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Production of biodiesel from Cordiamyxa bio-oil using BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanoparticles as an alternative fuel for diesel engine
Materials Letters 243 (2019) 199–201
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials Letters journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mlblue
Production of biodiesel from Cordiamyxa bio-oil using BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanoparticles as an alternative fuel for diesel engine M. Karthikeyan ⇑ Department of Petroleum Engineering, AMET University, Kanathur, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 7 December 2018 Received in revised form 29 January 2019 Accepted 30 January 2019 Available online 2 February 2019 Keywords: Green energy Nanocatalyst Cordiamyxa biodiesel Transesterification Combustion Emission
a b s t r a c t In recent years, the production of biodiesel has rapidly increased due to its benefits and to resolve the problem findings present in environmental pollution. In, this study barium salts doped with cerium oxide are used as a heterogeneous catalyst for the production of biodiesel from Cordiamyxa oil. The synthesized BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanocatalyst has characterized by XRD (X-ray powder diffraction) and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) analysis. Methanol to a molar ratio of oil from 12:1 to 16:1 has studied and got the optimized results. An optimum yield of 87.50 wt% of methyl esters collected from Cordiamyxa biooil with optimized limits of 0.5 wt% of catalyst BaMoO4-Ce2O3 at 65 °C. The purpose of the current study investigates the analysis of biodiesel and their blends with diesel oil in four-stroke internal combustion engine (ICE) applications like unburned hydrocarbons, sulfates, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitrate aromatic hydrocarbons. Cordiamyxa methyl ester blend (Biodiesel-B20) with BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanoparticles shows a better engine performance and emission reduced compared to fossil fuels like decrease hydrocarbon particulate matters. Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Crude reserve decrease and concerns increase to global warming; the look for a sustainable, property and much measure of ecologically well-disposed of fuel supply needs development of biodiesel [1]. Vegetable oil, non-edible oils, and algae found to be the alternative energy source has used directly in the existing engine. The demands occur in the energy system, especially for petroleum-based products. Transesterification is nothing but a displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol [2]. Advantages biodiesel over diesel fuel is its portability, higher combustion, renewable, available, efficient, lower sulfur, higher Cetane number, higher biodegradability, and aromatic content [3]. Today alternative fuels have larger markets in the world. Recently, the International energy reports have shown that energy consumption is larger and it will grow near 110 barrels per day in 2018 and 138 barrels per day in 2040. The current market price of oil has already increased to 45–55% higher than 2030 projected. Members present in the oil wealth countries, OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) to supply 15.8 billion barrels per day. Due to these effects, the non-members present in OPEC the amount of oil production increased to 24.9 million barrels per day [4]. Biodie⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-8870861456. E-mail address: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.01.142 0167-577X/Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
sel can use directly in diesel engines with a count of their blended petrodiesel or without petrodiesel and it easily mixes with petrodiesel at any concentrations [5]. Today, automobile sectors have to decide many of their models are suitable for biodiesel. The automobile sector prefers blended biodiesel content up to 20% for use in vehicles because it has easy lubricity and especially on ultralow sulfur diesel [6]. The plan of this current study has to check the earliest studies in the emission and performance analysis of biodiesel in an enclosed combustion engine [7,8] The usual properties of Cordiamyxa biodiesel were compared to standard ASTM methods (D6751) are shown in Table 1.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Oil recovery and chemicals Oil has extracted by using different methods like steam distillation, solvent extraction, fractional distillation. Easiest and finest traditional wet method for oil estimation is a Soxhlet apparatus which has performed 100% of oil recovery. Solvents like methanol, acetone, hexane, chloroform, isopropanol, and toluene and chemicals like cerium trioxide, barium chloride, barium nitrate tetrahydrate, molybdic acid from SRL Chemicals Pvt Ltd Chennai. All above solvents, chemicals are in anhydrous grade and used in the
200
M. Karthikeyan / Materials Letters 243 (2019) 199–201
Table 1 Fuel properties of Cordiamyxa biodiesel. S NO.
