sciences 1-421 , SJ-50, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, (206) 543-1430, FAX: (206) 685-0305 Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center, 1223 Capitol Ct, Madison, WI, 53715-1299, (608) 263-3500, FAX: (608) 263-4031 Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, (404) 727-7707, FAX: (404) 727-0623 Additional Primate Centers: Duke University Primate Center (Prosimian colony) 3705 Erwin Road Durham, NC 27705 (919) 489-3364 FAX: (919) 490-6718 Marmoset Research Center (Marmosets and Tamarins) Oak Ridge Associated Center PO Box 117 Oak Ridge, TN 37831-0117 (615) 576-4103

...... ~ ......

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Table 16. MONKEY BITELSCRATCH FIRST AID Because of the close phylogenie relationship between nonhuman primates (NHP) and humans, disease agents ubiquitous to nonhuman primates may cause severe or even fatal illness in humans. Many fairly common ailments affect both and can be transmitted between the humans and monkeys in a household. There are also potential problems with disease transmission to other pets in the household. Of constant concern must be bite wounds or scratches inflicted by the monkey, not only because of the immediate trauma of the bite or scratch itself, but also because of the possibility of pathogen transmission. The owner or handler should seek immediate advice from their physician should a bite or scratch occur. Routes of Exposure bite wounds cuts, abrasions from contaminated items; e.g., cage, toys aerosol contact with mucous membranes ingestion Protection, particularly during cage cleaning is recommended. Disposable respirator (mask), safety glasses or full face shield. Disposable waterproof shoe covers or boots (dispose at exit), gloves. Monkey Bite/Scratch/Spit First Aid Kit Bites, Scratches Dakin's Solution-a buffered 10% bleach solution Hibiclens-antiseptic skin cleanser Dacriose-sterile ophthalmic irrigating solution Iodophor surgical scrub sponge/brush (Betadyne) Disposable latex gloves-at least one pair/person in household. Sterile packet of gauze and irrigation syringe Sterile bowl Safety glasses/face shield Phone number(s) for emergency room/hospital; Map to hospital. Veterinarian's name, phone number. Step-by-step printed instructions. (should be several copies-take one. with you to ;{:..,. Emergency) Scub wound vigorously with Hibiclens, then povidone-iodine solution~· Saturate gauze sponges with Dakin's solution using gloved hands (gauze in bowl, pour in Dakin's) Vigorously scrub and soak wound for a full 15 minutes. (note: Dakin's may cause minor skin irritation) Irrigate deep wounds with Dakin's (syringe) Loosely cover wound with dry gauze Proceed to Emergency Room Eye Splashes (Spit, urine, etc.) Irrigate contaminated eye with clear water or Dacriose for full15 minutes. Go to Hospital! Also inform the attending physician of the animal (species), provide a copy of this First Aid Kit contents and Instructions, and provide her/him with your veterinarian's name/number. Your veterinarian, physician, and public health officer will confer: your monkey may need to be tested, depending on the status of your pet's known health conditions, vaccination status, serologic status. Data from references 8, 25.

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Table 17. NONHUMAN PRIMATE TRANSPORTATION RESOURCES Kathleen Travers, Director Exotic Animals and Animal Transportation American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 424 East 92nd Street New York, NY 10128 (212) 876-7700 Ext. 4402 FAX: (212) 348-3031 Spencer Ellis, President. International and domestic travel arrangements including documentation. Kritter Krates 5030 Glendower Spring, TX 77373 (713) 350-2259 International Air Transport Association. Publication: lATA Live Animal Regulations 2000 Peel St Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2R4 CANADA (514) 844-6311 FAX: (514) 844-3788 Animal Transportation Association (AATA) US Business Office 5521 Greenville Ave, Suite 104-310 Dallas, TX (903) 769-2207 FAX: (903) 769-2867

available to the owner during the home care of the animal, as the owner may not be able to acquire these supplies elsewhere. Salmonella sp and Shigella sp frequently present with bloody diarrhea of acute onset. Antibiotic therapy should be based on definitive culture and sensitivity. However, unconfirmed cases of either Salmonella or Shigella seem to respond well to parenteral trimethoprim-sulfadiazine or gentamicin at dosages listed in Table 18. Intestinal parasites may not be the primary cause of the gastroenteritis but may contribute to the clinical picture. Thiabendazole treatment is usually effective against Strongyloides sp and Oesophagostomum sp; ivermectin can be used for elimination of a wide variety of nematodes. Pinworms also can be effectively treated with piperazine. Trichuris sp require 2-day treatments with either dichlorvos or mebendazole. 32• 36• 59 Protozoan parasites may be more difficult to eliminate and are more frequently responsible for diarrheas than are nematode parasites. Antiprotozoal medications include metronidazole (Flagyl, Searle, Skokie, IL) and iodoquinol.l.32• 91 Bloat is not uncommon in monkeys that are allowed to overeat after a long period of fasting or that eat certain foods such as raw corn on the cob. Treatment consists of passing a stomach tube to relieve the gas and supportive care including fluids and analgesics as needed. Recurrence may be prevented by providing small, frequent feedings rather than one large daily meal and limiting access to fresh fruits and vegetables.36 Dental disease is common in pet monkeys. Few owners have taught their animals to brush their teeth or allow the owner to brush them as is commonly done with dogs and cats. If the animal has been trained to allow for oral hygiene, either pet malt flavored toothpastes (C.E.T. EnText continued on page 148

