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Profile of administrators of schools of nursing, part II: Mentoring relationships and influence activities
Profile of Administrators of Schools of Nursing, Part II: Mentoring Relationships and Influence Activities JUDYD. SHORW,DSN, RN*
Part two of a two-part study was conducted to obtain data on the influence activities and mentoring relationships of administrators of schools of nursing. The deans and directors of the American Association of Colleges of Nursing member schools were mailed a questionnaire that included sections on the above topics incorporated from Vance's questionnaire and a scale for rating mentoring functions. A response rate of 73.5 per cent was obtained. A majority of the subjects had entry-level preparation at the baccalaureate level and had obtained a doctorate. Despite a majority of the subjects reporting involvement in mentoring relationships, the percentage of those having a mentor while in the dean or director position was only 27 per cent. The positions of the mentors were most often supervisors from the academic area. A Student's t test determined that psychosocia~ functions of a mentoring relationship were more important than career functions, although both functions had a relatively high mean score. The subjects also reported involvement in a variety of professional activities of influence, such as publishing, presenting, consulting, and conducting research. The suggestion was made that perhaps multiple mentors and other avenues may be needed to prepare for the scholarly, professional, and administrative expectations of the role. (Index words: Administrators; Deans; Influence; Mentoring)
sphere of influence through fulfilling their administrative functions and engaging in their various influence activities. A look at these administrators, induding their development, background, and activities, will provide insight regarding the leaders who will be making the decisions and setting the direction for the schools. Information that will assist future leaders could be gained from a profile of these administrators.
J Prof Nurs 13:13-18, 1997. Copyright© 1997 by W.B. Saunders Company
The conceptual framework used to guide the study consisted of the concepts of power, influence, interdependence, and mentoring relationships interacting in the development of leadership. Personal and career characteristics also were conceptualized as contributing to the developmental process.
HE ADMINISTRATORS of baccalaureate and T higher degree programs in nursing have been responsible for setting the future direction for nursing education and the profession. This group is responsible for promoting and improving higher education for nurses, for promoting nursing research, and for developing academic leaders (Booth, 1994). As the administrators of the schools, the deans and directors have a key role in determining the future of the schools and the nursing profession; they exert a wide
*AssociateProfessor,Eastern KentuckyUniversity,Richmond, ICE Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr Short: Department of Baccalaureate and Graduate Nursing, Eastern KentuckyUniversity,Rowlett223, Richmond,KY40475. Copyright© 1997 byW.B.SaundersCompany
8755-7223/9711301-0007503.00/0
Purpose
This study was conducted as part of a larger study to compile a profile of the administrators of baccalaureate and higher degree programs in nursing. This portion of the study was conducted to determine participation in mentoring relationships, the perceived importance of mentoring functions, and participation in influence activities by administrators of schools of nursing. Conceptual Framework
Selected Review of Literature
Literature from various disciplines has provided insight into the background, development, and characteristics of leaders. Much earlier research centered on men, but later literature also included women or women-dominated professions. These studies can provide direction for studying the leaders in nursing education. In 1977, Hennig and Jardim conducted a longitudinal study of 25 top level female executives and found common characteristics for these subjects. The subjects' career success was largely attributed to personal
JournalafPro~ssionalNursing, Vol 13, No 1 (January-February), 1997: pp 13-18
13
14
and family characteristics and to their mentoring relationships with their bosses. Vance (1977) studied influential nurses throughout nursing and reported data on their personal and family background, career characteristics, mentoring, and influence activities. The majority of the influential nurses were female, white, 55 years old, and from a middle-class background. One half of the subjects were single. Most of the influential nurses were found to hold a work position in the educational-academic area. The group also was well educated and held higher academic degrees than the average nurse. Vance noted that 83 per cent of the influential nurses reported having had mentors, and 93 per cent reported that they were mentors to others. Kinsey (1986) replicated and updated Vance's study and reported similar findings. Differences were found in the increased number of subjects who held work positions in the educational-academic area and in the decreased number who were married (38 per cent). Slagle (1986) studied nursing leaders who were members of the Academy of Nursing and reported that mentoring relationships were a significant factor in their career development. Carrolton (1989) studied nursing leaders in hospitals and looked at the effect of various factors on these leaders' career success. Personal characteristics was identified as the most important factor in career success, educational preparation was ranked second, mentoring was ranked third, and chance was ranked last. In 1991, Princeton and Gaspar studied role preparation of a group of academic nurse administrators. One third reported having had graduate level administration courses, and a majority reported having worked with administrative mentors. A qualitative study was conducted by Redmund (1991) on the life and career experiences that were influential in the assumption of the nursing dean's position. Conclusions were drawn that people and relationships, early socialization experiences, and family and educational experiences all played an important part in the dean's values and achievements. The role of mentoring was determined to be unclear. Another study looked at the effect of career variables on the career development of a group of academic nurse administrators (Rawl & Peterson, 1992). The investigators reported that level of education and experience were the most important predictors in the level of career development but that mentoring also made a significant contribution. Because mentoring was indicated in so many studies as being of importance in career development
JUDY D. SHORT
and success, studies that analyzed the concept of mentoring more specifically also were reviewed. Kram (1983) differentiated two different functions in mentoring relationships; career and psychosocial functions. Noe (1988) conducted a factor analysis of career and psychosocial functions in developing a tool to study mentoring relationships in the work place. Noe reported that a Student's t test showed that the proteges perceived that the psychosocial benefits were significantly greater than the career benefits. Noe also indicated that psychosocial functions were more important for women in the work place. Chao and Gardner (1992) used the tool developed by Noe and reported that greater career benefits resulted from informal mentors than from formal, assigned mentors.