Properties
Units
ASTM methods
ASTM limits (D6751)
Cordiamyxa biodiesel
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Specific Gravity Flash Point Cloud Point Pour Point Kinematic Viscosity @ 40 °C Acid Number Cetane Number Copper Strip Corrosion
– °C °C °C mm2 s 1 Mg KOH/g – –
D D D D D D D D
– 130 minimum Report Report 1.9–6.0 0.05 maximum 47 minimum Max number 3
0.781 149 2 4 4.98 0.039 49 1a
preliminary extraction process, hence, there will be no changes in their purity (99.9%) based on further steps [9]. 2.2. Transesterification setup The reaction was carried out in a 250 ml glassed container attached to condenser surrounded by a cool jacket the experimental setup was kept over the heating mantle. The molar ratio of Cordiamyxa oil to methanol was kept with 16:1. It has heated around 65 °C by ultrasonication method, with a ready heterogeneous catalyst. Inside the reactor, the temperature raised to 65 °C under 450 RPM at constant stirring and the process of transesterification reaction has carried out 2 h [10–12]. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of calcinations temperature on biodiesel production Transesterification reaction calcinations temperature largely affected their catalytic and structural properties of the catalyst. It influences the active sites, surface area, pore size and the total ability of the catalyst. Active pore and size of the catalyst increase with an increase in calcinations temperature. Fig. 1 shows the optimum reaction temperature varies from 45 °C to 65 °C at regular intervals. Ce2O3 nanocatalyst calcined at 550 °C to 610 °C for the 400 RPM agitation rate to produce the maximum yield of biodiesel 82.10% from Cordiamyxa oil.
4052 93 2500 2500 445 664 613 130
oil to methanol for biodiesel production has shown in Fig. 2. Reaction time, temperature and catalyst loading have fixed as 30 min, 65 °C and 0.5 wt%. As per oil to alcohol ratio be increasing the production yield be increased. The optimum molar ratio of oil to methanol has been determined at 16:1 for maximum yield of Cordiamyxa oil using BaMoO4 doped with Ce2O3 catalyst. 3.3. Effect of mass ratio of catalyst loading of biodiesel production Catalyst loading on transesterification reaction affects the reaction rate drastically and does not alter the rate of reversible reaction. A catalyst having more active and stability, less amount of catalyst is required for loading. In this work, BaMoO4-Ce2O3 the heterogeneous nanocatalyst was used to find the effect of the mass ratio of catalyst loading 0.25, 0.5 & 0.75 wt% with the reaction temperature of 65 °C and alcohol to oil a molar ratio as 16:1. The results of catalyst loading are shown below in Fig. 3. The efficiency results from a mass ratio of catalyst loading and optimum conversion yield of oil were achieved at 87.50% in 30 min. 3.4. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) In this analysis, Cordiamyxa biodiesel has established for various blends like B20, B20 + (BaMoO4-Ce2O3), and B100 + (BaMoO4Ce2O3) compared with diesel oil. The results of lower and better emission in the exhaust are shown in Fig. 6 (Supplementary). Exhaust gas temperature was rising equally in engine load extra as in biodiesel blends. Engine wanted an additional quantity of fuel to form further power necessary to hold out conditional loading.
3.2. Effect of oil to methanol ratio of biodiesel production 3.5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
45 deg. C 55 deg. C 65 deg. C
0
2
4
6
8
Nitrogen Oxides are toxic and extremely reactive gas. Once, the fuel has burned at higher temperature these gases formed. The
Conversion of TG (wt.%)
Conversion of TG (wt.%)
Production of biodiesel from transesterification process is the important thing for molar ratio of oil to alcohol. Further, the reverse reaction takes part excess alcohol present in a transesterification reaction to the product side. The effect of the molar ratio of
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
Time (min) Fig. 1. Effect of calcinations temperature on biodiesel production.
30
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
12:1 16:1 20:1
0
2
4
6
8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Time (min) Fig. 2. Effect of oil to methanol ratio of biodiesel production.
Conversion of TG (wt.%)
M. Karthikeyan / Materials Letters 243 (2019) 199–201
201
Conflict of interest
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
The author declares no conflict of interest. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.01.142.