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Table 18. NONHUMAN PRIMATE FORMULARY* Antimicrobials Drug

Manufacturer

Amikacin (Amiglyde-V) Amoxicillin

Bristol

Amphotericin B (Fungizone) Ampicillin (polyflex)

Squibb

Cefazolin sodium (Ancel) Cefotaxime (Ciaforan) Ceftazidime (Fortaz) Ceftizoxime sodium (Cefizox) Ceftriaxone Cephaloridine Chloramphenicol Ciprofloxacin [250 mg tablets] Doxycycline monohydrate susp Enrofloxacin (Baytril)

88 1

36

Smith Kline & French

20 mg/kg BW PO, IM, IV tid 50-100 mg/kg bid IM 7-10 days 25 mg/kg bid 7-10 days IM, IV

Hoechst Glaxo Pharmc'ls Smith Kline & French

100--200 mg/kg IM tid-qid 50 mg/kg IM tid 75-100 mg/kg IM bid 7 days

58 18 60

Rocephin-Roche Lilly Parke-Davis

50-100 mg/kg IM q 12-24 hrs 11 mg/kg BW IM bid 50-100 mg/kg BW IV, subcut., PO tid 16-20 mg/kg q 12 hrs PO (crush, mix with sterile water) 5 mg/kg PO divided bid day 1; 2.5 mg/kg following days 3-4 mg/kg PO q 12 hrs (Tabs 5.7 mg; 22.7 mg; parenteral22.7 mg/ml) For shigella Rx: 5 mg/kg PO or IM q 24 h 5 days 75 mglkg bid PO 10 days 5 mg/kg IM bid 7-14 days 5- 10 mglkg BW PO 5 mg/kg qid 7 days PO mix with applesauce 2-4 mglkg BW PO bid for 1-2 days then SID 2-3 mg/kg bid or 1-2 miJikg IM, IV tid 5-7 day1f' !{;""' -;:~ 5 mg/kg IM or SC sid 20 mglkg BW PO sid or 200 mglkg BW PO once every 10 days 5 mg/kg BW PO in divided doses chimps: 15-25 mg/kg BW PO bid with rifampin-10 mg/kg sid PO 7.5 mg/kg BW IM bid 5- 10 mg/kg BW IM bid 50 mg/kg IM bid 7 days

58 31 36

Bristol Myers

Miles Pfizer

Mobray

Furazolidone [liquid suspension]

Norwich-Eaton

Gentamicin sulfate

Tech-America Elkins-Sinn, Inc

Schering

Isoniazid

Kanamycin (Kantrim) Lincomycin (Lincocin) Methicillin sodium (Staphcillin) Minocycline (Minocin) Neomycin (see also Biosol) Nitrofurantoin Nystatin

Bristol Upjohn Bristol Myers Led erie

Penicillin, benzathine Penicillin, procaine Piperacillin sodium (Piperacil) Rifampin (Rifadin) (Rimactane)

Reference

2.3 mg/kg IM sid 11 mg/kg IM or subcut. sid 11 mg/kg PO bid 0.25-1 mg/kg BW IV sid

Ery1hromycin

Griseofulvin (Fulvicin)

Dosage

Lederle Merrell Dow Ciba

36

60 60

39 91 39 43a

60 1 31 60 36 60 1 36

36 31 78 36 85 60

15 mglkg PO q 12 h 7 days 10-15 mg/kg BW PO

37 31

2-4 mglkg BW IM, IV tid 200,000 units PO qid cont'd 48 hrs after clin recovery 40,000 u/kg BW IM every 3 days 20,000 u/kg BW IM bid 100--150 mg/kg bid or 80--1 00 mg/kg tid IM, IV 7-10 days 20 mg/kg sid PO

36 1 36 36 60 78

145

PRIMATES

Table 18. NONHUMAN PRIMATE FORMULARY* (Continued) Antimicrobials Drug Sulfasalazine Sulfisoxazole Tetracycline (Panmycin)

Manufacturer

Dosage

Upjohn

(Achromycin) Lederle Trimethoprim sulfadiazine (Tribrissen) Trimeth Coopers 24% (DiTrim-Syntex Animal Health) -sulfamethoxazole (SMZ-TMP-Phoenix Pharm , Inc)

Anthelminthics and Antiprotozoals Albendazole Bunamidine Coopers (Scolaban) Chloroquine phosphate

Dichlorvos (Atgard-V) (Task tabs)

Fermenta ; Squibb

Diethylcarbamazine

Diiodohydroxyquin

Dithiazanine iodine

Fenbendazole (Panacur)

