Probing the Social Support and Work Strain Relationship among Adult Workers: Contributions of Adult Attachment Orientations

Journal of Vocational Behavior 59, 17–33 (2001) doi:10.1006/jvbe.2000.1777, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

Probing the Social Support and Work Strain Relationship among Adult Workers: Contributions of Adult Attachment Orientations Lisa L. Schirmer and Frederick G. Lopez Michigan State University The present study examined the contributions of supervisor support and adult attachment orientation to three indexes of work-related strain within an adult worker sample. In particular, the potential role of adult attachment orientation in moderating support–strain associations was explored. Participants were 117 university employees who completed self-report measures of the variables under investigation. Results indicated that supervisor support and worker adult attachment orientation uniquely predicted all three strain indexes; in addition, the interaction of supervisor support and worker attachment orientation significantly predicted work stress intensity and job satisfaction (but not symptom levels). The implications of these findings for clarifying the beneficial effects of social support on work strain are discussed. °C 2001 Academic Press

Occupational stress is a major problem affecting the health and well-being of millions of Americans each year. Claims for job-related stress disorders are increasing and these disorders are considered among the most disabling of occupational illnesses in terms of lost time (Hurrell, 1998). The idiosyncratic effects of occupational stress on workers are referred to as work strains, and within the research literature, work strain indexes have included measures of job dissatisfaction, depression, anxiety, somatic complaints, and other indicators of experienced affective distress (Fenlason & Beehr, 1994). Researchers have investigated numerous variables presumably associated with the experience of work stress and related indexes of strain. One dominant line of inquiry has examined whether the perceived availability of social support in the work environment functions as a protective factor that reduces work-related strains. Despite its intuitive appeal, empirical support for this hypothesis has been inconsistent across several investigations (Nelson & Quick, 1991). For example, whereas some investigators have found that social support (particularly that provided by supervisors) is associated with reduced levels of job stress (Blau, 1981; The research reported in this paper was part of the first author’s dissertation study which was supervised by the second author. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1998 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association in San Francisco. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Lisa L. Schirmer, Eastwood Clinics–Livonia, 17250 Farmington Rd., Livonia, MI 48152. 17 0001-8791/01 $35.00 C 2001 by Academic Press Copyright ° All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Fenlason & Beehr, 1994; Ganster, Fusilier, & Mayes, 1986; LaRocco & Jones, 1978; Leiter, 1991), fewer distress symptoms (Geller & Hobfoll, 1994; Russell, Altmaier, & Van Velzen, 1987), and increased job satisfaction and commitment (Beehr & Drexler, 1986; Fisher, 1985); others have found high levels of social support among strained employees (Beehr, 1976) as well as indications that social support may exacerbate the experience of worker strain (Kaufmann & Beehr, 1986). These inconsistencies have been the subject of considerable speculation. In a review of the social support literature, Coyne and DeLongis (1986) concluded that the concept of social support becomes “systematically misleading when it is accepted in place of a more elaborated understanding of the complexities of people’s involvement with others (p. 458).” These authors urged that greater attention be placed on how an individual’s personal characteristics affect the way he or she finds, develops, nurtures, and terminates relationships. Sounding a similar call, Sarason, Sarason, and Shearin (1986) contended that much research has been based on the erroneous assumption that social support is exclusively an environmental provision. These authors presented evidence indicating that social support can be conceptualized as a stable individual differences variable because “how an individual views and deals with his or her social environment has a great deal to do with what it provides (p. 845).” They also urged inclusion of personality variables in the design of research on social support. Drawing upon attachment theory, we speculated that individual differences in workers’ adult attachment orientations may make unique contributions to the predictions of work strain and may moderate the effects of work-related social support on these indexes. Adult Attachment Orientations and Social Support In recent years, attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1982, 1988) has been extended productively to the study of adult relationships (Simpson & Rholes, 1998). Attachment theory proposes that, as a product of their early developmental experiences with primary caregivers, persons form relatively stable and enduring schemas (internal working models) of close relationships. These schemas incorporate perceptions of one’s own competence and lovability along with expectations about the accessibility and responsiveness of significant others in one’s social world. The operation of these schemas dispose the person toward one of a limited array of interpersonal orientations in managing the experience of insecurity in relationships. These orientations can be described as different attachment styles. Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) developed a four-group taxonomy of adult attachment styles premised on valence differences (i.e., positive vs. negative) in the configuration of one’s self and other models of attachment relationships. Adults with a secure attachment style are presumed to have incorporated positive perceptions of both self and others, enabling them to be equally comfortable with both closeness and separateness in their current relationships. Persons with a preoccupied style (negative self, positive other) demonstrate a pervasive fear of separateness and abandonment and an overconcern about maintaining closeness with others. Persons with a