0.25 wt% 0.5 wt% 0.75 wt%
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
References
28
30
Time (min) Fig. 3. Effect of catalyst loading of biodiesel production.
mixing of varied proportions of biodiesel results has shown in Fig. 7 (Supplementary). The emitted nitrogen oxides results are found to be low in Cordiamyxa biodiesel compared with diesel. The lower and better amounts of nitrogen oxide emissions are calculated. BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanoparticles present in EGT values of diesel and their nano additive blends B20, B20 + (BaMoO4-Ce2O3), and B100 + (BaMoO4-Ce2O3) are 325 °C, 267 °C, 257 °C and 302 °C. 4. Conclusion Cordiamyxa has chosen and developed to make them sensible for the biodiesel production. The extracted Cordiamyxa bio-oil has characterized by FT-IR and GC/MS analysis. Extraction kinetics were concluded with experimental plots and activation energy and thermodynamic parameters have calculated. The Cordiamyxa biooil was pre-treated by an esterification process to reduce their acid value was 1.42 mg KOH g 1 and saponification value was identified 187 mg KOH g 1, and it originated to appropriate for the transesterification process. The reaction conditions are optimized to increase the conversion of biodiesel production. The best result of 87.50% of methyl ester yield has acquired from Cordiamyxa oil under optimum conditions of 0.5 wt% of catalyst and 16:1 M ratio of oil to methanol at 65 °C temperatures for a reaction time of 30 min for 400 RPM agitation rate. Among these results from our research, Cordiamyxa biodiesel has appeared to be a better replacement for diesel in diesel engine applications like industrial and automotive sectors.
[1] Ahmed I. El-Seesya et al., The influence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes additives into non-edible biodiesel-diesel fuel blend on diesel engine performance and emissions, Energy Proc. 100 (2016) 166–172. [2] A.R.E. Atabani, A. da Silva César, Calophyllum inophyllum L. A prospective nonedible biodiesel feedstock. Study of biodiesel production, properties, fatty acid composition, blending and engine performance, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 37 (2014) 644–655. [3] G. Basker et al., Optimization and kinetics of biodiesel production from Mahua oil using manganese-doped zinc oxide nanocatalyst, Renewable Energy 107 (2017) 641–646. [4] EIA, International Energy Annual: System for the analysis of Global Energy Market, 2016. [5] Fayyazbakhsh, Determining the optimum conditions for modified diesel fuel combustion considering its emission, properties, and engine performance, . Energy Convers. Manage. 113 (2016) 209–219. [6] Fridhi Hadia et al., Investigation of combined effects of compression ratio and steam injection on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of HCCI engine, Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 10 (2017) 262–271. [7] W.N. Ghazali, R. Mamat, H.H. Masjuki, G. Najafi, Effects of biodiesel from different feedstocks on engine performance and emissions a review, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 51 (2015) 585–602. [8] Ibrahim Khalil Adam et al., Response surface methodology optimization of palm, rubber seed combined oil-based biodiesel and IDI diesel engine performance and emission, ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 11 (24) (2016) 1819–6608. [9] M. Karthikeyan, G. Baskar, S. Renganathan, Evaluation of Catharanthus roseus biodiesel as an alternative fuel to study the performance and emission characteristics via 4-S internal combustion engine, Int. J. Ind. Eng. 2 (7) (2018) 160–166. [10] M. Karthikeyan, S. Renganathan, P. Govindhan, Production of biodiesel via two-step acid-base catalyzed transesterification reaction of Karanja oil by BaMoO4 as a catalyst, Energy Sources, Part-A: Recov. Util. Environ. Effects 39 (11) (2017) 1504–1510. [11] R. Mathiarasi, N. Partha, Optimization, kinetics and thermodynamic studies on oil extraction from Datura metal Linn oilseed for biodiesel production, Renewable Energy 96 (2016) 583–590. [12] R. Mathiarasi, C. Mugeshkanna, N. Partha, Transesterification of soap nut oil using a novel catalyst, J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 21 (1) (2017) 11–17.