Hoeschst-Roussel Agri-Vet Co

ldoquinol lvermectin (lvomec)

MSD Agvet

Levamisole hydrochloride (Levasole) Mebendazole (Telmintic P/M)

Pitman-Moore Pitman-Moore

Metronidazole (Fiagyl)

Searle

Niclosamide (Yomesan) (Nicloside)

Chemagro Miles

•

Reference

30 mg/kg PO bid 150 mg/kg BW PO sid

33 36

20-25 mg/kg BW PO bid-tid 7-10 days 25 mg/kg bid IM , IV 1/2-1 tablet PO bid

36,60 60 36

1 mU9 kg BW subcut. sid (based on dog dosage) 25 mg/kg sid IM , sa p13diatric human 15 mg/kg PO bid 50 mg/kg PO sid

18 33

25 mg/kg bid PO x 5 days 25 mg/kg BW PO

91 85

10 mg/kg PO , IM followed by 5 mg/kg 6 hrs later then 5 mg/kg/day 2 days and Primaquine 0.3 mg/kg/day 14 days 10-15 mg/kg BW PO for 2-3 days 0.4 mg/kg PO 4 days 6-20 mg/kg PO daily X 6-15 days 20-40 mg/kg PO 7-21 days 20 mg/kg BW PO bid for 3 wks or 30 mg/kg BW PO for 10 days chimps: 630 mg/animal PO tid plus oxytetracycline 250 mg/animal PO tid 10-20 mg/kg BW PO sid for 3-10 days or 100 mg active ingredients/5.5-9 kg) with maple syrup bid for 2 wks. 50 mg/kg PO sid 3-14 days 20 mg/kg PO 14 days (Strongyloides) ; 25 mg/kg PO 2 X in 7 days (Ancylostoma) 650 mg PO daily 10-20 days 200 meg/kg (1 % sol = 0.02 mUkg) PO, IM, Sa 5 mg/kg BW PO , repeat 3 wks

91

10 mg/kg 3-5 mg/kg BW PO 15 mg/kg/day PO 3 days (Strongyloides) 40 mg/kg PO 7 days (Strongyloides) 22 mg/kg/day PO 3 days, repeat in 2 wks 35-50 mg/kg/day BW PO divided bid for 10 days 30 mg/kg BW PO , repeat in 2-3 wks or 140 mg/kg BW PO

91 31 91

18

31 30 91 30 31 85 31

31

18,29 30

32 1, 29 31

30

91 31 85

Table continued on following page

146

JOHNSON-DELANEY

..

Table 18. NONHUMAN PRIMATE FORMULARY* Continued Antimicrobials Drug

Manufacturer

Paromomycin

Piperazine Praziquantel (Droncit)

Haver

Primaquine Pyrantel pamoate (Strongid-T, Nemex) Pyrvinium pamoate

Winthrop Pfizer Inc

Quinacrine (Atabrine HCL) Ronnel (Ectoral)

Winthrop

Sulfadimethoxine [coccidiostat dose] (AI bon) Thiabendazole (Equizole)

Roche

Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole [Pneumocystis Rx] (DiTrim)

Pitman-Moore

MSD Agvet

Syntex

Analgesics, Sedatives, Anesthetics Acetaminophen Acepromazine Fort Dodge maleate (Promace) Acetylsalicylic acid Buprenorphine Norwich Eaton (Buprenex) Pharmc'ls

Chlorpromazine Diazepam (Valium) Droperidol-fentanyl (lnnovar-vet) Flunixin meglumine (Banamine) Halothane with 50% oxygen/50% nitrous oxide lsoflurane (Forane)

Elkins-Sinn, Inc. Roche Pitman-Moore

Schering Corp

Anaquest

Ketamine Fort Dodge, Bristol, hydrochloride Parke-Davis, etc (Ketaset, Vetalar) with Diazepam 7.5 mg/kg BW IM plus with Xylazine 0.5 mg/kg BW IM plus with Acepromazine

Dosage

Reference

50 mglkg BW PO in 3 divided doses sid 10 days 25-30 mg/kg/day divided bid for 5-10 days 65 mg/kg BW PO sid for 10 days 40 mglkg once (Schistosoma, cestodes) PO, IM 0.3 mg/kg/day PO 11 mg/kg 1 dose PO

85

5 mg/kg BW PO every 6 months 10 mg/kg BW PO tid every 10 days 55 mg/kg BW PO every other day for 4 treatments then once weekly for 3 months. Topically for mites 50 mglkg/day first day, then 25 mg/kg/day PO

31

75-100 mg/kg BW PO, repeat in 3 weeks 50 mg/kg/day 2 days (Strongyloides) 25-35 mg/kg PO 4 days (Strongyloides) Trimethoprim at 20 mg & sulfa at 100 mg/kg/day in 4 divided doses. PO, IM