...mentoring was indicated i n . . . many studies as being of importance in career development and success...
Career and psychosocial functions were included in a study conducted by Howard (1988). The functions most frequently reported as being provided to the subjects were those associated with the psychosocial functions differentiated by Noe (1988). A conclusion was also drawn from the study that organizational development is more successful for women when they connect with others in the organization. The studies reviewed indicated that several factors may be important in career development and success. Mentoring was identified as a factor in several studies, but other factors also appeared to play a significant role. Level of education, experience, family relationships, and personal charactersitics all were indicated as being important. Problem
Questions remain concerning the factors that are commonly associated with the development and advancement of leaders assuming an administrative position in nursing education. The answer to the following questions was sought: 1. What are the current activities of influence of administrators of schools of nursing?
15
MENTORING AND INFLUENCE ACTIVITIES
2. To what extent have administrators of schools of nursing participated in mentoring relationships? 3. What mentoring functions (career and psychosocial) are considered most important in a mentoring relationship for administrators of schools of nursing?
Methodology SAMPLE
The deans and directors of the 441 American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) member schools of nursing (AACN, 1993) were invited to participate in the study. Participation was voluntary, and the responses were treated with confidentiality. Subjects were informed that completion and return of the mailed questionnaire signified consent to participate. A return of 324 usable questionnaires resulted in a response rate of 73.5 per cent. INSTRUMENTS
The questionnaire used for the study was compiled from instruments used and validated in other studies and is called the Profile of Influential Nurse Administrators questionnaire. Portions of Vance's (1977) Questionnaire for Survey of Contemporary Nurse-Influentials were incorporated and used to obtain demographic data on personal and career characteristics, influence activities, and mentoring relationships of the nurse administrators. The Mentoring Functions Scale (Noe, 1988) was used to obtain data on psychosocial and career functions. The instrument developed by Noe consists of 21 items on a five-point Likert-type scale that was developed through factor analysis and further testing. Noe reported internal consistency estimates of alpha = .89 for the career function items and alpha = .92 for the psychosocial function items. Chao and Gardner (1992) reported alpha coefficients of .84 for the psychosocial functions scale and .79 for the career functions scale. The Cronbach's alpha for internal consistency of the items for this study was .85 for both the career and psychosocial function items. DESIGN
A descriptive survey design was used for the study. After data were collected, analysis was completed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, 1992). Descriptive statistics were used for data from the personal and career characteristics sections and
from the influence activities section. A Student's t test was conducted to determine which of the functions were perceived to be most important in a mentoring relationship.