Further reading [13] Miqdam Tariq Chaichana et al., Novel technique for enhancement of diesel fuel: impact of aqueous alumina nano-fluid on engine’s performance and emissions, Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2017 (10) (2017) 611–620. [14] S. Padmanabhan et al., Performance and emission analysis on a CI engine using soap nut oil as a biofuel, ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 12 (8) (2017) 2491– 2495.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials Letters journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mlblue
Production of biodiesel from Cordiamyxa bio-oil using BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanoparticles as an alternative fuel for diesel engine M. Karthikeyan ⇑ Department of Petroleum Engineering, AMET University, Kanathur, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 7 December 2018 Received in revised form 29 January 2019 Accepted 30 January 2019 Available online 2 February 2019 Keywords: Green energy Nanocatalyst Cordiamyxa biodiesel Transesterification Combustion Emission
a b s t r a c t In recent years, the production of biodiesel has rapidly increased due to its benefits and to resolve the problem findings present in environmental pollution. In, this study barium salts doped with cerium oxide are used as a heterogeneous catalyst for the production of biodiesel from Cordiamyxa oil. The synthesized BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanocatalyst has characterized by XRD (X-ray powder diffraction) and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) analysis. Methanol to a molar ratio of oil from 12:1 to 16:1 has studied and got the optimized results. An optimum yield of 87.50 wt% of methyl esters collected from Cordiamyxa biooil with optimized limits of 0.5 wt% of catalyst BaMoO4-Ce2O3 at 65 °C. The purpose of the current study investigates the analysis of biodiesel and their blends with diesel oil in four-stroke internal combustion engine (ICE) applications like unburned hydrocarbons, sulfates, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitrate aromatic hydrocarbons. Cordiamyxa methyl ester blend (Biodiesel-B20) with BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanoparticles shows a better engine performance and emission reduced compared to fossil fuels like decrease hydrocarbon particulate matters. Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Crude reserve decrease and concerns increase to global warming; the look for a sustainable, property and much measure of ecologically well-disposed of fuel supply needs development of biodiesel [1]. Vegetable oil, non-edible oils, and algae found to be the alternative energy source has used directly in the existing engine. The demands occur in the energy system, especially for petroleum-based products. Transesterification is nothing but a displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol [2]. Advantages biodiesel over diesel fuel is its portability, higher combustion, renewable, available, efficient, lower sulfur, higher Cetane number, higher biodegradability, and aromatic content [3]. Today alternative fuels have larger markets in the world. Recently, the International energy reports have shown that energy consumption is larger and it will grow near 110 barrels per day in 2018 and 138 barrels per day in 2040. The current market price of oil has already increased to 45–55% higher than 2030 projected. Members present in the oil wealth countries, OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) to supply 15.8 billion barrels per day. Due to these effects, the non-members present in OPEC the amount of oil production increased to 24.9 million barrels per day [4]. Biodie⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-8870861456. E-mail address: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.01.142 0167-577X/Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
sel can use directly in diesel engines with a count of their blended petrodiesel or without petrodiesel and it easily mixes with petrodiesel at any concentrations [5]. Today, automobile sectors have to decide many of their models are suitable for biodiesel. The automobile sector prefers blended biodiesel content up to 20% for use in vehicles because it has easy lubricity and especially on ultralow sulfur diesel [6]. The plan of this current study has to check the earliest studies in the emission and performance analysis of biodiesel in an enclosed combustion engine [7,8] The usual properties of Cordiamyxa biodiesel were compared to standard ASTM methods (D6751) are shown in Table 1.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Oil recovery and chemicals Oil has extracted by using different methods like steam distillation, solvent extraction, fractional distillation. Easiest and finest traditional wet method for oil estimation is a Soxhlet apparatus which has performed 100% of oil recovery. Solvents like methanol, acetone, hexane, chloroform, isopropanol, and toluene and chemicals like cerium trioxide, barium chloride, barium nitrate tetrahydrate, molybdic acid from SRL Chemicals Pvt Ltd Chennai. All above solvents, chemicals are in anhydrous grade and used in the
200
M. Karthikeyan / Materials Letters 243 (2019) 199–201
Table 1 Fuel properties of Cordiamyxa biodiesel. S NO.