91 31

91 91 91

31

91

91

1, 31

91 30

91

5-10 mglkg BW PO 0.5-1 mglkg BW IM, sub~ PO ·;-, 10-20 mg/kg q 6 h PO 0.01 mg/kg IV q 12 hrs as needed 0.1 - 0 .3 mg/kg IM q 6- 12 hrs as needed 1-6 mg/kg BW IM, PO 0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM, IV

36 36

1 mU10-20 kg BW IV, IM (sedative) 0.11 mUkg BW IM for anesthesia 0.5 mg/kg IM sid 1 mg/kg IV bid 1-4% cone for induction, 0.5-2% maint

35,36

36 71 66 36 35

31 18 1 36

1-2% induction, 0.5-1 .5% main! 5-40 mg/kg BW IM

18

10 mglkg BW IM 11 mg/kg BW IM 10:1 mixture using 4 mg/kg BWIM

31 18

147

PRIMATES

Tab le 18. NONHUMAN PRIMATE FORMULARY• (Continued) Antlmicrobiele Drug Meperidine (Demerol)

Morphine Naloxone (P/M Naloxone) Naproxen (Naprosyn)

Manufacturer Winthrop

Pitman-Moore Syntex

Oxymorphone (Numorphan)

DuPont

Pentazocine (TalwinV) Pentobarbital sodium

Winthrop

Thiamylal sodium (BioTal) Thiopental sodium (Pentothal) TIIetamine/zolazepam (Telazof)

Fort Dodge Bio-Ceutic Ceva A.H. Robbins: Aveco

Miscellaneous Drug s Aminophylline Lyphomed. Inc. Atropine Biosoi-M Upjohn [neomycin/methoscopolamine bromide] Chlorpheniramine maleate Dexamethasone Diphenoxytate hydrochloride with atropine sulfate (Lomotil) Searle Ephedrine Furosemide several Glycopyrrolate A.H. Robins. Co. (Robinoi-V) Cutter Hyperimmune human serum (Gamimune

Dosage 2- 11 mg/kg BW IM 2-4 mglkg BW IM. IV 1-4 mglkg BW IM. q 4-6 hrs 1-2 mg/kg IM, IV. sa. PO 2-3 mL IV.IM. subcut. as needed--cannot overdose 10 mg/kg PO q 12 h long term as needed 0.15 mglkg {old world monkeys): IM,IV, subcut. 0.075 mg/kg (new wor1d monkeys) 1.6-3 mglkg BW (not to exceed 60 mg) IM. subcut. 20-33 mglkg BW IV anesthesia 25 mg/kg BW or to effect IV 22-25 mg/kg BW IV anesthesia 2-6 mglkg IM licensed for use innhp

Reference 31

66 1

66 66 37

66

36 31 36 31 35

25-100 mg/animal PO bid 10 mglkg IV 0.04 mglk g BW IM, IV, subcut. 20 mglkg BW q 6 h PO

36 18 31 36

0.5 mg/kg BW/day PO divided doses not more than 2 mg/kg BW IV, IM,PO 1 mUanimal PO tid

36

12mg PO q4 h 2 mg/kg BW PO 13-17 meg/kg IM

36 36 71

0.33 ml..JI
31

start 0.25-
75

5Q-60 mUhr tor 30-60 min via Inhalation bid intranasally qid 30 ml..JI
36

0.5-1 mg/kg BW PO bid 3-5 days then sid 3-5 days then q 48 hrs for 10 days, then halve the dose q 48 hrs (lower doses for pain, inflammation; higher tor autoimmune, inflammatory bowel disease. etc)

33

36 31

N) Insulin NPH

Lily , others

Kaolin and pectin Lactated Ringer's solution (Mucomyst)

Bristol

(Neosynephrine) (Normosoi-R)

Winthrop Abbott Labs

(Pepto-Bismol) Prednisolone sodium succinate (Solu-Delta Cortef) Prednisone

Proctor & Gamble Upjohn Co

36 36

36 18

18

Table continued on following page

148

JOHNSON-DELANEY

Table 18. NONHUMAN PRIMATE FORMULARY* Continued Antimicrobials Drug Trimeprazine (Temaril P)

Manufacturer Norden

Vitamins and Supplements Ascorbic acid Biotin Chewable children's multivitamins Cod liver oil Folic acid Niacin Pantothenic acid Pyridoxine hydrochloride Vitamin D3

Dosage

Reference

1- 2 mg PO qid

36

4 mg/kg BW PO up to 10 mg/

31 , 40

kg BW/day 20 fLg/animal/day 1 tablet PO sid

40 31

0.25 tsp PO sid 40-200 fLg/day PO 10-35 mg/week to 10-25 mg/ day per 2-3 animal PO

36

3 mg/kg BW/day PO 3.5 mg/kg incorporated in diet, feed continuously during isoniazid therapy 2000 IU/kg BW in diet

40 31

40 40

89

"Medications used for nonhuman primates are listed as used by the author and others (documented from the literature). Most require extra-label usage, as few have been specifically approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in nonhuman primates. This formularly is a guideline: dosages are calculated by obtaining the exact body weight of the nonhuman primate and applying the dose per kilogram as listed for dogs or people, particularly pediatric dosages. Usage for these medications is at your own risk and liability. Example brand names are listed in parentheses; however proprietary compounds are available for many of the therapeutics listed.