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fearful attachment style (negative self, negative other) similarly experience a desire for interpersonal closeness and fear of abandonment and rejection, but are more fearful about seeking social support. Finally, persons with a dismissive attachment style (positive self, negative other) express a disinterest in interpersonal closeness and a stronger desire for emotional self-sufficiency and separateness from others. There is ongoing debate among adult attachment researchers as to whether variations in adult attachment are best conceptualized and assessed as prototypes (i.e., categorical scores) or dimensions (i.e., continuous scores) (Fraley & Waller, 1998; Klohnen & John, 1998). Indeed, a recent factor analysis of virtually all available self-report measures of adult attachment confirmed an underlying two factor structure, with one factor tapping an orientation toward anxious attachment and the other an orientation toward avoidant attachment (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). In the present study, we chose to assess adult attachment both categorically (i.e., as attachment styles) and dimensionally (i.e., as attachment orientations). Research on adult attachment has demonstrated that variations in adult attachment orientations are related to generalized perceptions of social support as well as to different patterns of social support seeking. Davis, Morris, and Kraus (1998) found that global perceptions of social support were associated significantly and uniquely with adult attachment orientations, even after more domain-specific perceptions of support were controlled. Domain-specific support, however, had no unique association with adult attachment orientations once the effects of global support were controlled. These authors concluded that global and domain-specific sources of support, although related, are reasonably independent constructs. Their findings suggest that workers’ adult attachment orientations may function as more globalized perceptions and expectations of social support availability that may make an additive (unique) contribution to strain indexes beyond the perception of support in the immediate work environment. Other studies indicate that variations in adult attachment orientations are associated not only with general perceptions of social support but also with different patterns of support seeking. As might be expected, persons with a secure adult attachment orientation (i.e., low dispositions toward anxiety and avoidance) report high levels of support in their environments; moreover, they seek this support when they are distressed and appear to benefit from it (Florian, Mikulincer, & Bucholtz, 1995; Mikulincer & Florian, 1995; Ognibene & Collins, 1998; Priel & Shamai, 1995). Relative to their less secure peers, secure persons additionally evidence more competent communication skills such as self-disclosure (Mickuliner & Orbach, 1995) and collaborative problem-solving (Lopez et al., 1997). Although persons with anxious orientations also are oriented to seek support during stressful periods, they are more likely to be overwhelmed by their feelings (Kemp & Neimeyer, 1999) and to use emotion-focused coping strategies (Mikulincer, Florian, & Weller, 1993). Persons with avoidant orientations, by contrast, are least likely to seek social support when stressed and more likely to distance themselves from others (Mikulincer et al., 1993; Ognibene & Collins, 1998). In a similar vein, Feeney and Ryan (1994) found that, compared to their

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secure and avoidant counterparts, individuals with anxious attachment orientations reported the greatest number of physical symptoms and most visits to healthcare professionals. Elsewhere, Wallace and Vaux (1993) found that, relative to their secure peers, both anxious and avoidant individuals appraised their support networks more negatively and mistrustfully. These authors concluded that persons with insecure adult attachment orientations were more likely to “endorse beliefs and expectations reflecting the risks, costs, and futility of seeking help from network members (p. 362).” Adult Attachment Orientations in the Workplace Although much of the available research on adult attachment focuses on adjustment processes and outcomes in dating and intimate relationships, a few investigators have extended attachment theory to the study of worker attitudes and workplace behaviors. Hazan and Shaver (1990) found that, relative to their anxious and avoidant peers, secure workers were more content with the level of recognition they were receiving at work; they also reported that they were more satisfied with their coworkers, had fewer work-related worries, and did not let work interfere with their friendships or deter them from taking pleasurable vacations. On the other hand, workers with anxious attachment styles acknowledged strong feelings of job insecurity, fears of rejection due to poor performance, and a lack of appreciation and recognition from their coworkers. Avoidant workers also expressed dissatisfaction with their coworkers; in addition, they revealed strong preferences for working alone, tended to undervalue their job performance, and appeared to overwork as a means of avoiding close relationships. Similar findings were observed by Hardy and Barkham (1994) who examined the contributions of adult attachment styles to work stress within a sample of distressed workers seeking services at an outpatient clinic. Finally, Quick, Nelson, Joplin, and Quick (1992; cited in Blustein, Priezioso, & Schultheiss, 1995) explored the role of attachment relationships in an organizational context. These authors proposed that adult workers develop one of three specific relational styles (i.e., overdependent, counterdependent, self-reliant) to deal with work-situated anxiety. These patterns closely correspond respectively to anxious, avoidant, and secure adult attachment orientations. The Present Study Taken together, the above studies indicate that adult attachment styles and orientations may not only speak to important variations in work-related support perceptions and the experience of work-related strain; they also may either augment or diminish the impact of support perceptions on indexes of worker strain. In short, adult attachment characteristics may predict for whom the availability of support has beneficial or inert impacts. As noted earlier, there is inconsistent evidence as to whether the perception of support in the work environment reduces employees’ experience of work strain.

