Production of maize tortillas and cookies from nixtamalized flour enriched with anthocyanins, flavonoids and saponins extracted from black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seed coats

Food Chemistry 192 (2016) 90–97

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Production of maize tortillas and cookies from nixtamalized flour enriched with anthocyanins, flavonoids and saponins extracted from black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seed coats Rocio A. Chávez-Santoscoy a, Janet A. Gutiérrez-Uribe b, Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar b, Esther Perez-Carrillo b,⇑ a Facultad de Ciencias Químicas e Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California – Campus Tijuana, Calzada Universidad 14418, Parque Industrial Internacional Tijuana, C.P. 22390 Tijuana, B.C., Mexico b Centro de Biotecnología FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey – Campus Monterrey, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501 Sur, C.P. 64849 Monterrey, N.L., Mexico

a r t i c l e

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Article history: Received 27 January 2015 Received in revised form 29 June 2015 Accepted 30 June 2015 Available online 2 July 2015 Keywords: Anthocyanins Black bean Saponins Nixtamalized maize flour

a b s t r a c t Ethanolic extract from black beans coat is a source of flavonoids, saponins and antocyanins. Nixtamalized maize flours (NF) are used for the preparation of products such as tortillas, tortillas chips, cookies among others. The objective of this research was to study the effect on textural parameters and color after adding flavonoids, saponins and anthocyanins from black bean seed coat in NF used for the production of tortillas and gluten-free cookies. Furthermore, the retention of bioactive compounds after tortilla and gluten-free-cookie preparation was assessed. Ethanolic extracts of black bean seed coats were added (3 g/kg or 7 g/kg) to NF in order to prepare corn tortillas and gluten free cookies characterized in terms of dimensions, color and texture. Addition of 7 g/kg affected the color of cookies and tortillas without effect on texture and dimensions. It was possible to retain more than 80% and 60% of bioactives into baked tortillas and cookies, respectively. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Nowadays, foods are not intended to only provide necessary nutrients but also nutraceuticals which improve physical and mental well-being and prevent nutrition-related or chronic diseases (Siró, Kápolna, Kápolna, & Lugasi, 2008). Thus, functional foods play a critical and unique role in new product developments. Maize tortillas, obtained from the nixtamalization process, are considered the most relevant staple for the Mexican population. For Mexicans and other Latin-Americans, tortillas are the most important sources of protein, calcium, fiber and energy (Palacios-Fonseca, Vazquez-Ramos, & Rodríguez-García, 2009). Maize tortillas and derived products such as tortilla chips, corn chips, taco shells, among others, have increased their commercial importance. Unfortunately, nixtamalization and other alternative processes for tortilla elaboration promote the loss of phenolic Abbreviations: 3GBBE, formulation with 3 g/kg of black bean seed coat extract; 7GBBE, formulation with 7 g/kg of black bean seed coat extract; CN, formulation without black bean seed coat extract (control); RVA, Rapid Visco Analyser; TPA, texture profile analysis; WAI, water absorption index; WSI, water solubility index. ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Perez-Carrillo). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.06.113 0308-8146/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

and antioxidants (Mora-Rochin et al., 2010). De la Parra, Serna-Saldivar, and Liu (2007) have demonstrated that in five types of maize (white, yellow, high carotenoid, blue, and red), lime-cooking significantly reduced the phytochemical content and antioxidant activities of finished products. Thus, the addition of phenolic compounds after the process of nixtamalization could be an alternative to increase phytochemical and antioxidant activity in finished products. Recently, compounds from black bean seed coats (flavonoids, phytosterols and saponins) have been studied because of their hypocholesterolemic effect (Chavez-Santoscoy et al., 2014; Chavez-Santoscoy, Tovar, Serna-Saldivar, Torres, & Gutiérrez-Uribe, 2014). Particularly, black bean seed coats could be an efficient source of bioactive compounds that can be added to food for the purpose of exerting health benefits. There are some reports about the resistance of black bean seed compounds to heat formulations. Interestingly, it has been previously reported that heat treatment, such as microwave, significantly increased the total phenolic content (20%) and antioxidant activity (18%) of some varieties of beans depending on bean cultivar/market class (Oomah, Kotzeva, Allen, & Bassinello, 2014). But also heat treatment during canning reduces the concentration of