Properties
Units
ASTM methods
ASTM limits (D6751)
Cordiamyxa biodiesel
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Specific Gravity Flash Point Cloud Point Pour Point Kinematic Viscosity @ 40 °C Acid Number Cetane Number Copper Strip Corrosion
– °C °C °C mm2 s 1 Mg KOH/g – –
D D D D D D D D
– 130 minimum Report Report 1.9–6.0 0.05 maximum 47 minimum Max number 3
0.781 149 2 4 4.98 0.039 49 1a
preliminary extraction process, hence, there will be no changes in their purity (99.9%) based on further steps [9]. 2.2. Transesterification setup The reaction was carried out in a 250 ml glassed container attached to condenser surrounded by a cool jacket the experimental setup was kept over the heating mantle. The molar ratio of Cordiamyxa oil to methanol was kept with 16:1. It has heated around 65 °C by ultrasonication method, with a ready heterogeneous catalyst. Inside the reactor, the temperature raised to 65 °C under 450 RPM at constant stirring and the process of transesterification reaction has carried out 2 h [10–12]. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of calcinations temperature on biodiesel production Transesterification reaction calcinations temperature largely affected their catalytic and structural properties of the catalyst. It influences the active sites, surface area, pore size and the total ability of the catalyst. Active pore and size of the catalyst increase with an increase in calcinations temperature. Fig. 1 shows the optimum reaction temperature varies from 45 °C to 65 °C at regular intervals. Ce2O3 nanocatalyst calcined at 550 °C to 610 °C for the 400 RPM agitation rate to produce the maximum yield of biodiesel 82.10% from Cordiamyxa oil.
4052 93 2500 2500 445 664 613 130
oil to methanol for biodiesel production has shown in Fig. 2. Reaction time, temperature and catalyst loading have fixed as 30 min, 65 °C and 0.5 wt%. As per oil to alcohol ratio be increasing the production yield be increased. The optimum molar ratio of oil to methanol has been determined at 16:1 for maximum yield of Cordiamyxa oil using BaMoO4 doped with Ce2O3 catalyst. 3.3. Effect of mass ratio of catalyst loading of biodiesel production Catalyst loading on transesterification reaction affects the reaction rate drastically and does not alter the rate of reversible reaction. A catalyst having more active and stability, less amount of catalyst is required for loading. In this work, BaMoO4-Ce2O3 the heterogeneous nanocatalyst was used to find the effect of the mass ratio of catalyst loading 0.25, 0.5 & 0.75 wt% with the reaction temperature of 65 °C and alcohol to oil a molar ratio as 16:1. The results of catalyst loading are shown below in Fig. 3. The efficiency results from a mass ratio of catalyst loading and optimum conversion yield of oil were achieved at 87.50% in 30 min. 3.4. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) In this analysis, Cordiamyxa biodiesel has established for various blends like B20, B20 + (BaMoO4-Ce2O3), and B100 + (BaMoO4Ce2O3) compared with diesel oil. The results of lower and better emission in the exhaust are shown in Fig. 6 (Supplementary). Exhaust gas temperature was rising equally in engine load extra as in biodiesel blends. Engine wanted an additional quantity of fuel to form further power necessary to hold out conditional loading.
3.2. Effect of oil to methanol ratio of biodiesel production 3.5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
45 deg. C 55 deg. C 65 deg. C
0
2
4
6
8
Nitrogen Oxides are toxic and extremely reactive gas. Once, the fuel has burned at higher temperature these gases formed. The
Conversion of TG (wt.%)
Conversion of TG (wt.%)
Production of biodiesel from transesterification process is the important thing for molar ratio of oil to alcohol. Further, the reverse reaction takes part excess alcohol present in a transesterification reaction to the product side. The effect of the molar ratio of
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
Time (min) Fig. 1. Effect of calcinations temperature on biodiesel production.
30
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
12:1 16:1 20:1
0
2
4
6
8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Time (min) Fig. 2. Effect of oil to methanol ratio of biodiesel production.
Conversion of TG (wt.%)
M. Karthikeyan / Materials Letters 243 (2019) 199–201
201
Conflict of interest
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
The author declares no conflict of interest. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.01.142.