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In the present study, then, we initially examined if workers’ self-reported attachment style was related significantly to our measures of supervisor support and work strain. We expected that, relative to workers with preoccupied and fearful attachment styles, secure workers report less work strain and fewer symptoms; we also expected that relative to their insecurely attached peers, secure workers report higher levels of supervisor support and job satisfaction. We then examined the individual and conjoint contributions of supervisor support and workers’ adult attachment orientations (i.e., toward anxiety or avoidance) to our three indexes of work-related strain (i.e., work stress intensity, symptoms, and job satisfaction). We hypothesized that supervisor support and worker adult attachment orientations make unique contributions to each of our work strain indexes. In addition, we explored whether workers’ adult attachment orientation moderated the ability of supervisor support to predict each of these three strain indexes. We reasoned that low levels of perceived supervisor support in the work environment may have especially distressing effects on anxious workers, but may have weaker strain-related effects on avoidant workers. METHOD Participants and Procedures A representative sample of 250 adult employees at a large Midwestern university were identified for participation in this study. The overall worker population of this university was comprised of 58% support staff and 42% faculty–administrative staff at the time of the survey. Participants for this study were selected randomly from their respective populations using a weighted sampling technique. The final sample was composed of 61% support staff and 39% faculty–administrative personnel. Following procedures recommended by Dillman (1991), these individuals initially were mailed a prenotification postcard informing them of their random selection as prospective participants in a research study of stress in the workplace and encouraging their voluntary participation. As an added incentive, they were informed that all participants would be eligible for a $100 cash prize drawing. Two weeks later, prospective participants were mailed a survey packet containing an introduction to the study, an informed consent form, the demographic and research measures described below, and a stamped return envelope. To maximize return rate, approximately one week after the packet mailing, a follow-up postcard reminder–thank you was sent to all participants. A second follow-up mailing was sent to nonrespondents three weeks after the initial mailing. Included in this mailing was (a) a cover letter explaining that the participant’s completed survey had not yet been received and encouraging their participation, (b) another complete packet of research materials, and (c) another stamped return envelope. These procedures yielded a total response return rate of 50% (N = 125). Eight returned surveys contained a considerable amount of incomplete information (e.g., blank measures) and thus were deleted, leaving 117 usable surveys in the data analysis. This final sample consisted of 47 male and 70 female employees

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with a mean age of 43.84 years (SD = 10.95). The median length of institutional employment within the sample was 5–10 years, an interval comparable to the average range of service within the general university worker population. Of our sample, 88% (N = 103) classified themselves as Caucasian, 4% (N = 5) as African American, 3% (N = 4) as Asian American, and 2% (N = 2) as Hispanic–Latino. These percentages again are generally comparable to those observed in the overall university workforce. Measures The survey packet contained the following measures: Demographic questionnaire. This form solicited information about participants sex, age, level of education, ethnicity, and length of employment at the university. The relationship questionnaire (RQ; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). This is a categorical measure of adult attachment style. Respondents indicate which of four descriptive paragraphs best describes their general orientation to close relationships. The four paragraphs respectively represent secure, preoccupied, dismissive, and fearful attachment styles. Persons endorsing a secure orientation indicate comfort with both closeness and separateness; preoccupied persons indicate strong fears of abandonment and strong desires to maximize closeness in their relationships with their partners; dismissive persons report that they are comfortable without close relationships and prefer to be emotionally self-sufficient; fearful persons express both a desire for closeness and a conflicting fear of intimacy. Griffin and Bartholomew (1994) provided evidence supporting the underlying taxonomic structure of the RQ through comparisons of RQ self reports, friend reports, romantic partner report, and trained judges’ ratings of peer and family attachment. Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) provided convergent validity evidence for this instrument with both friend and self reports of respondents’ self-concept and sociability. The RQ has demonstrated moderate stability over an 8-month period. Scharfe and Bartholomew (1994) reported that 59% of their respondents retained the same RQ classification over that time period. When the stability of secure vs. insecure classifications was compared across 8 months, the stability was even higher (71% for women and 61% for men). Experiences in close relationships (ECR: Brennan et al., 1998). This is a 36item continuously scaled self-report measure of adult attachment orientations that contains two factor-analytically-derived subscales that respectively measure adult attachment-related avoidance and anxiety. The avoidance scale (18 items) assesses discomfort with interpersonal closeness, dependence, and intimate self-disclosure (e.g., “I don’t feel comfortable opening up to romantic partners” and “I am nervous when partners get too close to me”). The anxiety scale (18 items) taps fear of abandonment and strong desires for interpersonal merger (e.g., “I need a lot of reassurance that I am loved by my partner” and “My desire to be very close sometimes scares people away”). Respondents indicate their level of agreement with each item using a 7-point scale (1 = Disagree Strongly; 7 = Agree Strongly). Brennan et al. (1998) reported Cronbach alpha coefficients of .94 and .91 for the