zymatic Dentrifice, St. John Labs, Inc.) or human pastes can be used. Gingivitis and periodontitis are common with or without calculus and plaque accumulations. Annual cleaning, scaling, and brophy with fluoride is recommended. Caries can be filled as with other species, or extraction may be necessary. Animals on a diet high ip. ~.»gar content and table foods develop more caries than do those on: biscuit-based diets. Bacterial etiologies of severe gingivitis include Shigella sp and Streptococcus sp. Tooth root abscesses may present with swelling of the cheek or jaw, which may rupture and drain to the outside. The animal may present with halitosis and anorexia or reluctance to chew on the side of the abscess. Treatment includes extraction of the tooth, irrigation of the tract and fistula, and treatment with systemic antibiotics.31, 32, 36 Endocrine Diseases

Diabetes mellitis is not uncommon, particularly in middle-aged to older animals, those that are slightly to grossly overweight, and animals maintained on table foods high in sugar. Many pet capuchins are diagnosed with diabetes. Management with insulin therapy may be difficult, as many animals will not hold still for injections, and owners are reluctant to use a squeeze cage. However, dietary management and insulin therapy can be successful. Protocol includes catching and testing the morning urine (cage tray) and giving the morning meal followed by an

PRIMATES

149

NPH insulin injection. The insulin dose should start at 0.25 to 0.5 units/ kg/ day subcutaneously and be adjusted according to glucose levels. Meals should be standardized in content and time of day offered. Nutritional Diseases

Vitamin C Deficiency

Gingival inflammation, often with hemorrhage and loosening of the teeth, is seen in clinical cases of scurvy (Vitamin C deficiency). Other signs of Vitamin C deficiency include swellings of the epiphyses of long bones, joint pain, periosteal hemorrhage and hematomas. Animals may be presented for lameness, reluctance to move, or because of pain expressed during handling. Animals respond well to ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) therapy at a dose of 25 mg or more per day per animal, either orally or parenterally.31 Hematomas on the head are common, especially in squirrel monkeys. These are usually secondary to minor trauma and may be quite large. Surgical drainage and bandaging for several days may be necessary. Response to Vitamin C therapy is quite rapid, and most lesions resolve within weeks of dietary correction. Vitamin D Deficiency

Another major nutritional disease condition seen in nonhuman primates is Vitamin D deficiency. Along with a calcium deficiency, this may manifest as classic rickets, and is more frequently seen in animals on homemade diets lacking in both calcium and Vitamin D. Vitamin 0 3 deficiency or diets with an imbalanced calcium: phosphorus ratio can result in osteodystrophia fibrosa, which is most commonly seen in New World species because of their requirement for Vitamin 0 3 •82 Clinical signs include reluctance to move, multiple fractures without calcified callus formation, distortions of limbs, kyphosis, fibrous replacement of bone, elevated serum alkaline phosphatase, and decrease in cortical bone density. Therapy includes Vitamin 0 3, calcium, a proper balanced diet, and full-spectrum light sources. Clinical response to therapy is variable, depending on the age of the animal and degree of deformities. Supportive care, including analgesics and padded cage furnishings, may help during recovery.1• 31• 37• 40· 59 The acute lameness, pain, and fractures may resolve with replacement and diet therapy; however, many animals are left with permanently deformed bones and joints, which may prevent them from being successful breeders or competitors in social caging. Respiratory Diseases

Respiratory disease in pet nonhuman primates frequently presents as pneumonia, with the animal exhibiting marked dyspnea and / or open mouth breathing, exercise intolerance, lethargy, anorexia, and coughing. Bacterial pneumonia can be caused by Streptococcus spp, Klebsiella pneu-

150

JOHNSON-DELANEY ·\.

moniae, Staphylococcus sp, and Haemophilus spp. Bordetella is commonly found in New World species with pneumonia. B~terial pneumonia also may be secondary to viral infections such as measles and influenza, or to parasites such as Pneumonyssus spp in Old World monkeys or Pneumocystis carinii. Mycotic infections, including Candida albicans overgrowth in animals on long-term antibiotic treatment, can occur. Bacterial respiratory infections may present with purulent nasal discharge, rales, or dyspnea. Areas of dullness in the lungs on auscultation may be present as a result of fluid consolidation. Evidence of fever may or may not be present or diagnostic, as a stressed monkey may have an elevated body temperature during routine handling whereas a severely dehydrated animal may have a subnormal temperature. Therapy includes broadspectrum antibiotics such as amoxicillin or cephalosporins. Other antibiotics may be indicated on the basis of bacterial culture and sensitivity testing of sputum or tracheal wash samples. Supportive care includes heat (from infrared heat lamps, infant incubators, heating pads), fluids, antihistamines, bronchodilators, and expectorants (Table 18). The pneumonia associated with measles (Rubeola) infection can range from a subclinical or mild infection to acute fulminating disease and death. Monkeys exhibit signs similar to those in humans with severe measles. There may be serous exudation from the nares, conjunctivitis, blepharitis, papular skin rashes, and facial edema. Moist rales and rapid, shallow breathing are evident. Anorexia, dehydration, and acute prostration may precede the respiratory signs in fulminating cases. Therapy includes human immune sera (Gamimune N, Cutter, Emeryville, CA), fluid, and symptomatic supportive therapy. Vaccination and prevention of exposure to unvaccinated humans are recommended. Pneumonyssus spp infection may be suspected on the basis of radiographic evidence such as diffuse interstitial densities or discrete opaque densities away from the region of the hilus of the lungs, and lack of complete response to antibacterial treatments. lvermectin (200 meg/ kg ~ appears to be effective.t, 31, 32, 36, n , s9, 9a · ;.' Dermatologic Problems