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anthocyanins and flavonoids in common beans (Pedrosa et al., 2015). Therefore, the extraction of bioactive compounds from seed coats and their use as food ingredient represents an excellent alternative but little is known about their stability during dry cooking. Due to the demonstrated hypocholesterolemic effect of saponins, they have been incorporated into bread as isolates, extracts o legume flours. Saponins from soy and chickpea not only are stable after baking but also they were more bioaccessible. Particularly, saponin isolates had demonstrated to improve textural properties of bread (Serventi et al., 2013) but little is known about their effects into tortillas or cookies. The objective of this research was to study the effect on textural parameters and color after adding flavonoids, saponins and anthocyanins from black bean seed coat in NF used for the production of tortillas and gluten-free cookies. Furthermore, the retention of bioactive compounds after tortilla and gluten-free-cookie preparation was assessed. 2. Experimental 2.1. Black bean seed coat extract The black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. San Luis) were obtained from Sinaloa, Mexico and were stored at 4 °C and relative humidity of 85%. In preparation for decortication, the beans were hydrated in a plastic bag with distilled water at a 100:1 (w:v) ratio and maintained at room temperature for 24 h before drying during 6 h at 60 °C. Later, the seed coats were removed using a dehuller (Nutana Machine, Saskatoon, SK, Canada) equipped with a set of five 30 cm diameter carborundum (60 grit) disks. Seed coat extraction of bioactive compounds was performed with 60% ethanol in water (v/v) acidified with 0.1% acetic acid using a mass-solvent ratio of 1:10 w/v at 27 °C. The mixture was stirred for 12 h at 250 rpm and left without stirring for one additional hour to allow sedimentation. The supernatant was recovered by vacuum filtering through Whatman paper No. 1. The resulting extract was concentrated in a rotary evaporator to remove ethanol. The bath temperature was set at 50 °C, and pressure in the vacuum pump at a range of 70 to 90 kPa. Once ethanol was removed, the concentrated extract was lyophilized and the resulting freeze-dried powder stored at 80 °C. 2.2. Traditional nixtamalized maize flour production Dent white maize (Zea mays L.) was procured from the 2010 harvest of Mochis, Sinaloa. The germplasm was Asgrow brand 773 with intermediate endosperm texture preferred by the tortilla industry. The maize sample was stored at 4 °C until use. The lime-cooking properties of the white maize were determined according to the nylon bag procedure previously described (Serna-Saldivar, Gomez, Almeida-Dominguez, Islas Rubio, & Rooney, 1993). White maize was lime-cooked at 95–100 °C for 45 min. Optimum cooking time was considered the time sufficient to increase nixtamal moisture to 48% after 16 h steeping. The cleaned and washed lime-cooked maize was stone-ground into dough using a commercial mill (Fertitor, Puebla, Mexico) equipped with a pair of carved 23-cm-diameter volcanic stones. Water (181 mL/kg nixtamal) was gradually added during grinding to increase the dough moisture to approximately 56% and to prevent excessive heat generation. The resulting dough was dried at 50 °C for 48 h. The dehydrated dry dough was remilled using a knife mill (Wiley MillÒ, Swedesboro, NJ) equipped with a 2.0 mm screen. Nixtamalized maize flour (NF) samples were enriched by mixing two different concentrations of the freeze-dried black bean