Findings PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
The personal and family background of the average dean or director completing the questionnaire reflected an administrator who was female (97.8 per cent), was the first born in the family (49.1 per cent), was married (65.7 per cent), had children (75 per cent), and was from a middle-class social strata (74.4 per cent). The age range was wide--36 to 70 years-with a mean age of 52.1 years. CAREER CHARACTERISTICS
A majority of the subjects was found to have been in their position 5 years or less, and a majority had been in nursing longer than 25 years. The locations of the programs administered by the subjects closely approximates the distribution of the AACN member schools (AACN, 1991) in the regions. The types of programs administered also appeared to be representative of AACN programs. The administrators were more likely to have a baccalaureate degree as their entry-level preparation for nursing (52.9 per cent). The remainder of the subjects reported diploma (40.6 per cent), associate degree (6.2 per cent), or generic master's (0.3 per cent) as their basic nursing preparation. Almost all of the subjects in the study had completed a doctorate (95 per cent), and the doctorate was in an area outside of nursing (61.6 per cent). Of the 14 subjects who had not completed a doctorate, 5 reported they either were enrolled in doctoral studies or were a doctoral candidate or that they had completed all but the dissertation. MENTORING ACTIVITIES
A positive response to having served as a mentor was given by 89.2 per cent of the subjects but a lesser number reported having had a mentor in their professional lives (70.6 per cent). Of the subjects who had been mentored, 93.9 per cent perceived that the mentor had been either helpful or extremely helpful in their professional development. The relationships of the mentors to the proteges were reported as superiors (57.3 per cent), colleagues (21.9 per cent), and faculty (21.2 per cent). The positions of the mentors reflected they were mostly
16
JUDY D. SHORT
TABLE 1. Positions of Mentors Position Deans/directors of schools of nursing Assistant/associate deans or chairs Academic vice presidents, vice chancellors, or provosts University/college presidents Directors/vice presidents of nursing service Political/governmental figures
Percentage 36 17 5 2 4,6 1,7
from the academic area and were at the level of associate dean or higher (Table 1). Many of the subjects reported having had different mentors with increased authority and span of control as their own positions increased in authority and span of control. However, for those subjects who had been mentored, only 27.2 per cent reported having a mentor while in their dean or director position. Also, 87.4 per cent of the subjects who had not been mentored indicated that a mentor might have been helpful in their professional lives. Of the subjects who had not been mentored, 78.9 per cent gave "no opportunity" as the reason. Others reported they had made use of role models and other types of supportive career relationships. Others reported being perceived as a threat by potential mentots because of their knowledge and experience. Of those who commented on the reason for not having a mentor in their dean or director position, most identified the lack of availability as a problem. One subject commented that it was difficult to find a mentor in a system that is dominated by men in higher-level administrative positions. Others commented that having a mentor outside their organization provides some help, but that having a mentor who is knowledgeable about their system would be more beneficial. MENTORING FUNCTIONS
A Student's t test was performed on the difference in mean scores for the two functions ofmentoring, career and psychosocial. The mean for the psychosocial functions was 4.01, and the mean for the career functions was 3.85. The probability greater than t for the higher psychosocial function mean score was found to be 0.0001. However, this significance must be interpreted with caution because of the influence of the large sample size on the analysis. INFLUENCE ACTIVITIES
The subjects reported involvement in a variety of professional activities of influence. They publish, make presentations, serve as consultants, and are active in
research and political activities (Table 2). The report of their activities lends support to their being in an influential position within their organization and the profession. Discussion
The profile of the deans or directors reflects an administrator who has made use of many routes to prepare for the role. They all have a high level of educational preparation, and their valuing of the academic environment for nursing education is indicated by the increased percentage of entry-level preparation at the baccalaureate level. These administrators are extremely active professionally and scholarly. The large percentage of participation reported for publishing, presenting, reviewing, consulting, and engaging in research reflects an active, life-long learner who values scholarship and the academic environment. Although mentoring appears to have played a role in their professional development, the subjects also appear to make use of other avenues for development, such as role modeling, networking, and education. Of those who have had a mentor, the academic environment appears to be a rich source for obtaining mentors. Also, many of these mentors were in higher positions, and the positions of the mentors increased in scope and authority as the subjects' positions increased in scope and authority. Having someone in a position within the same system who can help the person avoid the pitfalls and work within the organizational culture appears to be extremely helpful for those who are moving into or advancing in administrative positions. However, at the level of dean, the opportunities for obtaining a mentor appear to diminish. Despite almost all of the subjects indicating that a mentor had been either helpful or extremely helpful to them, only 27.2 per cent of those who have had a mentor reported having a mentor while in their dean or director position. The subjects' comments support that the reason was more lack of availability and opportunity rather than lack of interest or need. TABLE 2. Influence Activities Activity Had articles or papers published in refereed journals Author or coauthor of a book or text Served as an editor or reviewer or on an editorial board Made professional presentations Served as a formal consultant Engaged in political (governmental/legislative) activities Participated in research-related activity(ies)
Participation (%) 77.1 39.3 71.8 99.4 90.4 79.9 65.9
MENTORING AND INFLUENCE ACTIVITIES
17
The psychosociat functions were indicated as being more important than career functions, but the relatively high mean scores for both functions reflects the importance of both in a mentoring relationship. The importance of both psychosocial and career functions is supported by literature suggesting that the integration of the two types of functions differentiates mentoring from role modeling and other types of supportive career relationships. That both functions are important is supported by literature describing the ideal mentor as being nurturing and supportive as well as being powerful and able to open career doors (Jeruchim & Shapiro, 1992; Kotter, 1985, 1990).