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avoidance and anxiety scales, respectively. In the present study, Cronbach alphas of .93 (avoidance) and .91 (anxiety) were observed. To explore the correspondence between the categorical (RQ) and continuous (ECR) measures of adult attachment, a one-way MANOVA of the ECR scales was conducted, along with follow-up between group comparisons using Scheffe’s procedure. Table 1 presents a summary of the means and standard deviations on each of the ECR scales for secure, dismissive, preoccupied, and fearful attachment style groups. These results indicate that the categorical and continuous measures are generally correspondent providing support for the concurrent validity of these measures. For example, when multiple comparisons of actual between group means were conducted, secure individuals scored significantly lower on the avoidance dimension of adult attachment than did either dismissive or fearful respondents; yet secure workers were not significantly different from preoccupied individuals on this dimension, F(3, 111) = 15.20, p < .001. Regarding the anxiety dimension, secure and dismissive respondents reported significantly lower anxiety than either preoccupied or fearful individuals, F(3, 111) = 13.55, p < .001. Supervisor support (Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison, & Pinneau, 1975). This 4-item scale assesses the perceived quality of social support that is provided by the respondent’s immediate work supervisor. Using a 4-point rating scale (1 = Not at all; 4 = Very Much), respondents rate their supervisors’ accessibility, dependability, and willingness to provide instrumental and emotional support. This measure, and adaptations of it, have been used extensively by previous investigators attempting to understand the relationship between stress and social support (Fenlason & Beehr, 1994). Caplan et al. (1975) reported a Cronbach alpha of .83 for the scale. In the present study, a Cronbach alpha of .88 was observed. Work stress inventory (WSI; Barone, Caddy, Katell, Roselione, & Hamilton, 1988). This 40-item inventory assesses the respondent’s experience of two types of work stress: organizational stress and job risk. Using separate 5-point rating scales, respondents indicate the frequency (0 = never; 4 = daily) and intensity (0 = None; 4 = Very Much) with which they experience a variety of work-related stresses (e.g., “Feeling that your work ability is underrated” and “Having to deal with TABLE 1 Means and Standard Deviations on ECR Scores for RQ Categories ECR dimensions Avoidance

Anxiety

RQ Category

n

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Secure Dismissive Preoccupied Fearful

59 35 6 15

38.93 53.94 54.83 67.87

14.23 19.44 16.61 16.75

47.22 47.51 74.67 71.27

15.52 15.88 17.91 19.02

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several pressing problems at once”). A composite score for each type of work stress is derived by multiplying intensity and frequency ratings. In this study only the Organizational Stress Scale composite scores were used as an overall indicator of perceived work stress intensity. Barone et al. reported that composite scores on the Organizational Stress Scale were correlated moderately in expected directions with work satisfaction, anxiety, and organizational commitment. They also reported Cronbach alphas ranging from .84 to .90 for the composite scale. In the present study, a Cronbach alpha of .89 was obtained. Hopkins symptom checklist (HSCL; Derogatis, Lipman, Rickels, Uhlenhuth, & Covi, 1974). The HSCL is a 58-item measure of physical and psychological symptoms (e.g., headaches, feeling others don’t understand you or are unsympathetic) frequently reported by outpatients. Using a 4-point scale (1 = Not at all; 4 = Extremely), respondents rate the extent to which they were distressed by each symptom during the previous week. Derogatis et al. (1974) reported that the HSCL has demonstrated sensitivity to low levels of symptoms and to changes in emotional status among nonpsychiatric outpatients. The HSCL yields five underlying symptom dimensions (i.e., somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, anxiety, and depression), with Cronbach alphas ranging from .84 (anxiety) to .87 (somatization, obsessive-compulsive). Subsequent research has indicated that these subscales are highly intercorrelated and all HSCL items can appropriately be summed to form an overall symptomatic distress score (Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & DeLongis, 1986). In the present study, only the total distress scale was employed and a Cronbach alpha of .96 was obtained for this measure. The job satisfaction scale (JSS; Pond & Geyer, 1987; Lent, 1992). This is a modified version of the job satisfaction scale originally developed by Quinn and Shepard (1974). The modified version consists of five items designed to measure “facet-free job satisfaction,” defined by Quinn and Shepard as “a worker’s general affective reaction to the job without reference to any specific job facets.” For example, respondents rate the item “How does your job measure up to the sort of job you wanted when you took it?” on a 5-point scale (1 = Not at all what I wanted; 5 = Just what I wanted). Individual item ratings are summed to form an overall job satisfaction index, with higher scores indicating greater satisfaction. Lent (1992) reported a Cronbach alpha of .93 for the JSS. She also reported that JSS scores were correlated significantly in expected directions with independent self-report measures of career self-efficacy, career success, and perceptions of advancement opportunities within the employee’s organization. In the present study, a Cronbach alpha of .89 was obtained. RESULTS Preliminary Analyses Prior to examining the respective contributions of supervisor support and workers’ adult attachment orientations to the prediction of our three work strain indexes, we conducted several preliminary descriptive and correlational analyses. We first examined whether our respondents’ gender, age, job classification (i.e.,