Pet nonhuman primates are susceptible to dermatophytes such as Microsporum sp and Trichophyton sp.31 Other family pets in contact with the monkey should be checked and treated. Canine and feline topical antifungal medications along with oral griseofulvin (Fulvicin, Schering) are usually effective. Dermatophycosis seems to occur more frequently when there are children in the household, and the potential for spreading infection among all family members exists. Ectoparasites such as mange mites (Psorergates simplex, Sarcoptes sp, Demodex sp) are not uncommon and present with varying degrees of pruritus and alopecia. The most severe lesions may be due to self-trauma from scratching of the arms, legs, and flanks. Psoregate mites produce small, nonpruritic nodules beneath the epidermis. Sucking lice such as Pedicinus sp may cause intense pruritus without alopecia. Fleas from

PRIMATES

151

other family pets occasionally attack pet monkeys, and ectoparasite control of all animals in the household should be initiated. Ectoparasite treatments (shampoos, sprays, dips) with organophosphates, pyrethrins, or cholinesterase-inhibitor insecticides as used on cats, dogs, and humans are usually effective.31• 36 Neurologic Diseases

Encephalitis, meningitis, or meningoencephalitis has occurred with or as a sequelum to Streptococcal infections. The encephalitis may present with clinical signs of progressing debilitation, cachexia, ataxia or paraplegia, torticollis, and abnormal postural movements. Panophthalmitis, palpebral edema, nystagmus, and/ or ptosis may be present. Abnormal neurologic reflexes are common, and the owner usually notes abnormal behaviors and postures. A spinal tap with positive culture, organism identification, or white blood cells present in the cerebrospinal fluid are diagnostic. Prognosis is guarded, but animals may respond to parenteral chloramphenicol at 110 mg/kg IM qid daily for 5 to 10 days or intrathecal aqueous penicillin. Supportive care, including fluids and heat to maintain body temperature during therapy, are essentiai.32• 58 Traumatic Injuries

Pet monkeys frequently are presented because of traumatic injuries including fractures, luxations, lacerations, hematomas, thermal burns, and electrical burns (from chewing on a power cord). Bite wounds from other animals (including other monkeys) should be treated like any other animal wound: scrubbed, preferably left open, and treated systemically with antibiotics. A tetanus booster may be given following a severe bite, laceration, or puncture wound. If suturing is necessary, a drain should be placed. It may be necessary to put an Elizabethan collar on the monkey and bandage the hands to prevent the animal from removing the drain and stitches. Some animals will tolerate bandages or jackets to cover wounds, depending on their training to harnesses or clothing. Behavior-modifying drugs such as mild sedatives may be necessary for a few days to allow for healing and to keep the animal quiet for recuperation. Casts are usually well-tolerated; however, depending on the fracture, internal fixation may be necessary and preferable. Cage confinement is recommended until the orthopedic treatment is completed, although owner compliance with this part of therapy may be less than ideal. Analgesics are of benefit in any traumatic injury. Reproductive Disorders

Endometriosis has been diagnosed with some frequency in macaques, particularly in laboratory animals following hysterotomy. It most

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often occurs in older adult females. Infertility or prolonged or irregular menstrual cycles in Old World monkeys may ,9 e indicative of this disease.31• 36 Endometriosis has been found incidentally at necropsy with no noted signs antemortem. Etiology is unknown, and currently treatment is palliative, with either surgical removal of identifiable abnormal tissue or experimental hormonal therapies such as those for humans. Obstetric intervention is rarely needed for nonhuman primates. Deliveries usually occur at night and proceed without problems. However, breech deliveries usually cause dystocias and result in stillbirths. Most infants can be turned and pulled without the need for cesarean or hysterotomy. Uterine inertia may require injectable oxytocin, calcium, and supportive fluid therapy, as with other species. If cesarean delivery is necessary, ketamine can be used as the anesthetiC until the infant is removed; then the mother is placed on inhalation anesthesia for closure.63 Owners of breeding animals should observe the mother and infant to make sure proper nursing and infant care is occurring. Improper mothering and infant death due to starvation are common in isolated nonhuman primates, particularly if the mother was hand-raised by a human or if the mother is stressed, nervous, or inexperienced. Handrearing of infants is difficult, but, if necessary, the owner should use a primate infant formula and keep the infant in a warm incubator (30350C) with at least 50% humidity. Nursing positions vary, as do frequency of feedings and quantity of formula per feeding, depending on species.63 The practitioner should contact a local primate center or zoo for guidelines on successful rearing of the species. Viral Diseases

