Profiles of educational systems of countries participating in practical skills testing

Studies in Educational Evaluation. Vol. 18, pp. 301-318, 1992 Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved.

0191--491X/92 $15.00 © 1992 Pergamon Press Ltd

PROFILES OF EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF COUNTRIES P A R T I C I P A T I N G IN P R A C T I C A L S K I L L S T E S T I N G Zoltan Bathory, 1 Peter Vari, 1 Pinchas Tamir, 2 Masao Miyake, 3 Im In-Jae, 4 Yeoh Oon Chye, 5 _ Willard Jacobson, ~ Rodney L. Doran t and June Miller" 1National Institute of Pedagogy (Orszagos Pedogogiai Intezet), Center for Evaluation, National Institute of Education, Budapest, Hungary 2Israel Science Teaching Center, School of Education, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel 3National Institute for Educational Research, Tokyo, Japan 4National Institute for Educational Evaluation, Department of Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea 5institute of Education, Singapore, Republic of Singapore 6Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, U.S.A. 7Graduate School of Education, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, U.S.A. 8State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY, U.S.A.

Introduction

The information which follows was excerpted from each country's entry in Science Education and Curricula in Twenty-three Countries (Rosier & Keeves, 1991). The account for each country was written by the national research coordinators and/or research associates as listed above. The following sections were included because of their potential impact on the performance in the laboratory: Aims and Objectives of Science Education, Curriculum, Teacher Education, Teaching Patterns, Teaching Methods, Student Assessment, Laboratories, and Equipment and Supplies. Information is provided directly from these case studies so as to minimize errors due to interpretation or paraphrasing. Hungary Zoltan Bathory and Peter Vari Aims and Objectives of Science Education The integrated subject, Knowledge of Surroundings, has provided an introduction to basic scientific knowledge at the primary school level. The aim of this subject has been to enable students to: (1) gather information on their natural and social surroundings, appropriate to their 301

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level of understanding; (2) make themselves familiar with methods of inquiry; (3) undertake their own investigations; and (4) obtain direct experience at an elementary level of natural phenomena. The general aim of lower secondary science education has been to establish the concept of the unity of scientific knowledge. Science education, through physics, chemistry, and biology is directed towards this end and about one-sixth of the total number of lessons is given to the study of science. The content of earth science is included within geography at this level. At the upper secondary school level, a general scientific education is provided for all students in the secondary academic schools. In addition, students planning to proceed with the study of science based courses in higher education are permitted to take elective subjects to deepen their scientific knowledge. The general aim of secondary academic education in the field of science has been to teach modem and fundamental scientific concepts and principles in such a way that the expanding and evolving nature of scientific knowledge is recognized.

Curriculum In Hungary, science education at the primary level started with the subject, Knowledge of Surroundings, and covered a five year period. The foundations of a scientific view are based upon the student's direct experience, thus developing the ideas previously obtained at the preschool level. By means of observing, measuring, experimenting, and by using the comparative method, the student is encouraged to build an understanding of scientific concepts. With an increased emphasis on practical work in science, the students are taught to compare, generalize, and synthesize their ideas. At the lower secondary level (grades 6-8), the subject, Knowledge of Surroundings, is replaced by separate scientific subjects that form an integral part of the whole educational process. For the upper secondary level the subject of physics is taught for four years and chemistry and biology are taught for two years. The scientific content is reorganized around general principles and universal natural laws. For example, at the lower secondary school level, the teaching of physics is built around three main concepts: energy and energy changes; interactiQns; and the structure of matter. In biology, there is an emphasis on the genetic and evolutionary aspect and on ecology at the expense of a descriptive and systematic approach. In secondary academic schools the arrangement of the material in biology follows the organizational levels of the living world. In every science subject there is greatly increased use of experimentation. Throughout the science curriculum there is an emphasis on the integration of the different fields of science. Thus the concept of 'energy', although a topic in physics, is used to integrate ideas presented in chemistry and biology. An optional segment, Interactions in Nature, is used in the same way to integrate across the fields of science. However, integration is less successful at the upper secondary school level because chemistry and biology are generally taught in different years.

Teacher Education Science teachers are trained at three different types of colleges in Hungary. Primary level teachers are trained at a Grade Teachers Training College for three years. At the lower secondary level, teachers obtain their degrees from a Teachers Training College. The course of study takes four years and future teachers can choose to study two selected science related subjects. At the upper secondary level, universities prepare the potential science teachers over a five year period. About 54 percent of teachers in schools have a teaching degree, 42 percent have a grade teachers qualification, and four percent of the teachers have no qualification at all.