0.25 wt% 0.5 wt% 0.75 wt%
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
References
28
30
Time (min) Fig. 3. Effect of catalyst loading of biodiesel production.
mixing of varied proportions of biodiesel results has shown in Fig. 7 (Supplementary). The emitted nitrogen oxides results are found to be low in Cordiamyxa biodiesel compared with diesel. The lower and better amounts of nitrogen oxide emissions are calculated. BaMoO4-Ce2O3 nanoparticles present in EGT values of diesel and their nano additive blends B20, B20 + (BaMoO4-Ce2O3), and B100 + (BaMoO4-Ce2O3) are 325 °C, 267 °C, 257 °C and 302 °C. 4. Conclusion Cordiamyxa has chosen and developed to make them sensible for the biodiesel production. The extracted Cordiamyxa bio-oil has characterized by FT-IR and GC/MS analysis. Extraction kinetics were concluded with experimental plots and activation energy and thermodynamic parameters have calculated. The Cordiamyxa biooil was pre-treated by an esterification process to reduce their acid value was 1.42 mg KOH g 1 and saponification value was identified 187 mg KOH g 1, and it originated to appropriate for the transesterification process. The reaction conditions are optimized to increase the conversion of biodiesel production. The best result of 87.50% of methyl ester yield has acquired from Cordiamyxa oil under optimum conditions of 0.5 wt% of catalyst and 16:1 M ratio of oil to methanol at 65 °C temperatures for a reaction time of 30 min for 400 RPM agitation rate. Among these results from our research, Cordiamyxa biodiesel has appeared to be a better replacement for diesel in diesel engine applications like industrial and automotive sectors.
[1] Ahmed I. El-Seesya et al., The influence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes additives into non-edible biodiesel-diesel fuel blend on diesel engine performance and emissions, Energy Proc. 100 (2016) 166–172. [2] A.R.E. Atabani, A. da Silva César, Calophyllum inophyllum L. A prospective nonedible biodiesel feedstock. Study of biodiesel production, properties, fatty acid composition, blending and engine performance, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 37 (2014) 644–655. [3] G. Basker et al., Optimization and kinetics of biodiesel production from Mahua oil using manganese-doped zinc oxide nanocatalyst, Renewable Energy 107 (2017) 641–646. [4] EIA, International Energy Annual: System for the analysis of Global Energy Market, 2016. [5] Fayyazbakhsh, Determining the optimum conditions for modified diesel fuel combustion considering its emission, properties, and engine performance, . Energy Convers. Manage. 113 (2016) 209–219. [6] Fridhi Hadia et al., Investigation of combined effects of compression ratio and steam injection on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of HCCI engine, Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 10 (2017) 262–271. [7] W.N. Ghazali, R. Mamat, H.H. Masjuki, G. Najafi, Effects of biodiesel from different feedstocks on engine performance and emissions a review, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 51 (2015) 585–602. [8] Ibrahim Khalil Adam et al., Response surface methodology optimization of palm, rubber seed combined oil-based biodiesel and IDI diesel engine performance and emission, ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 11 (24) (2016) 1819–6608. [9] M. Karthikeyan, G. Baskar, S. Renganathan, Evaluation of Catharanthus roseus biodiesel as an alternative fuel to study the performance and emission characteristics via 4-S internal combustion engine, Int. J. Ind. Eng. 2 (7) (2018) 160–166. [10] M. Karthikeyan, S. Renganathan, P. Govindhan, Production of biodiesel via two-step acid-base catalyzed transesterification reaction of Karanja oil by BaMoO4 as a catalyst, Energy Sources, Part-A: Recov. Util. Environ. Effects 39 (11) (2017) 1504–1510. [11] R. Mathiarasi, N. Partha, Optimization, kinetics and thermodynamic studies on oil extraction from Datura metal Linn oilseed for biodiesel production, Renewable Energy 96 (2016) 583–590. [12] R. Mathiarasi, C. Mugeshkanna, N. Partha, Transesterification of soap nut oil using a novel catalyst, J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 21 (1) (2017) 11–17.
Further reading [13] Miqdam Tariq Chaichana et al., Novel technique for enhancement of diesel fuel: impact of aqueous alumina nano-fluid on engine’s performance and emissions, Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2017 (10) (2017) 611–620. [14] S. Padmanabhan et al., Performance and emission analysis on a CI engine using soap nut oil as a biofuel, ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 12 (8) (2017) 2491– 2495.