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faculty–administrative vs. support staff), or length of employment were associated significantly with our other key measures. Only participants’ length of employment and job classification were correlated moderately (r = .26, and r = .24, respectively) with one of our key measures (adult attachment avoidance), indicating that support staff workers and those with longer job tenures expressed higher levels of attachment-related avoidance. Given no systematic associations among worker demographic characteristics and our other measures, demographic variables were not controlled for in our subsequent analyses. We then examined participants’ responses to our categorical measure of adult attachment style (Relationship Questionnaire). Fifty-nine of our participants (51%) indicated a secure attachment style, 35 (30.4%) reported a dismissive style; 6 (5.2%) classified themselves as having a preoccupied style; and 15 (13%) identified with a fearful attachment style. Two respondents failed to complete this measure. This distribution of RQ self-ratings (and especially the low frequencies of the preoccupied style) is consistent with those observed by other investigators using older adult samples (Klohnen & Bera, 1998; Mickelson, Kessler, & Shaver, 1997). Given the comparatively smaller numbers of participants in our sample reporting preoccupied and fearful attachment styles, and given that persons with these styles share high levels of anxiety regarding close relationships (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991), we collapsed across these two categories to form a single “anxious” attachment style category in order to facilitate our data analyses. Hence the recomposed attachment style frequencies in our sample were as follows: secure (51.3%), dismissive (30.4%), and anxious (18.3%). Relations of Adult Attachment to Support and Strain We then examined interrelationships among our continuous measures of supervisor support, work strain, and adult attachment orientations. Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, ranges, and intercorrelations of these measures. As expected, supervisor support was correlated negatively with work stress intensity (r = −.46, p < .01) and symptoms (r = −.31, p < .01), and related positively to TABLE 2 Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations of Work Stress Intensity, Job Satisfaction, Symptomatic Distress, Supervisor Support, and Indexes of Attachment Variable name

1

2

1. Work stress intensity 2. Job satisfaction 3. Symptomatic distress 4. Supervisor support 5. Anxiety 6. Avoidance

— −.44∗∗ .65∗∗ −.46∗∗ .28∗∗ .12

— −.32∗∗ .49∗∗ −.13 .05

∗∗

Correlation at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

3

— −.31∗∗ .40∗∗ .33∗∗

4

— −.03 −.12

5

— .36∗∗

6

M

SD

Range

—

82.01 18.93 85.02 11.21 51.90 48.11

47.29 4.41 20.32 3.67 18.56 19.07

2–248 7–25 58–158 0–16 19–100 18–98

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job satisfaction (r = .49, p < .01) in our sample. Other intercorrelations among these measures also were significant and in the expected directions. Adult attachment anxiety was correlated positively with work stress intensity (r = .28, p < .01) and symptoms (r = .40, p < .01), but was not related significantly to job satisfaction. Aside from its moderate intercorrelation with attachment anxiety (r = .36, p < .01), adult attachment avoidance was related significantly to only one strain index, symptoms (r = .33, p < .01). Finally, to explore relations between our (recomposed) categorical measure of adult attachment style and our other key variables, we conducted a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) of our measures of supervisor support and work strain. Table 3 presents the means and standard deviations of our three attachment style groups on these measures. Results indicated a significant multivariate effect for attachment style classification, Wilks’ F(8, 210) = 3.62, p < .001. Follow-up univariate tests and planned between-group comparisons using Scheffe’s procedure indicated that, relative to their secure and dismissive peers, anxious workers reported significantly higher levels of work stress intensity, F(2, 111) = 5.99, p < .01, and higher levels of symptoms, F(2, 112) = 11.99, p < .001. In addition, and as expected, both dismissive and anxious workers indicated lower levels of supervisor support relative to secure workers, F(2, 110) = 4.02, p < .05. Contrary to expectation, however, no significant attachment style effects for job satisfaction were observed. Contributions of Supervisor Support and Adult Attachment Orientations to Work Strain Indexes To examine the individual contributions of supervisor support and adult attachment orientation to our measures of work-related strain, scores on each predictor variable were first converted to standardized scores. We then conducted three separate hierarchical regressions (one for each strain index). In each regression, we entered supervisor support at the first step, followed by our measures of adult attachment avoidance and anxiety, which were entered as a block. At the third and final step, we computed and entered (again as a block) two new variables that respectively expressed the interaction of supervisor support with each adult TABLE 3 Means and SD of Attachment Groups on Work Stress Intensity, Symptomatic Distress, Job Satisfaction, and Supervisor Support Secure (n = 59)