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Teaching Patterns In Hungary, science education consists of teacher instruction and student activity or practical work. At the primary school level, grade teachers generally teach every subject including, Knowledge of Surroundings. At the lower secondary school level, the separate special science subjects are taught by subject teachers. Because there is a shortage of science teachers in many schools, science subjects are sometimes taught by non-subject teachers. Teaching Methods Both in the recommendations of the curriculum and in classroom practice various methods are used for teachirrg science subjects. These methods differ in their proportions according to the subjects and the age of the student groups. At the primary school level, the subject Knowledge of Surroundings, is definitely based on direct observations and experience, such as identification of materials, observation of the seasons, and the weather. At the lower secondary and upper secondary levels the teaching of science subjects is primarily based on the teacher's explanations. However, the nature of science subjects and the guidance regarding teaching methods provided in the curriculum requires increased student activity and practical work. Entire lessons could be devoted to experimenting and investigation. There is, however, a conflict between curriculum recommendations and classroom practice. The reasons can be traced to insufficient school equipment and teachers' lack of knowledge of experiment oriented and practical methods of instruction. Student Assessment Assessment and feedback are viewed as integral parts of the teaching-learning process. The positive function of assessment can be seen in improving students' knowledge and habituating them to regular work. The functions of memory, application, and control are carried out through specially compiled work sheets, tests, and work booklets for both oral and written work. In general schools, such work booklets have been used since 1966 in science subjects. Exercises are also contained in these booklets. Tests are usually considered to be teaching aids which are used for providing objective feedback. Diagnostic tests and collections of exercises made by national educational specialists have widespread use. For example, the test called The Living World of Remote Areas, contains open ended questions, multiple choice items, and association type exercises of 4 or 5 kinds. Tests of the essay type are used for explanation or recall of definitions. Laboratories The long term aim of science education in Hungary is to teach science subjects in subject rooms and laboratories. In general schools, two-thirds of which are located in villages, there are large differences in the quality of the science rooms provided. Approximately 20 percent of the schools have science subject rooms equipped with water, gas, electricity, air-conditioning, and tables for practical work. The majority of the science subjects are taught in so-called 'simulation rooms'. These rooms do not contain laboratory equipment so that they can also be used for teaching non-science subjects. However, non-demonstration materials and other equipment are always at hand. About 20 percent of the schools have no science subject rooms, therefore, every science lesson takes place in the same room. The next step would be to increase the number of laboratories and preparatory rooms, which have been available in 30 percent of the schools. Laboratory assistants work in about 10 percent of the secondary schools. In secondary academic

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schools, the laboratories are well equipped but there are problems associated with subdividing the classes into smaller laboratory groups because of cyclical timetabling and optional lessons.

Equipment and Supplies The equipment that all schools should have is specified in the new curriculum. According to level of importance, there have been distinctions between primary-, secondary-, and thirdquality equipment. Primary quality equipment is that for which money is provided from the central budget, and therefore is available for every school. Schools are well supplied with such basic equipment. Nevertheless, there are few microscopes in general schools, and there are difficulties with repairing physical equipment and with obtaining spare parts. In secondary schools problems arise from the cost and irregular supply of chemicals. In biology the inadequate supply of living material hinders the implementation of certain curricular objectives.

Israel Pinchas Tamir

Aims and Objectives of Science Education The general aims of science education have been to: (1) develop scientific literacy in terms of basic concepts and skills needed for living in a modern technological society; (2) develop interests and positive attitudes toward science; (3) provide students with opportunities to be engaged in scientific inquiry; (4) familiarize students with the natural environments of the country, its plants, animals, and geomorphology; (5) provide opportunities for application of scientific knowledge, in learning as well as in everyday life; and (6) prepare the future generation of scientists and science related professionals such as physicians and engineers. Curriculum In general, science education is given less emphasis in the primary schools than languages, mathematics, and the humanities. The average primary school student has received only one to two hours of science each week, while the lower secondary students have received two to three hours of science each week. In primary schools students study general science and nature studies. At the junior secondary level they devote half of their class time to the life sciences and the other half to the physical sciences. The major theme in the life sciences has been developed around organisms and their environment and the themes in the physical sciences have involved the structure of matter and electricity. On top of the general requirements described above, students have a further option and many students at the lower secondary school level study a course entitled Agriculture as Environmental Science. At the upper secondary school level each student is required to take at Grade 10, three hours per week in each of the three sciences, namely: physics, chemistry, and biology. Each set of three hours is considered as a unit. Of the three hours, one is usually devoted to laboratory work. At the primary school level science is taught with the aim of providing a general scientific literacy to help students to understand their own bodies and their immediate environment. At the same time students are provided with opportunities to develop skills such as observation, interpretation, reporting, and application. The study of science is based on curriculum materials developed by the Elementary Science MATAL project located at Tel Aviv University and affiliated