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seed coat extract. Thus, three composite flours were obtained: NF used as control (CN), NF with 3 g of black bean extract/kg (3GBBE) and NF with 7 g of extract/kg (7GBBE). Resulting composited flours were packed in plastic bags under vacuum conditions for further processing and analysis. 2.3. Flours and dough characterization Moisture contents of the NF were analyzed using the AOAC (1999) method (925.09B). Flour particle size distribution was determined after rotaping for 10 min 100 g of flour with a nest of US standard sieves No. 60, 80, 100 and a collection pan. The fractions retained in each of the different meshes were separated, weighed and expressed on percentage. The water absorption (WAI) and water solubility (WSI) indexes were obtained according to (Anderson, Conway, Pfeifer, & Griffin, 1970) using the formula (g precipitate/g dry sample) for the WAI and (g soluble solids/g dry sample) * 100 for the WSI. The relative viscosities of the water suspensions of maize flour dough were determined using a Rapid Visco Analyser, RVA (StarchMaster, Perten, Warriewood, Australia) according to Fernandez-Muñoz, Acosta-Osorio, Zelaya-Angel, and Rodríguez-García (2011). Dough samples were adjusted to 14% moisture content, and distilled water was added to keep the total weight of water and sample at 28 g. The sample was heated over 5 min from 50 °C to 90 °C at a rate of 5.6 °C/min, and then held at a constant temperature of 90 °C for 5 min, the sample was then cooled down to 50 °C over 5 min, the total time for the test was 15 min at 160 rpm. All the analyses were conducted in triplicate and average values were reported. Dough adhesiveness was determined according to the method described by (Ruiz-Gutiérrez et al., 2012) a fresh tortilla dough was rested for 15 min in a polyethylene bag and 80 g were roll into a 4 cm diameter cylinder and then tested using a TA.XT2 texturometer (Texture Analyzer plus, TA Instruments, Surrey GU7 1YL, UK) with a 0.048 N (kgf) trigger force at test speed 5 mm/s. Rheological parameters were determined using a Rheometer (RHEOPLUS 32 V3.40, Germany) with the accessory PP50-SN22586 using 2 g of each fresh tortilla dough previously rested for 15 min in a polyethylene bag. Each sample was placed between the plates with a 3.0 cm gap. Frequency sweep test were performed at a deformation of 0.04% at 25 °C. The viscoelastic parameters obtained were the storage modulus (G0 ) loss modulus (G00 ) and complex viscosity (g⁄) in kPa. All the measurements were made in five replicates and average values were reported. 2.4. Tortilla preparation Tortillas were made by mixing 400 g of respective composite flour with 418 mL of water to achieve an adequate consistency of the resulting dough. According to Cuevas-Rodríguez, Reyes-Moreno, Eckhoff, and Milán-Carrillo (2009), the fresh dough was divided into 30 g pieces and pressed into flat discs using a manual tortilla pressing machine. The resulting discs were baked on a hot griddle at 220 ± 5 °C for 10 s on one side, turned over and heated for 15 s on the other side and finally an additional 5 s on the initial side. 2.5. Tortillas characterization Physical tortilla characteristics such as weight, diameter and thickness were measured. Color parameters L⁄, a⁄ and b⁄ were also obtained using a colorimeter (CR-300 Series, Minolta, Japan). All the measurements were made in triplicate and average values reported.

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The maximum extensibility force (N) and distance (mm) in the tortillas was determined according to the method described by (Ruiz-Gutiérrez et al., 2012) using a TA.XT2 texturometer (Texture Analyzer plus, TA Instruments); tortilla rectangles were formed and extended in the texturometer until breaking. Five replicates were obtained and the average value reported. Tortilla rollability was evaluated according to the method previously reported (Platt-Lucero et al., 2010). Briefly, three 2-cm wide strips were cut from each analyzed tortilla. Each strip was wrapped around a 2 cm diameter wooden cylinder and the degree of rupture was subjectively rated using a scale of 1 to 5, where five was an unruptured tortilla, 3 was a partially ruptured tortilla and 1 was a completely ruptured tortilla. Five tortillas were measured per formulation. 2.6. Cookies preparation CN, 3GGE or 7GGE composite flours (100 g), shortening (27.24 g), salt (0.91 g) baking soda (1.14 g), brown sugar (13.62 g), guar gum (0.91 g) were placed in a dough bowl and blended for 1 min at slow speed. Then, lactic acid (0.02 g) and water (24.97 mL) were incorporated and mixed into a dough at low speed for 4 min. The dough was sheeted into 2 cm and cut with a circular mold of 6.5 cm of diameter. The formed cookies were placed onto a greased baking sheet and baked in convection oven (Electrolux EOG 601 X Gas single oven) set at 170 °C for 23 min. 2.7. Characterization of cookies The L⁄, a⁄ and b⁄ color parameters for the different composite flours were obtained with a colorimeter (CR-300 Series, Minolta, Japan). The spread factor was determined according to Ganorkar and Jain (2014). Cookies compression tests were performed with the TA-XT2 Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems) with a 35 mm metallic cylindrical probe of 1/200 diameter. Tests were conducted at speed of 1 mm/s and distance of 5 mm. The maximum compression force and the deformation were determined. Five replicates were obtained and the average value reported. 2.8. Quantification of bioactive compounds in extract, dough, tortilla and cookies

a calibration curve of soyasaponin I (Sigma, St. Louis MO) and expressed as equivalents in mg/100 g. 2.9. Anthocyanins determination in dough, tortilla and cookies Total anthocyanins were assayed according to the method previously reported by Abdel-Aal and Hucl (1999). Briefly, lyophilized and homogenized ground dough or tortilla (1 g) was used for extraction with 10 mL of an acidified methanol solution (95% methanol and 1 N HCl 85:15, v/v) in a 50 mL centrifuge tube. The tube was flushed with nitrogen gas, agitated for 30 min and then centrifuged at 3000g for 10 min, and then supernatant was collected. Absorbance readings at 535 nm were taken and corrected for background absorbance at 700 nm (due to turbidity) using a Synergy Microplate Reader. Anthocyanin contents were calculated by the following equation:

C ¼ ½ðA535 nm  A700 nm Þ=e  ðtotal volume of methanolic extractÞ  MW  ð1=sample wtÞ where C was the concentration of total anthocyanin (mg of cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalents per g of sample), e was the molar absorptivity (cyanidin 3-glucoside = 25,965/cm/M), A was the absorbance at 535 nm and 700 nm respectively, and MW was the molecular weight of cyanidin 3-glucoside, 449.2 g/mol. The percent retention of compounds was calculated from the original quantity of compounds that were added to the formulations, as 100%, compared to the content remained in the final product (tortilla or gluten-free cookie). 2.10. Statistical analysis Results were expressed as means ± standard error. Data was analyzed with MINITAB 16 software. The statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test to identify significant differences among groups with a level of significance of p < 0.05. Every experiment was performed with three or five replicates. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Nixtamalized maize flour and dough characterization

Dough, tortilla or cookies samples (5 g) were lyophilized and ground (Moulinex, DPA139). Then, an extraction was performed with 50 mL of 80% methanol in water (v/v), stirred at 250 rpm for 3 h at 27 °C and finally left for one additional hour to allow sedimentation. The supernatant was recovered and concentrated in a rotary evaporator to remove methanol, the bath temperature was set at 50 °C and pressure in the vacuum pump at a range of 70 to 90 kPa. Finally the samples where freeze-dried and dissolved in 1 mL of 80% methanol in water for the quantification of main bioactive compounds. Flavonoids and saponins were quantified through a High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph coupled with UV–Visible detector and an Evaporative Light Scattering Detector, HPLC-UV–VIS-ELSD (1200 Series, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA), respectively. The HPLC was equipped with a Zorbax SB-Aq (3  150 mm, 3.5 lm) column and data generated through Agilent ChemStation software. Separation conditions were as previously reported (Guajardo-Flores, García-Patiño, Serna-Guerrero, Gutiérrez-Uribe, & Serna-Saldívar, 2012). Glycosylated forms of quercetin, myricetin and kaempferol were quantified with the chromatogram obtained at 360 nm using a calibration curve of the corresponding aglycone standard and expressed in mg/100 g. On the other hand, saponins were detected and quantified with the ELSD chromatogram using

The addition of black bean seed coat extract did not affect NF moisture (Table 1) and the values were in the range of those

Table 1 Moisture, particle size distribution and functional properties of composite flours obtained from nixtamalized maize and ethanolic black bean extract and dough moisture and adhesiveness1. Parameter

CN

3GBBE

Moisture (%)

10.28 ± 0.92a

10.12 ± 0.83a

9.43 ± 0.91a

Particle size distribution US sieve (%) No. 60 54.10 ± 1.11a No. 80 44.70 ± 1.02b No. 100 1.00 ± 0.08b

46.20 ± 1.01b 50.90 ± 1.95a 1.90 ± 0.05a

47.20 ± 1.20b 50.80 ± 1.01a 1.90 ± 0.08a

2.24 ± 0.33a 0.39 ± 0.02a

2.33 ± 0.05a 0.33 ± 0.01a

2.47 ± 0.16a 0.20 ± 0.02b

55.35 ± 0.91a 0.48 ± 0.01a

53.68 ± 1.10b 0.66 ± 0.02b

50.71 ± 0.86c 0.99 ± 0.03c

WAI WSI Dough Moisture (%) Adhesiveness (g.s) a,b,c

7GBBE

Different letters in the same row are significant different (p < 0.05). CN, control; 3GBBE, 3 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour; 7GBBE, 7 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour. WSI = water solubility index; WAI = water absorption index. 1