Viral diseases in pet monkeys are less common than in animals in zoo, colony, or laboratory situations. Outbreaks and fat~Ji.ties in private colonies are frequently linked to newly introduced anima:ls, usually without any quarantining or testing, and with questionable medical histories or backgrounds. In these cases, any viral disease documented for that species has to be included in the list of rule-outs. Viral diseases in single pet monkeys are more likely to be due to exposure to an infected human. In addition to the viral diseases already discussed, pet owners should be concerned about transmission of the following viral diseases to their pets: chickenpox (varicella zoster virus), mumps, various rhinoviruses (colds), hepatitis virus A, rotavirus, rubella (German measles), adenovirus, cytomegalovirus, herpesvirus simplex, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (rodent fecal exposure), polio (great apes susceptible), respiratory syncytial virus, and coxsackievirus (see Table 5). Signs and symptoms for many are identical to those in humans, although in some species viruses that cause mild infection in a human can be fatal to a monkey. For example, measles (rubeola) can cause serious disease in humans, but it is nearly always acutely fatal in marmosets and tamarins. Owners must be aware of the risks to their animal from sick humans. If an ill human must be the caretaker of the monkey, appropriate measures such as masks,

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gloves, and protective clothing should be used to minimize aerosol and particulate contamination to the monkey's immediate environment. References are listed for more detailed information on nonhuman primate viral and bacterial disease.~ · 7, 31, 36, 55, 59, 63, 72, 76, 89, 90 In general, the small animal practitioner presented with an ill nonhuman primate should approach diagnosis in the same systematic manner as is done with other species. It is recommended that the practitioner build a general reference library on nonhuman primates, with specific information about the species owned by clients. The veterinarian should be a trusted source of information for owners of pet nonhuman primates, enabling his or her clients to take responsible care of their animals. References 1. Management, husbandry, diseases of laboratory animals: Diseases of nonhuman primates. In Fraser CM, Bergeron JA, et a! (eds): The Merck Veterinary Manual, ed 7. Rahway, NJ, Merck & Co, 1991, pp 1032-1036 2. Altshuler HL, Stowell RE, Lowe RT: Normal serum biochemical values of Macaca arctoides, Macacafascicularis, and Macaca radiata. Lab Anim Sci 21:916- 926, 1971 3. Benirschke K (ed): Primates: The Road To Self-Sustaining Populations. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1986 4. Berchelmann ML, Kalter SS: Hematology. Primates in Medicine 8:51-64, 1973 5. Bergeron JA, Buettner-Janusch J: Hematology of prosimian primates: Galago, Lemur and Propithecus. Folia Primatol 13:155-165, 1970 6. Bernstein IS, Ruehlmann TE, et al: Changes during the period of adolescence in male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Am J Primatol 24:29-38, 1991 7. Bielitzki JT: Biosafety and the nonhuman primate. In Proceedings of the Regional Conference of the American Association of Parks, and Aquariums. 1991, pp 335- 341 8. Blasdel TL, Lipper St, Hilliard JK: Medical alert card for macaque handlers. Contemp Topics 31:37, 1992 9. Burns KF, Ferguson FG, Hampton SH: Compendium of normal blood values for baboons, chimpanzees, and marmosets. Am J Clin Pathol48:434-494, 1967 10. Buss DH: Mammary glands and lactation. In Hafez ESE (ed): Comparative Reproduction Of Nonhuman Primates. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas, 1971, pp 315-333 11. Butler TM: Selected topics in laboratory animal medicine, volume XVI. The chimpanzee. U.S. Airforce School of Aerospace Medicine Technical Report No. SAM-TR-73-6. Brooks AFB, TX, 1973, (Nat! Technical Info Svce # AD-762-506) 12. Carter KK, Houghton P: Blunting canine teeth in macaques: A possible alternative to extraction or endodontics. Lab Anim 16:27- 28, 30- 33, 1987 13. Chernyshev V: Acclimatisation of tropical species of monkeys in the suburbs of the Moscow area. International Zoo Yearbook 6:247-251, 1966 14. Cowgill UM, Zeman LB: Normal blood values of an adult male Perodicticus potto with comparative data from other primates. Folia Primatol33:273-290, 1980 15. Cutler RG: Antioxidants and longevity of mammalian species. Basic Life Sci 35:15-73, 1985 16. Dixon AF: Some observations on the reproductive physiology and behavior of the owl monkey Aotus trivirgatus in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook 22:115-119, 1982 17. Falken AM, da Rocha MB, Simon F: [Hematologic and serum chemistry values of clinically healthy Brazilian monkeys maintained in captivity.] Primatologia No Brasil 1:321-331, 1984 18. Feeser P, White F: Medical management of Lemur calla Varecia varegata, and Propithecus verreauxi in natural habitat enclosures. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Oakland, CA, 1992, pp 320-323 19. Gerasino P, Duserre C, eta!: Biochemical monitoring of baboons treated with Licam(C) after inhaling plutonium tributylphosphate. Radiation Protection Dosimetry 26:369376, 1989