• . . a t the level of dean, the opportunities for obtaining a mentor appear to diminish.
Implications
For a person who aspires to be an administrator, having a mentor would appear to be even more important than for nurses in general. The number of the subjects who were mentored by administrators in academia indicates the importance not only of seeking a mentor, but also of seeking one who can help with career growth in the person's area of interest. In addition, the importance of seeking a mentor of a higher position when vertical career moves are made is also indicated. Many of these administrators reported having a different mentor as their positions increased in scope and authority; often, these mentors were their immediate administrative supervisors. In addition, encouraging new deans and directors to obtain a mentor when achieving that position is important. Few of the subjects reported having a mentor in their dean or director position, yet the earlier benefits obtained from a mentoring relationship can be even more important in the dean or director position. A person in this position is perhaps more vulnerable, yet more isolated, from support than at any time in his or her career. Having a mentor could reduce the risks, vulnerability, and sense of aloneness
encountered in the &canal role. However, from the comments made by these subjects, having a mentor at another institution is not the complete answer. The mentor may not know the system in which the administrator is operating and therefore cannot lend support in the administrator's system of influence. The important functions of a mentoring relationship are also not as obtainable from distant, unavailable mentors. Perhaps new deans and directors may need to seek mentors outside of nursing and make connections with other deans and academic vice presidents at their institutions. This model would be appropriate in light of the finding of a sequential progression in the positions of the mentors when vertical career moves are made. In addition, networking and visibility outside the profession would be enhanced and could strengthen the profession as well as provide benefits for the protege. Furthermore, for mentoring to be increased in both frequency and usefulness in leadership development, it would need to start from the top down and be filtered throughout the organization. Administrators who are supportive of mentoring and who are able to role model the mentoring functions appropriately can do more than educational offerings or literature in advancing mentoring as a tool for leadership development. Various tools are needed for the development and advancement of higher-ievel administrative roles. The dean or director must fulfill the professional and scholarly expectations of the role as well as demonstrate expertise in the administrative requirements. Preparation for these other role expectations is as important as administrative preparation and goes beyond the necessary educational preparation. An ideal mentor would be able to promote growth in all of these areas. Perhaps multiple mentors and other types of supportive career relationships at different career stages are needed to provide the support, assistance, and development necessary to prepare for the demanding and complex role of a dean.
Acknowledgment A special thank you is extended to Dr Rachel Z. Booth for her inspiration, guidance, and encouragement during the conceptualization and completion of this study. Also, the author acknowledges the remainder of her dissertation committee as well as Dr Connie Vance for the support and assistance provided during the study.
References
American Association of Colleges of Nursing (1991). Institutional profile of AACN member schools. Washington, DC: Author.
American Association of Colleges of Nursing (1993, January). Current membership list. Washington, DC: Author.
18
Booth, R. Z. (1994). In an age of reform, celebrating an early reformer. Journal of Professional Nursing, I O, 265. Carrolton, E. T. (1989). Factors influencing career success of nursing leaders in hospitals. Dissertations Abstracts International, 50, 5544B. (University Microfilms No. DA9006692) Chao, G. T., & Gardner, P. D. (1992). Formal and informal mentorship: A comparison of mentoring functions and contrast with nonmentored counterparts. Personnel Psychology, 45, 619-636. Hennig, M., & Jardim, A. (1977). The managerial woman. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Howard, W. M. (1988). Women helping women: New understandings in organizational socialization and mentoring of female administrators. Dissertation Abstracts International 50, 36A. (University Microfilms No. DA907708) Jeruchim, J., & Shapiro, E (1992). Women, mentors, and success. New York: Fawcett Columbine. Kinsey, D. C. (1986). The new nurse influentials. Nursing Outlook, 34, 238-240. Kotter, J. P. (1985 ). Power and influence. New York: Free Press. Kotter, J. P. (1990). What leaders really do. Harvard Business Review, 68(3), 103-111.