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reported previously by Palacios-Fonseca et al. (2009). Compared to the CN counterpart, formulations with black bean seed coat extract (3GBBE and 7GBBE) contained a slightly higher proportion of finer particles since the extract was added to flour in a fine powder form. For the CN, 54.10% of the total flour was retained in the US standard sieve No. 60 and 44.70% in US standard sieve No. 80. It has also been reported that for table tortillas, the particle size distribution should be dominated by fine particles to favor tortilla texture (Palacios-Fonseca et al., 2009), as it was observed in enriched flours 3GBBE and 7GBBE. The addition of black bean seed coat extract did not significantly (p < 0.05) affect the water absorption index (WAI). However, the water solubility index (WSI) in the 7GBBE flour was significantly lower compared to the CN and 3GBBE formulations. The incorporation of flavonoids and saponins associated to the black bean seed coat extract reduced water solubility as it was observed with sorghum proanthocyanidins in previous reports (Barros, Awika, & Rooney, 2012). Black bean seed coat extract addition (7 g/kg) reduced dough moisture (Table 1), probably due to the lower WSI. Adhesiveness values were into the range reported previously for this kind of doughs (Rangel-Meza et al., 2004). Doughs with 7 g/kg of black bean seed coat extract (7GBBE) showed the highest adhesiveness, therefore doughs acquired better machinability (Ruiz-Gutiérrez et al., 2012). To obtain optimum dough texture for proper sheeting, it is imperative that dough should have sufficient adhesiveness to form tortilla without being too sticky (Sahai et al., 2001). The incorporation of 7 g of the black bean extract/kg affected water interaction and therefore influenced the viscoelastic properties of the dough (Fig. 1). Addition of 7 g of extract per kg of flour (7GBBE) slightly increased the final viscosity values indicating higher degree of retrogradation or setback. Regarding to viscosity properties, the dry dough flour containing 3 g of extract/kg (3GBBE) had a similar profile compared to the control sample (CN) and they were similar to viscosity profiles previously reported by Fernandez-Muñoz et al. (2011). As depicted in Fig. 1, the pasting or transition temperature (the first turning point where the curve changes slope) was increased by the addition of 7 g/kg of black

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bean seed coat extract (7GBBE). The differences in pasting temperature might be related to the flavonoids of the added black bean seed coat extract. Barros et al. (2012) observed that the phenolic content of sorghum significantly affected normal starch pasting properties and Wu, Lin, Chen, and Xiao (2011) concluded that tea polyphenols and rice starch can have hydrogen bonding during gelatinization. All composite flours had a pseuodoplastic behavior but the addition of the black bean seed coat extract decreased G0 and G00 values compared to the control dough (Fig. 2A). The storage modulus G0 is an indicator of the elastic component of the material whereas the loss modulus G00 of the viscous component. At different shear stress and angular frequency in all composite flours, the G0 were higher than G00 . Fig. 2B shows a decrease in viscosity upon increasing the angular frequency, corroborating the pseudoplastic behavior. The addition of black bean seed coat extract decreased the elasticity of doughs compared to the control dough (Fig. 2B). The differences in rheological profiles could be attributed to the interaction with saponins and flavonoids present in the black bean seed coat extract. It has previously been reported that the addition of saponins to dough resulted in a decreased specific gravity and apparent viscosity (Park, Plahar, Hung, McWatters, & Eun, 2005). Moreover, it has been reported that the addition of saponins decreased dough elasticity (Plahar, Hung, McWatters, Phillips, & Chinnan, 2006). In the other hand, a similar effect was observed due to the interaction of sorghum starch and phenols (Barros et al., 2012). Starch is the majority compound of NF. While flavonoid–protein interactions and binding have been the subject of intensive study, significantly less is understood about non-covalent interactions with carbohydrates and lipids. These interactions with macronutrients are likely to impact both the flavonoid properties in foods and the food matrix itself, including their taste, texture and other sensorial properties. Overall, non-covalent binding of flavonoids with macronutrients is primarily driven by van der Waals interactions. From the flavonoid perspective, these interactions are modulated by characteristics such as degree of polymerization, molecular flexibility, number of external hydroxyl groups, or number of terminal galloyl groups; from

Fig. 1. Effects of addition of black bean extracts in the viscosity properties of dry dough flours.

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Fig. 2. Effect of addition of black bean extracts to dry dough flours on rheology properties of the dough. (A) Shear stress properties (B) angular frequency properties.

the macronutrient standpoint, electrostatic and ionic interactions are generally predominant with carbohydrate (Bordenave, Hamaker, & Ferruzzi, 2014).

Table 2 Effects of addition of two different levels of black bean extracts on physical and textural properties of tortillas1.