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20. Grana D, Mino J, et a!: Normal laboratory parameters of the New World non-human primate Cebus apella. Revista De Medicina Veterinaria (Buenos Aires) 69:156-160, 1988 21. Hack CA, Gleiser CA: Hematologic and serum chemical refefrence values for adult and juvenile baboons (Papio_ ssp.). Lab Anim Sci 32:502-505, 1982 22. Haines DE, Holmes KR, Brett IJ: The hemogram of the colonized Lesser Bushbaby (Galago senegalensis). Folia Primatol14:95- 100, 1971 23. Hall AS: A clinical evaluation of the hematologic and blood chemical profiles of primates [Paper 15]. Aerospace Medicine Research Laboratory Technical Report No. AMRL-TR-70-102, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1970 [Also in Advanc Automat Anal4:129-136, 1971] 24. Hambleton P, Harris-Smith PW, eta!: Normal values for some whole-blood and serum components of grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Lab Anim 13:87-91, 1979 25. Hart MM, Lukas VS: An occupational Herpes B virus prevention program. AALAS Bulletin 30:23, 1991 26. Hartley LH, Rodger R, et al: Blood pressure values in Macaca fascicularis. J Med Primato! 13:183-189, 1984 27. Harvey PH, Clutton-Brock TH: Life history variation in primates. Evolution 39:559581, 1985 28. Hawkey D, Symons C: Preliminary report of studies on platelet aggregation, blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in non-human primates. Symp Zoo! Soc London 17:213222, 1966 29. Hawkins JV, Jaquish CE, et a!: Trichospirura leptostoma infection in Callithrix jacchus (common marmoset): Disease and treatment. Contemp Topics 31:26, 1992 30. Hollihn U: Krankheiten der Primaten [Diseases of primates.] In Weisner E (ed): Kompendium Der Heimtierkrankheiten. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer, 1988 31. Holmes DO: Clinical Laboratory Animal Medicine: An Introduction. Ames, IA, Iowa State University Press, 1984, 32. Ialeggio OM: Practical medicine of primate pets. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 11:1252-1259, 1989 33. Isaza R, Baker B, Dunker F: Medical management of inflammatory bowel disease in a spider monkey. JAm Vet Med Assoc 200:1543, 1992 34. Izard MK: Social influences on the reproductive success and reproductive endocrinology of prosimian primates. In Ziegler TE, Bercovitch FB (eds): Socioendocrinology of Primate Reproduction [Monographs in Primatology, vol 13]. New York, Wiley-Liss, 1990, pp 159-186 35. Izard MK, Heath SJ, et al: Hematology, serum chemistry values, and rectal temperatures of adult greater galagos (Galago garnetti and G. crassicaudatus). J Med Primatol 20:117-121, 1991 g,36. Johnson OK, Russell RJ, Stunkard JA: A Guide to Diagnosis Treatmeii't and Husbandry of Nonhuman Primates. Edwardsville, KS, Veterinary Medicine Publishing, 1981 37. Junge RE, Mehren KG, et al: Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy and renal disease in three black lemurs (Lemur macaco). In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Oakland, CA, 1992, pp 324-330 38. Keeling ME, McClure HM: Clinical management, diseases and pathology of the gibbon and siamang. Gibbon and Siamang 1:207-249, 1972 39. Kelly OJ, Chulary JD, et a!: Serum concentrations of penicillin, doxycycline, and ciprofloxacin during prolonged therapy in rhesus monkeys. J Infect Dis 166:1184-1187, 1992 40. Krasnow SW: Primate nutrition. [ACLAM notes]. Privately published, Jan 12, 1987 41. Krook L, Barrett RB: Simian bone disease: A secondary hyperparathyroidism. Cornell Vet 52:459- 492, 1962 42. Kruckenberg SM, Cornelius CE, Cook JE: Liver function and disease in primates. In Fiennes RNT (ed): Pathology of Simian Primates, Part I: General Pathology. Basel, S. Karger, 1972, pp 711-755 43. LaCroix JT, Judge DM, Saxton LD: Biological values for juvenile grivets (Cercopithecus aethiops matschiei) of highland Ethiopia. Lab Anim Sci 24:111- 113, 1974 43a. Line AS: Comments on Baytril antimicrobial therapy and considerations for intramuscular antibiotic therapy in captive primates. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 32:3, 1993 44. Loeb W: Clinical pathology. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, ed 2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1986, pp 708-710

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Address reprint requests to Cathy A. Johnson-Delaney, DVM Primate Information Center Regional Primate Research Center University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195