JUDY D, SHORT
Kram, K. E. (1983). Phases of the mentor relationship.
Academy of Management Journal, 26, 608-625. Noe, R. A. (1988). An investigation of the determinants of successful assigned mentoring relationships. Personnel Psychology, 41, 457-479. Princeton, J. C., & Gaspar, T. M. (1991). First-line nurse administrators in academe: How are they prepared, what do they do, and will they stay in their jobs? Journal of ProfessionalNursing, Z 79-87. Rawl, S. M., & Peterson, L. M. (1992). Nursing education administrators: Level of career development and mentoring. Journal of Professional Nursing, 8, 161-169. Redmund, G. R, (1991). Life and career pathways of deans in nursing programs.Journal ofProfessionalNursing, Z 228-238. SAS Institute (1992). Statistical analysis system (SAS): 6. 07 [computer program]. Cary, NC: Author. Slagle, J. C. (1986). The process of mentoring in nursing: A study of career development among female nurse doctorates. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 2377B. (University Microfilms No. DA8620409) Vance, C. N. (1977). A group profile of contemporary influentials in American nursing. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 4734B. (University Microfilms No. DA7804472)
Part two of a two-part study was conducted to obtain data on the influence activities and mentoring relationships of administrators of schools of nursing. The deans and directors of the American Association of Colleges of Nursing member schools were mailed a questionnaire that included sections on the above topics incorporated from Vance's questionnaire and a scale for rating mentoring functions. A response rate of 73.5 per cent was obtained. A majority of the subjects had entry-level preparation at the baccalaureate level and had obtained a doctorate. Despite a majority of the subjects reporting involvement in mentoring relationships, the percentage of those having a mentor while in the dean or director position was only 27 per cent. The positions of the mentors were most often supervisors from the academic area. A Student's t test determined that psychosocia~ functions of a mentoring relationship were more important than career functions, although both functions had a relatively high mean score. The subjects also reported involvement in a variety of professional activities of influence, such as publishing, presenting, consulting, and conducting research. The suggestion was made that perhaps multiple mentors and other avenues may be needed to prepare for the scholarly, professional, and administrative expectations of the role. (Index words: Administrators; Deans; Influence; Mentoring)
sphere of influence through fulfilling their administrative functions and engaging in their various influence activities. A look at these administrators, induding their development, background, and activities, will provide insight regarding the leaders who will be making the decisions and setting the direction for the schools. Information that will assist future leaders could be gained from a profile of these administrators.
J Prof Nurs 13:13-18, 1997. Copyright© 1997 by W.B. Saunders Company
The conceptual framework used to guide the study consisted of the concepts of power, influence, interdependence, and mentoring relationships interacting in the development of leadership. Personal and career characteristics also were conceptualized as contributing to the developmental process.
HE ADMINISTRATORS of baccalaureate and T higher degree programs in nursing have been responsible for setting the future direction for nursing education and the profession. This group is responsible for promoting and improving higher education for nurses, for promoting nursing research, and for developing academic leaders (Booth, 1994). As the administrators of the schools, the deans and directors have a key role in determining the future of the schools and the nursing profession; they exert a wide
*AssociateProfessor,Eastern KentuckyUniversity,Richmond, ICE Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr Short: Department of Baccalaureate and Graduate Nursing, Eastern KentuckyUniversity,Rowlett223, Richmond,KY40475. Copyright© 1997 byW.B.SaundersCompany
8755-7223/9711301-0007503.00/0
Purpose
This study was conducted as part of a larger study to compile a profile of the administrators of baccalaureate and higher degree programs in nursing. This portion of the study was conducted to determine participation in mentoring relationships, the perceived importance of mentoring functions, and participation in influence activities by administrators of schools of nursing. Conceptual Framework
Selected Review of Literature
Literature from various disciplines has provided insight into the background, development, and characteristics of leaders. Much earlier research centered on men, but later literature also included women or women-dominated professions. These studies can provide direction for studying the leaders in nursing education. In 1977, Hennig and Jardim conducted a longitudinal study of 25 top level female executives and found common characteristics for these subjects. The subjects' career success was largely attributed to personal
JournalafPro~ssionalNursing, Vol 13, No 1 (January-February), 1997: pp 13-18
13
14