3.2. Effect of added black bean seed coat extract into tortilla and cookies characteristics Tortilla diameter, thickness, and weight were similar than those reported before (Platt-Lucero et al., 2010) and they were not affected by the addition of black bean seed coat extract (Table 2) even though the composite NF had different rheological properties. Addition of black bean seed coats extract allowed the production of maize tortillas similar in color to those produced with blue maize. The color of tortillas made with NF plus 3 or 7 g/kg of black bean seed coats extracts (3GBBE or 7GBBE, respectively) had lower L (luminosity) as in previous reports for pigmented maize tortillas (Vázquez-Carrillo, Pérez-Camarillo, Hernández-Casillas, Marrufo -Diaz, & Martínez –Ruiz, 2011). It was previously reported that the addition of polyphenols to maize flour decreased L value, indicating darker tortillas (Maya-Cortés et al., 2010). Tortillas containing black bean seed coat extracts also had lower b values (yellowness) compared to NF tortillas. The changes in b and a values were mainly attributed to the presence of anthocyanins in the extract (Shipp, 2010).

Parameter

CN

3GBBE

7GBBE

Diameter (cm) Thickness (cm) Weight (g)

10.94 ± 0.20a 1.70 ± 0.10a 22.81 ± 0.97a

10.56 ± 0.18a 1.80 ± 0.09a 23.13 ± 1.01a

10.92 ± 0.19a 1.60 ± 0.10a 23.86 ± 1.02a

Color L a b

56.55 ± 6.07a 0.19 ± 0.18a 16.08 ± 1.74a

48.78 ± 5.78b 0.29 ± 0.21a 8.81 ± 0.76b

45.46 ± 1.93b 0.83 ± 0.38b 7.42 ± 0.38b

Texture Force (N) Distance (mm) Rollability

10.38 ± 0.24a 0.81 ± 0.01a 2.0 ± 0.4a

10.20 ± 0.18a 0.81 ± 0.02a 2.2 ± 0.4a

10.30 ± 0.15a 0.81 ± 0.01a 1.8 ± 0.4a

a,b

Different letters in the same row are significant different (p < 0.05). CN, control; 3GBBE, 3 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour; 7GBBE, 7 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour. 1

Force value are into typically reported for this kind of products (Rangel-Meza et al., 2004), distance was slightly lower that reported by Bueso, Rooney, Waniska, and Silva (2004) and rollability value is slightly higher that reported by Arámbula, Mauricio,

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R.A. Chávez-Santoscoy et al. / Food Chemistry 192 (2016) 90–97 Table 3 Effects of addition of two different levels of black bean extracts on physical and textural properties of gluten-free cookies1. Parameter Spread factor Color L a b Texture Peak Positive force (N) Positive area (kg s)

CN

3GBBE

7GBBE

6.20 ± 0.37a

6.12 ± 0.37a

6.00 ± 0.29a

53.44 ± 1.28a 14.96 ± 0.30a 50.70 ± 1.33a

45.44 ± 1.98b 8.48 ± 0.73b 24.58 ± 0.93b

36.44 ± 1.82c 2.48 ± 0.43c 4.57 ± 1.03c

5.13 ± 0.73a 3.31 ± 0.77a

4.93 ± 0.39a 2.73 ± 0.65a

4.83 ± 0.69a 2.53 ± 0.65a

a,b,c

Different letters in the same row are significant different (p < 0.05). CN, control; 3GBBE, 3 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour; 7GBBE, 7 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour.

available water; flour or any other ingredient that absorbs water during dough mixing will decrease it. Ganorkar and Jain (2014) reported values for spread factor from 5.70 to 4.63 for an experimental cookie with flaxseed. Typically, bean flour addition reduces spread factor 20% (Shahzad, Anjum, Butt, Khan, & Asghar, 2006) due to increase in amounts of protein or dietary fiber and dilution of the gluten content. Interestly, in the present work, texture and spread factor was not affected by black bean extract addition even interactions flavonoids with starch and lipids has been reported this did not affect texture and spread factor quality attributes. 3.3. Bioactive compounds retention in tortilla and cookies

1

Figueroa, González-Hernández, and Ordorica (1999). Even Bueso et al. (2004) and Arámbula et al. (1999) used hydrocolloids to improve distance and rollability, respectively. In this work, black bean coat extract addition did not affected any force, distance and rollability. In contrast to previous reports about the negative effects on firmness and cohesiveness of wheat tortilla with black bean flour (Anton & Lukow, 2009), maize tortilla did not required the addition of hydrocolloids, such as guar gum, to overcome these effects. In maize tortilla containing nopal flour, a reduction of force was attributed to nopal carbohydrates (Guevara-Arauza et al., 2011) reinforcing the fact that a functional ingredient must be produced from these foods instead of using whole flours. In contrast to other attempts to incorporate antioxidants in cookies, there were no significant differences in texture parameters and spread factor among formulations (Table 3). Previous reports using green tea powder indicated a reduction in the hardness due to the dietary fiber content (Jan et al., in press). In the other hand, spread factor reflects the viscous flow of the dough during baking and it is affect by competition of ingredients for the