Dismissive (n = 35)

Anxious (n = 21)

Variable name

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Work stress inventory Hopkins symptom checklist Job satisfaction survey Supervisor support

76.20 80.37 19.29 12.09

43.51 17.25 4.35 3.50

74.89 82.46 18.83 10.26

38.18 18.73 3.91 3.65

113.61 103.14 17.86 10.05

59.24 22.43 5.44 3.67

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attachment orientation score. This last step enabled us to determine whether workers’ adult attachment orientations toward either anxiety or avoidance significantly moderated the ability of supervisor support to predict our work strain indexes. Table 4 presents the results of these regression analyses. As expected, after supervisor support was controlled, adult attachment orientations made a significant unique contribution to the prediction of work stress intensity (1R 2 = .08, p < .01) and symptoms (1R 2 = .17, p < .01), but did not enhance the prediction of job satisfaction (1R 2 = .04, p = .06). Higher levels of attachment anxiety uniquely predicted work stress intensity and symptoms levels. As anticipated, adult attachment orientations also interacted significantly with supervisor support to predict unique variance in work stress intensity, (1R 2 = .05, p < .02) and job satisfaction (1R 2 = .05, p < .03). No significant interaction of supervisor support and adult attachment orientations was observed for our measure of symptomatic distress. More specifically, adult attachment anxiety significantly interacted with supervisor support (β = −.24) to predict work stress intensity, and both attachment anxiety and avoidance interacted significantly (in opposite directions) with supervisor support to predict job satisfaction (βs = .21 and −.23, respectively).

TABLE 4 Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Supervisor Support (SS), Attachment Dimensions, and Their Interaction in Predicting Work Stress Intensity, Symptomatic Distress and Job Satisfaction Unstandardized β

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

SE β

Standardized β

t

p

Supervisor Support (SS) Avoidance Anxiety SS X Avoidance SS X Anxiety

−21.91 −1.57 13.59 1.34 −10.87

Work stress intensity (N = 113)a 4.03 −.46 −5.43 4.09 −.03 −.39 4.07 .29 3.34 5.18 .02 .26 4.13 −.24 −2.63

<.001 .701 .001 .797 .010

Supervisor Support (SS) Avoidance Anxiety SS X Avoidance SS X Anxiety

−6.37 3.42 6.52 .55 −2.97

Symptomatic distress (N = 114)b 1.82 −.31 −3.50 1.78 .17 1.93 1.76 .32 3.70 2.28 .02 .24 1.81 −.16 −1.64

.001 .057 <.001 .810 .104

Supervisor Support (SS) Avoidance Anxiety SS X Avoidance SS X Anxiety

2.17 .78 −.76 −1.20 .87

Job satisfaction (N = 113)c .37 .49 5.93 .39 .18 2.04 .38 −.17 −1.99 .49 −.23 −2.48 .39 .21 2.26

<.001 .044 .049 .015 .026

Note. R 2 = .21 for Step 1; 1R 2 = .08 for Step 2 ( p < .01); 1R 2 = .05 for Step 3 ( p < .05). Note. R 2 = .10 for Step 1; 1R 2 = .17 for Step 2 ( p < .001); 1R 2 = .02 for Step 3 (ns). c Note. R 2 = .24 for Step 1; 1R 2 = .04 for Step 2 ( p = .06); 1R 2 = .05 for Step 3 ( p < .05).