and family characteristics and to their mentoring relationships with their bosses. Vance (1977) studied influential nurses throughout nursing and reported data on their personal and family background, career characteristics, mentoring, and influence activities. The majority of the influential nurses were female, white, 55 years old, and from a middle-class background. One half of the subjects were single. Most of the influential nurses were found to hold a work position in the educational-academic area. The group also was well educated and held higher academic degrees than the average nurse. Vance noted that 83 per cent of the influential nurses reported having had mentors, and 93 per cent reported that they were mentors to others. Kinsey (1986) replicated and updated Vance's study and reported similar findings. Differences were found in the increased number of subjects who held work positions in the educational-academic area and in the decreased number who were married (38 per cent). Slagle (1986) studied nursing leaders who were members of the Academy of Nursing and reported that mentoring relationships were a significant factor in their career development. Carrolton (1989) studied nursing leaders in hospitals and looked at the effect of various factors on these leaders' career success. Personal characteristics was identified as the most important factor in career success, educational preparation was ranked second, mentoring was ranked third, and chance was ranked last. In 1991, Princeton and Gaspar studied role preparation of a group of academic nurse administrators. One third reported having had graduate level administration courses, and a majority reported having worked with administrative mentors. A qualitative study was conducted by Redmund (1991) on the life and career experiences that were influential in the assumption of the nursing dean's position. Conclusions were drawn that people and relationships, early socialization experiences, and family and educational experiences all played an important part in the dean's values and achievements. The role of mentoring was determined to be unclear. Another study looked at the effect of career variables on the career development of a group of academic nurse administrators (Rawl & Peterson, 1992). The investigators reported that level of education and experience were the most important predictors in the level of career development but that mentoring also made a significant contribution. Because mentoring was indicated in so many studies as being of importance in career development
JUDY D. SHORT
and success, studies that analyzed the concept of mentoring more specifically also were reviewed. Kram (1983) differentiated two different functions in mentoring relationships; career and psychosocial functions. Noe (1988) conducted a factor analysis of career and psychosocial functions in developing a tool to study mentoring relationships in the work place. Noe reported that a Student's t test showed that the proteges perceived that the psychosocial benefits were significantly greater than the career benefits. Noe also indicated that psychosocial functions were more important for women in the work place. Chao and Gardner (1992) used the tool developed by Noe and reported that greater career benefits resulted from informal mentors than from formal, assigned mentors.
...mentoring was indicated i n . . . many studies as being of importance in career development and success...
Career and psychosocial functions were included in a study conducted by Howard (1988). The functions most frequently reported as being provided to the subjects were those associated with the psychosocial functions differentiated by Noe (1988). A conclusion was also drawn from the study that organizational development is more successful for women when they connect with others in the organization. The studies reviewed indicated that several factors may be important in career development and success. Mentoring was identified as a factor in several studies, but other factors also appeared to play a significant role. Level of education, experience, family relationships, and personal charactersitics all were indicated as being important. Problem
Questions remain concerning the factors that are commonly associated with the development and advancement of leaders assuming an administrative position in nursing education. The answer to the following questions was sought: 1. What are the current activities of influence of administrators of schools of nursing?
15
MENTORING AND INFLUENCE ACTIVITIES
2. To what extent have administrators of schools of nursing participated in mentoring relationships? 3. What mentoring functions (career and psychosocial) are considered most important in a mentoring relationship for administrators of schools of nursing?
Methodology SAMPLE
The deans and directors of the 441 American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) member schools of nursing (AACN, 1993) were invited to participate in the study. Participation was voluntary, and the responses were treated with confidentiality. Subjects were informed that completion and return of the mailed questionnaire signified consent to participate. A return of 324 usable questionnaires resulted in a response rate of 73.5 per cent. INSTRUMENTS
The questionnaire used for the study was compiled from instruments used and validated in other studies and is called the Profile of Influential Nurse Administrators questionnaire. Portions of Vance's (1977) Questionnaire for Survey of Contemporary Nurse-Influentials were incorporated and used to obtain demographic data on personal and career characteristics, influence activities, and mentoring relationships of the nurse administrators. The Mentoring Functions Scale (Noe, 1988) was used to obtain data on psychosocial and career functions. The instrument developed by Noe consists of 21 items on a five-point Likert-type scale that was developed through factor analysis and further testing. Noe reported internal consistency estimates of alpha = .89 for the career function items and alpha = .92 for the psychosocial function items. Chao and Gardner (1992) reported alpha coefficients of .84 for the psychosocial functions scale and .79 for the career functions scale. The Cronbach's alpha for internal consistency of the items for this study was .85 for both the career and psychosocial function items. DESIGN
A descriptive survey design was used for the study. After data were collected, analysis was completed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, 1992). Descriptive statistics were used for data from the personal and career characteristics sections and
from the influence activities section. A Student's t test was conducted to determine which of the functions were perceived to be most important in a mentoring relationship.