Flavonoids, saponins and anthocyanin contents in tortilla and gluten-free cookie are listed in Table 4. The percentages of retention of bioactives were statistically higher for the 3GBBE tortillas and cookies compared to the 7GBBE counterparts (p < 0.05). Also the retention on 7GBBE formulation in cookies and tortillas were significantly different (p < 0.05) but higher retention of bioactive compounds was observed in tortilla compared to cookies. This could be related with cookie ingredients. Rosales-Soto, Powers, and Alldredge (2012) observed that mixing time affected anthocyanins and antioxidant capacity of raspberry juice in muffin due to gluten interactions. On the other hand, Stahl et al. (2009) observed that heating and baking of cocoa frosting, beverages and cookies did not result in losses of the flavanols and procyanidins when treated at 121 and 177 °C for 110 and 70 min, respectively. Thus, the changes in retention of bioactive compounds should not only be attributed to the thermal process (tortilla or cookie making process) but also to characteristics of the dough and other ingredients. Regarding to flavonoids, we observed a percent retention above 79% in tortilla and 72% in gluten-free cookie (Table 4). This retention rate is attributed to the thermal stability of flavonoids from

Table 4 Quantification of bioactive compounds in maize tortillas and gluten-free cookies enriched with two different levels of black bean extracts. Compounds

Tortilla mg/30 g DW1 (Percentage of retention %)3

Gluten-free cookie mg/30 g DW1 (Percentage of retention %)3

CN

3GBBE2

7GBBE2

CN

3GBBE2

7GBBE2

0.05 ± 0.09

4.43 ± 1.01 (88.26 ± 1.94a)

12.93 ± 2.14 (81.16 ± 0.98b)

ND

3.78 ± 1.01 (75.48 ± 2.12c)

9.68 ± 1.19 (60.74 ± 1.25d)

Flavonoids (mg/30 g DW) Myricetin 3-O-glucoside

ND ND

Kaempferol 3-O-glucoside

ND

2.49 ± 0.43 (71.18 ± 0.74b) 19.93 ± 2.12 (74.99 ± 0.92b) 0.12 ± 0.03 (79.84 ± 1.58a)

ND

Quercetin 3-O-glucoside

1.07 ± 0.01 (79.84 ± 0.05a) 8.54 ± 0.12 (79.27 ± 0.60a) 0.05 ± 0.23 (80.87 ± 0.96a)

0.97 ± 0.01 (72.38 ± 0.05b) 7.82 ± 0.15 (72.58 ± 0.42c) 0.05 ± 0.12 (80.76 ± 0.83a)

2.09 ± 0.31 (59.74 ± 2.03c) 18.02 ± 2.40 (67.80 ± 0.52d) 0.10 ± 0.02 (66.53 ± 1.58b)

0.01 ± 0.01 (79.52 ± 1.50a) 0.10 ± 0.02 (89.14 ± 1.30a) 0.02 ± 0.01 (88.79 ± 0.88a) 0.02 ± 0.02 (80.16 ± 0.08a) 0.09 ± 0.02 (79.08 ± 0.87a) 0.04 ± 0.01 (88.33 ± 0.56a)

0.03 ± 0.01 (77.96 ± 0.65b) 0.24 ± 0.05 (77.58 ± 1.93b) 0.04 ± 0.01 (82.34 ± 0.50b) 0.06 ± 0.01 (77.38 ± 1.75c) 0.21 ± 0.04 (76.72 ± 1.01b) 0.08 ± 0.01 (81.63 ± 1.30c)

ND

0.02 ± 0.01 (78.23 ± 0.95a) 0.12 ± 0.11 (90.02 ± 1.13a) 0.18 ± 0.11 (87.62 ± 0.72a) 0.19 ± 0.13 (79.17 ± 0.72b) 0.10 ± 0.03 (80.10 ± 0.76a) 0.03 ± 0.02 (87.34 ± 0.38b)