a

b

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To help clarify the nature of the observed interaction effects on our measures of work stress intensity and job satisfaction, respectively, we created high and low groups on each predictor (i.e., supervisor support, anxiety, and avoidance) using only the upper and lower thirds of the sample distributions for these variables. We then plotted the relevant group means on each of the above dependent measures. Inspection of the plot of work stress intensity scores suggested that high (n = 15) and low (n = 10) anxiety groups were somewhat more discrepant under low supervisor support conditions than under high supervisor support conditions. To explore this further, we tested the means of the two attachment anxiety groups under each level of supervisor support. Under low support conditions, high anxious respondents reported higher stress intensity scores than did their low anxious counterparts (M = 135.84 vs. M = 92.20), and this difference approached significance, F(1, 24) = 3.54, p < .07. Under high support conditions, mean differences (M = 79.10 vs. M = 50.31), although still in the same direction, failed to meet or approach significance. Inspection of the plot of job satisfaction scores indicated a more clearly interpretable interaction that was limited to variation in adult attachment avoidance. Under low supervisor support conditions, high avoidant (n = 15) respondents reported significantly higher job satisfaction than did their low avoidant (n = 11) peers (M = 17.67 vs. M = 13.82), F(1, 25) = 5.60, p < .05. Under high supervisor support conditions, the group means were virtually identical (Ms = 22.33 vs. 22.15). DISCUSSION The primary objective of this study was to examine the conjoint contributions of supervisor support and workers’ adult attachment characteristics to the prediction of work-related strain. In particular, we were interested in whether workers’ adult attachment orientations toward anxiety and/or avoidance interacted significantly with perceived levels of supervisor support to predict scores on our strain indexes. As expected, supervisor support was related significantly in expected directions with each of our three strain indexes (i.e., work stress intensity, symptoms, and job satisfaction). Workers acknowledging higher levels of supervisor support reported less work stress intensity, fewer symptoms, and higher levels of job satisfaction. Our hypotheses that workers’ adult attachment style would be related significantly to our indexes of work strain were partially supported. Workers’ adult attachment characteristics (i.e., operationalized either as attachment styles or attachment orientations) were related significantly to two of our three work strain measures, but the strength of these relationships varied somewhat as a function of how attachment characteristics were measured. When adult attachment was assessed categorically, employees with anxious styles (i.e., those with either preoccupied or fearful attachment styles) reported significantly higher levels of work stress intensity and symptoms than did workers with either secure or dismissive attachment styles, who did not differ significantly from one another on these strain indexes. On the other hand, both anxious and dismissive workers reported

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significantly lower levels of supervisor support relative to their securely attached peers. These findings are generally consistent with those of Hazan and Shaver (1990) who first explored the relationship between adult attachment and vocational behavior. Contrary to expectation, adult attachment styles were not related significantly to job satisfaction scores. The pattern of job satisfaction means, however, was in the anticipated direction, with secure workers having the highest mean score (M = 19.29) and anxious workers the lowest (M = 17.86). Our failure to find significant differences on the latter strain index may be explained partially by the fact that all of our participants were employed at the same institution, most had been employed continuously there for several years, and, as a group, they generally reported high levels of job satisfaction. When adult attachment characteristics were assessed dimensionally (i.e., as adult attachment orientation scores), and included with supervisor support in the regression analyses of our strain indexes, a clearer picture of effects emerged. When supervisor support was controlled, adult attachment orientations (as a block) explained significant unique variance in work stress intensity and symptoms. Although job satisfaction showed no relationship to these variables as a block, the individual beta weights of two attachment-related predictors were significant and indicated a somewhat unexpected pattern wherein low anxiety and high avoidance among workers best predicted job satisfaction. This pattern suggests that workers who are less anxious about interpersonal rejection and less invested in forming close relationships are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs. Taken together, these results are consistent with the conclusions of Davis et al. (1998) and affirm that workers’ adult attachment orientations function as salient individual differences that can improve the prediction of strain beyond knowledge of workers’ perceived level of supervisor support. Moreover, as our regression analyses included examination of the interaction effects involving these variables and supervisor support, we were able to probe whether adult attachment orientations moderated the ability of supervisor support to predict worker strain. Evidence of moderation was detected for our measures of work stress intensity and job satisfaction, but not for symptoms. These findings suggested that workers with anxious attachment orientations may be especially likely to report intense work stress when they concurrently perceive low levels of support from their work supervisors. In addition, under low supervisor support conditions, individuals with higher avoidant attachment orientations appeared to be more satisfied with their jobs than were their less avoidant peers. Our findings suggest that prior inconsistencies in the literature regarding the impact of workplace support on employee strain may be in part attributable to (a) individual differences such as attachment styles and orientations that may affect employee perceptions of and reactions to the availability or nonavailability of supervisor support, and (b) how strain is conceptualized and measured. Individuals with anxious adult attachment styles and orientations seem especially likely to report and to react negatively to conditions of low perceived support; on the other hand, workers with more avoidant tendencies, although similarly likely to report low support, are less likely to respond negatively to it. In this sense our findings