Findings PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
The personal and family background of the average dean or director completing the questionnaire reflected an administrator who was female (97.8 per cent), was the first born in the family (49.1 per cent), was married (65.7 per cent), had children (75 per cent), and was from a middle-class social strata (74.4 per cent). The age range was wide--36 to 70 years-with a mean age of 52.1 years. CAREER CHARACTERISTICS
A majority of the subjects was found to have been in their position 5 years or less, and a majority had been in nursing longer than 25 years. The locations of the programs administered by the subjects closely approximates the distribution of the AACN member schools (AACN, 1991) in the regions. The types of programs administered also appeared to be representative of AACN programs. The administrators were more likely to have a baccalaureate degree as their entry-level preparation for nursing (52.9 per cent). The remainder of the subjects reported diploma (40.6 per cent), associate degree (6.2 per cent), or generic master's (0.3 per cent) as their basic nursing preparation. Almost all of the subjects in the study had completed a doctorate (95 per cent), and the doctorate was in an area outside of nursing (61.6 per cent). Of the 14 subjects who had not completed a doctorate, 5 reported they either were enrolled in doctoral studies or were a doctoral candidate or that they had completed all but the dissertation. MENTORING ACTIVITIES
A positive response to having served as a mentor was given by 89.2 per cent of the subjects but a lesser number reported having had a mentor in their professional lives (70.6 per cent). Of the subjects who had been mentored, 93.9 per cent perceived that the mentor had been either helpful or extremely helpful in their professional development. The relationships of the mentors to the proteges were reported as superiors (57.3 per cent), colleagues (21.9 per cent), and faculty (21.2 per cent). The positions of the mentors reflected they were mostly
16
JUDY D. SHORT
TABLE 1. Positions of Mentors Position Deans/directors of schools of nursing Assistant/associate deans or chairs Academic vice presidents, vice chancellors, or provosts University/college presidents Directors/vice presidents of nursing service Political/governmental figures
Percentage 36 17 5 2 4,6 1,7
from the academic area and were at the level of associate dean or higher (Table 1). Many of the subjects reported having had different mentors with increased authority and span of control as their own positions increased in authority and span of control. However, for those subjects who had been mentored, only 27.2 per cent reported having a mentor while in their dean or director position. Also, 87.4 per cent of the subjects who had not been mentored indicated that a mentor might have been helpful in their professional lives. Of the subjects who had not been mentored, 78.9 per cent gave "no opportunity" as the reason. Others reported they had made use of role models and other types of supportive career relationships. Others reported being perceived as a threat by potential mentots because of their knowledge and experience. Of those who commented on the reason for not having a mentor in their dean or director position, most identified the lack of availability as a problem. One subject commented that it was difficult to find a mentor in a system that is dominated by men in higher-level administrative positions. Others commented that having a mentor outside their organization provides some help, but that having a mentor who is knowledgeable about their system would be more beneficial. MENTORING FUNCTIONS
A Student's t test was performed on the difference in mean scores for the two functions ofmentoring, career and psychosocial. The mean for the psychosocial functions was 4.01, and the mean for the career functions was 3.85. The probability greater than t for the higher psychosocial function mean score was found to be 0.0001. However, this significance must be interpreted with caution because of the influence of the large sample size on the analysis. INFLUENCE ACTIVITIES
The subjects reported involvement in a variety of professional activities of influence. They publish, make presentations, serve as consultants, and are active in
research and political activities (Table 2). The report of their activities lends support to their being in an influential position within their organization and the profession. Discussion
The profile of the deans or directors reflects an administrator who has made use of many routes to prepare for the role. They all have a high level of educational preparation, and their valuing of the academic environment for nursing education is indicated by the increased percentage of entry-level preparation at the baccalaureate level. These administrators are extremely active professionally and scholarly. The large percentage of participation reported for publishing, presenting, reviewing, consulting, and engaging in research reflects an active, life-long learner who values scholarship and the academic environment. Although mentoring appears to have played a role in their professional development, the subjects also appear to make use of other avenues for development, such as role modeling, networking, and education. Of those who have had a mentor, the academic environment appears to be a rich source for obtaining mentors. Also, many of these mentors were in higher positions, and the positions of the mentors increased in scope and authority as the subjects' positions increased in scope and authority. Having someone in a position within