0.02 ± 0.19 (51.97 ± 0.39c) 0.18 ± 0.12 (58.18 ± 0.86c) 0.02 ± 0.01 (60.15 ± 1.80c) 0.05 ± 0.01 (67.27 ± 2.53d) 0.18 ± 0.12 (68.39 ± 1.15c) 0.07 ± 0.11 (72.39 ± 2.12c)

Anthocyanin (mg cyanindin-3-glucoside equiv/ 30 g DW1)

Saponins (mg/30 g DW) Phaseoside I

a,b,c

ND

Soyasaponin Af

ND

Deacetyl soyasaponin Af

ND

Soyasaponin Ba

ND

Soyasaponin ag

ND

Soyasaponin bg

ND

ND ND

ND ND ND ND ND

Different letters in the same row are significant different (p < 0.05). mg/30 g DW: contents of anthocyanins, flavonoids and saponins were calculated in mg per 30 dry weight. 2 3GBBE, 3 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour; 7GBBE, 7 g/kg black bean extract addition in flour. 3 The percentage of retention of composite flours for tortilla and cookies was calculated from the quantity added to flour compared with the quantity remained in the final product. 1

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black beans. Ramírez-Jiménez, Reynoso-Camacho, Mendoza-Díaz, and Loarca-Piña (2014) observed that dry-heat (60 °C) did not have significant effect on quercetin concentration, which is major flavonoid associated to black beans. Another parameter that was contributed to retention was the processing. Segev et al. (2012) indicated that baking, frying and roasting colored chickpea seeds resulted in significantly higher levels flavonoids in contrast with soaking and cooking, in which almost all flavonoids leached into the water. Therefore, results suggested that the addition of black bean coat extract into flour could be an excellent option to retain bioactive flavonoids in bakery products like tortillas and cookies, without affecting product characteristics. The anthocyanins of control tortillas (0.18 ± 0.09 mg cyaniding-3-glucoside equiv/100 g of dry weight sample) were similar to values previously reported for white maize counterparts (Mora-Rochin et al., 2010). In case of tortilla from 3GBEE and 7GBBE composite flours contained higher levels of anthocyanins that CN flour tortillas. Even 3GBBE and 7GBBE tortillas conserved 88.2% and 81.1% of the originally added into NF, respectively. The anthocyanins in the 7GBBE samples (43.13 ± 2.14 mg equivalent of cyanindin-3-glucoside/100 g dry weight – DW) were significant higher than anthocyanins levels previously reported in blue maize tortillas (30.69 ± 0.42 mg equivalents of cyanindin-3-glucoside/100 g DW) (Mora-Rochin et al., 2010), including values reported in tortillas of blue maize produced throughout lime-cooking extrusion process (12.78 ± 0.02 mg equivalents of cyanindin-3-glucoside/100 g DW) (Aguayo-Rojas et al., 2012). Thus, the addition of black bean seed coat could be a strategy to increase anthocyanins levels in tortillas which are partially lost during nixtamalization and other alternative processes for tortilla elaboration (Mora-Rochin et al., 2010). Regarding to anthocyanins content in gluten-free cookies, the percentage of retention was significantly lower compared to enriched tortillas. This is attributed to the processing, since anthocyanins are not stable polyphenolics, and they tend to be degraded during processing. Moreover it has been reported that anthocyanin stability as affected by heat, specifically by thermal processing (Patras, Brunton, O’Donnell, & Tiwari, 2010). Focusing on saponins, it has been studied saponins stability during bread baking and observed that soy bread saponin recovery was up to 78% (Serventi, 2011), similar to the retention values found in the prepared tortillas and gluten-free cookies (Table 4). 4. Conclusions The addition of 3 g/kg of black bean seed coat extract to nixtamalized maize flour did not affect the rheological or functional properties of the dough produced after rehydration. Tortillas and cookies produced with composite flours that contained black bean extract had different color but other physical and textural properties did not change. More importantly, bioactive compounds were effectively retained above 60% in tortillas and cookies. Formulations with 7 g/kg of black bean seed coat extract to dry dough flour tend to retain less percentage of bioactive compounds and also the concentration retained of saponins affected rheological of nixtamalized flour but not enough to affect physical and textural parameters of tortillas and gluten free-cookies. Results clearly indicated that it was possible to effectively incorporate flavonoids, anthocyanins and saponins from black bean seed coats to maize tortillas and cookies without detrimental effects on their texture. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Research Chair Funds CAT-005 from Tecnologico de Monterrey-Campus Monterrey, Nutrigenomics Chair from FEMSA and Consejo Nacional de

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