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are consistent with Fuendeling’s (1998) conclusion that adult attachment styles represent distinct strategies for affect regulation. Moreover, strain measures that are especially sensitive to indications of anxious arousal or negative affectivity (such as our work stress measure that incorporated perceptions of the felt “intensity” of a stressful event in its overall operationalization of stress) are most likely to register these direct and interactive effects. Although we included multiple measures of work strain in our study, all of our measures were self-report and thereby also subject to other idiosyncratic forms of distortion. In addition, measures such as the HSCL are sensitive to strains outside of the realm of work. We thus recommend inclusion of more objective indexes of work-specific strain (e.g., absenteeism, official claims for stress-related disability, performance evaluations regarding temperament and interpersonal relations) in future research on the effects of workplace support and adult attachment characteristics on worker strain. Observing workers and supervisors under objectively stressful conditions (e.g., completing a time limited cooperative project in the lab or going through an actual corporate downsizing) also would help to clarify how attachment style affects the perception and response of workers to stress and social support. As noted earlier, all of our participants were drawn from a single state university. This limitation necessarily restricts the generalizability of our findings to other work sites and organizations. Furthermore, despite our generally successful efforts to recruit a representative sample of adult workers at our site, half of the employees invited to participate declined to do so, which may have introduced unknown self-selection biases into our sample. It should be noted that Dillman (1991) reported response rates of 50–80% among surveys that strictly adhered to all of his recommended procedures. Our response rate, which was at the lower end of this range, may have been due to our decision to forego Dillman’s recommendation for a final mailing of the survey to nonrespondents via certified mail seven weeks after the initial mailing. For these reasons, we recommend replication of our study on more diverse samples of workers at different work sites. Different organizations and work sites may have different proportions of anxious or avoidant workers, a characteristic that may affect observed relations between supervisor support and work strain. For example, work sites that actively recruit younger workers, have fewer benefits and advancement opportunities, and experience higher job turnover rates (e.g., fast food enterprises), may have considerably higher concentrations of anxious workers than what was observed in our sample. These environments also may vary more widely in the quality of training and supervision provided to employees. Finally, we sought to examine whether one’s attachment style–orientation in one life domain (intimate relationships) made important contributions to adjustment in another life domain (work relationships). Although our findings indicate that some level of cross-domain transfer is indeed detectable, we recommend development of measures capable of more sensitively assessing attachment dynamics in employee–supervisor relationships. In sum, our findings indicate that although high levels of supervisor support generally seem to have beneficial impacts on employees’ reported levels of strain,

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adult attachment orientations also make a unique contribution, and that the nature of the supervisor support-work strain relationship is likely to vary as a function of the employee’s attachment style. Anxious workers may benefit most from the perceived presence of these environmental provisions whereas avoidant workers may be affected less adversely by their perceived absence. REFERENCES Barone, D. F., Caddy, G. R., Katell, A. D., Roselione, F. B., & Hamilton, R. A. (1988). The work stress inventory: Organizational stress and job risk. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 141–154. Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226–244. Beehr, T. A. (1976). Perceived situational moderators of the relationship between subjective role ambiguity and role strain. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 35–40. Beehr, T. A., & Drexler, J. A. (1986). Social support, autonomy, and hierarchical level as moderators of the role characteristics-outcome relationship. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 7, 207–214. Blau, G. (1981). An empirical investigation of job stress, service length, and job strain. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 27, 279–302. Blustein, D. L., Priezioso, M. S., & Schultheiss, D. P. (1995). Attachment theory and career development: Current status and future directions. The Counseling Psychologist, 23, 416–432. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss, vol. 1: Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books. Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment. In J. A. Simpson and W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). New York: The Guilford Press. Caplan, R. D., Cobb, S., French, J. R. P., Jr., Harrison, R. U., & Pinneau, S. R., Jr. (1975). Job demands and worker health, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Publication No. 175-160. Y.S. Government Printing Office. The Institute for Social Research, Washington, D.C. Coyne, J. C., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Going beyond social support: The role of social relationships in adaptation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 454–460. Davis, M. H., Morris, M. M., & Kraus, L. A. (1998). Relationship-specific and global perceptions of social support: Associations with well-being and attachment. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 74, 468–481. Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., Rickels, K., Uhlenhuth, E. H., & Covi, L. (1974). The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory. Behavioral Science, 19, 1–15. Dillman, D. A. (1991). The design and administration of mail surveys. Annual Review of Sociology, 17, 225–249. Feeney, J. A., & Ryan, S. M. (1994). Attachment style and affect regulation: Relationships with health behavior and family experiences of illness in a student sample. Health Psychology, 13, 334–345. Fenlason, K. J., & Beehr, T. A. (1994). Social support and occupational stress: Effects of talking to others. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 157–175. Fisher, C. D. (1985). Social support and adjustment to work: A longitudinal study. Journal of Management, 11, 39–53. Florian, V., Mikulincer, M., & Bucholtz, I. (1995). Effects of adult attachment style on the perception and search for social support. The Journal of Psychology, 129, 665–676. Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 571–579. Fraley, R. C., & Waller, N. G. (1998). Adult attachment patterns: A test of the typological model. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 77–114). New York: The Guilford Press.

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