the same system who can help the person avoid the pitfalls and work within the organizational culture appears to be extremely helpful for those who are moving into or advancing in administrative positions. However, at the level of dean, the opportunities for obtaining a mentor appear to diminish. Despite almost all of the subjects indicating that a mentor had been either helpful or extremely helpful to them, only 27.2 per cent of those who have had a mentor reported having a mentor while in their dean or director position. The subjects' comments support that the reason was more lack of availability and opportunity rather than lack of interest or need. TABLE 2. Influence Activities Activity Had articles or papers published in refereed journals Author or coauthor of a book or text Served as an editor or reviewer or on an editorial board Made professional presentations Served as a formal consultant Engaged in political (governmental/legislative) activities Participated in research-related activity(ies)
Participation (%) 77.1 39.3 71.8 99.4 90.4 79.9 65.9
MENTORING AND INFLUENCE ACTIVITIES
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The psychosociat functions were indicated as being more important than career functions, but the relatively high mean scores for both functions reflects the importance of both in a mentoring relationship. The importance of both psychosocial and career functions is supported by literature suggesting that the integration of the two types of functions differentiates mentoring from role modeling and other types of supportive career relationships. That both functions are important is supported by literature describing the ideal mentor as being nurturing and supportive as well as being powerful and able to open career doors (Jeruchim & Shapiro, 1992; Kotter, 1985, 1990).
• . . a t the level of dean, the opportunities for obtaining a mentor appear to diminish.
Implications
For a person who aspires to be an administrator, having a mentor would appear to be even more important than for nurses in general. The number of the subjects who were mentored by administrators in academia indicates the importance not only of seeking a mentor, but also of seeking one who can help with career growth in the person's area of interest. In addition, the importance of seeking a mentor of a higher position when vertical career moves are made is also indicated. Many of these administrators reported having a different mentor as their positions increased in scope and authority; often, these mentors were their immediate administrative supervisors. In addition, encouraging new deans and directors to obtain a mentor when achieving that position is important. Few of the subjects reported having a mentor in their dean or director position, yet the earlier benefits obtained from a mentoring relationship can be even more important in the dean or director position. A person in this position is perhaps more vulnerable, yet more isolated, from support than at any time in his or her career. Having a mentor could reduce the risks, vulnerability, and sense of aloneness
encountered in the &canal role. However, from the comments made by these subjects, having a mentor at another institution is not the complete answer. The mentor may not know the system in which the administrator is operating and therefore cannot lend support in the administrator's system of influence. The important functions of a mentoring relationship are also not as obtainable from distant, unavailable mentors. Perhaps new deans and directors may need to seek mentors outside of nursing and make connections with other deans and academic vice presidents at their institutions. This model would be appropriate in light of the finding of a sequential progression in the positions of the mentors when vertical career moves are made. In addition, networking and visibility outside the profession would be enhanced and could strengthen the profession as well as provide benefits for the protege. Furthermore, for mentoring to be increased in both frequency and usefulness in leadership development, it would need to start from the top down and be filtered throughout the organization. Administrators who are supportive of mentoring and who are able to role model the mentoring functions appropriately can do more than educational offerings or literature in advancing mentoring as a tool for leadership development. Various tools are needed for the development and advancement of higher-ievel administrative roles. The dean or director must fulfill the professional and scholarly expectations of the role as well as demonstrate expertise in the administrative requirements. Preparation for these other role expectations is as important as administrative preparation and goes beyond the necessary educational preparation. An ideal mentor would be able to promote growth in all of these areas. Perhaps multiple mentors and other types of supportive career relationships at different career stages are needed to provide the support, assistance, and development necessary to prepare for the demanding and complex role of a dean.
Acknowledgment A special thank you is extended to Dr Rachel Z. Booth for her inspiration, guidance, and encouragement during the conceptualization and completion of this study. Also, the author acknowledges the remainder of her dissertation committee as well as Dr Connie Vance for the support and assistance provided during the study.
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American Association of Colleges of Nursing (1993, January). Current membership list. Washington, DC: Author.
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