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to the Israel Science Teaching Center. The MATAL project adapted materials from different foreign programs and has developed many original units using a balanced process-content approach, for Grades K to 6. MATAL has also developed a new primary science curriculum with a strong emphasis on technology and the application of science in every day life. The units of MATAL attempt to match the materials to the cognitive development of the students as suggested by Piaget's theory. Considerable attention has also been given to students' preconceptions and misconceptions based on local as well as international research findings. The Ministry of Education and Culture established a Curriculum Development Center for the purpose of developing curricula for the lower secondary level. For science, projects were established in three science areas: physical science, biology, and agriculture. In addition to the study of major concepts in each discipline, these programs follow a highly structured guided inquiry approach.- In biology, for example, there has been a strong emphasis on the complementarity of structure and function, and the interrelationship between organisms and their environment. As to skills, the program emphasizes observations, the design of controlled experiments, and drawing conclusions. In the physical sciences, the particle nature of matter is highlighted. As far as processes are concerned, accurate observation and measurement are fostered. Agriculture as environmental science has involved students in field and home experiments, using plants which are readily available even in cities. Applied topics such as the use of pesticides and the world food problems are discussed and decision making experiences are provided. Primary School Level. In the primary school the curricular materials have consisted of modules each dealing with a specific topic; for example, the life cycle of a plant, or solutions, or batteries and bulbs. Each module is intended for about 8 to 10 weeks of study. The modules, which are designed for teachers, are accompanied by work sheets, tests, and other auxiliary materials. Lower Secondary School Level. At the lower secondary school level both student textbooks, and teacher guides have been made available. The student texts have integrated practical activities with expository material, self study assignments, and problem solving. The teacher guides have offered ideas, suggested procedures, and provided complementary information. Some additional enrichment reading materials have also been made available. Teacher Education Teachers for primary schools are trained in the teachers colleges. In some of these colleges science has received an adequate emphasis. However, most primary school teachers have tended to avoid science, in part, because of their deficient background in this field. In response to this situation, some teachers colleges have special training programs for science teachers. Secondary teachers are trained at universities. Students complete a regular course of study towards a science degree. In addition, they study at the Teacher Education Department towards a secondary school teaching certificate. Teaching Patterns In the lower primary grades, the general homeroom teacher usually has the responsibility of teaching science as well. In about one-third of the schools, specialist science teachers have taught science in Grades 5 and 6. At the lower secondary school level science is taught by specialist science teachers. Unfortunately, most of these teachers have specialized in biology, but have to teach physical science as well as life science. The teaching of physical science has suffered because of this. At the upper secondary school level, biology, physics, and chemistry teachers are taught by specialists in these subjects.

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Teaching Methods Although the curriculum in the primary school is oriented towards inquiry and activity, the actual teaching does not always conform with the intended curriculum. However, science teaching is generally much less expository than it was 15 years ago. At the lower secondary school level both life science and physical science curricula are inquiry oriented, and emphasize basic principles. No distinction is made between theoretical and practical work, which are usually integrated in class. Relatively little use is made of studies outside the school. At the upper secondary school level about one-third of class time is devoted to practical work. Among the three subjects, biology is the most inquiry oriented and physics is the least inquiry oriented. Chemistry has occupied a middle position. Biology has been especially characterized by diverse teaching strategies, including the use of invitations to inquiry, analysis of original research papers, individual projects in ecology which require students to spend a lot of time in studies outside the school, and the systematic use of special television programs on topics, such as evolution, which do not lend themselves easily to practical work. Student Assessment At the primary school level, assessment has been less formal than in secondary schools. The Elementary Science Project has prepared an item bank with items matched to different topics, and some teachers have been helped by this resource. Assessment is carried out by teachers who design their own tests which are usually paper and pencil tests. Some teachers have also used behavioral checklists as a means of continuous assessment. At the lower secondary school level assessment procedures have been similar to those in the primary schools. At the upper secondary school level assessment has been strongly influenced by the demands and format of the matriculation examinations. The matriculation examination in chemistry has been based only on paper and pencil tests and hence this kind of assessment is used exclusively by most chemistry teachers. On the other hand, biology and physics teachers have used practical tests as well. Laboratories About one-third of the primary schools have special purpose rooms that have been equipped for science teaching. However, most science lessons in these schools take place in regular classrooms, while the science room is used for preparation, storage, and demonstration purposes. Most secondary schools have well equipped laboratories together with laboratory technicians who assist in the preparation of laboratory lessons and sometimes also in the actual supervision of student practical work. In most lower secondary schools science lessons take place in the laboratory, since theory and practical work are expected to be integrated. Equipment and Supplies Most laboratories have a refrigerator, an incubator, microscopes, glassware and other kinds of standard equipment. Some school laboratories have more sophisticated equipment such as centrifuges and spectro-photometers. By and large, enough equipment has been made available to carry out the investigations suggested in the regular science programs. Living materials as well as rare chemicals are supplied by specially established supply centers. Glassware, basic equipment, and commonly used chemicals are purchased by schools from commercial stores.

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Japan M asao Miyake Aims and Objectives of Science Education The overall objectives at the elementary and lower secondary school levels have been to develop students' ability in and positive attitude toward making inquiries about nature through observation and experiment as well as to enhance the understanding of matter and phenomena in nature. To have students realize the relationship between nature and human beings is another objective. The overall objectives at the upper secondary school level have been to develop students' ability and positive attitude in undertaking scientific thinking through enhancing their interest in matter and phenomena in nature and through making them carry out scientific research. To have students realize the relationship between nature and human life is another objective. The prescribed objectives are as follows, namely, to: (1) assist students to acquire the scientific method and develop creative ability through the process of identifying and solving problems in matter and phenomena in nature; (2) develop students' ability to understand systematically and utilize basic concepts, principles, and laws found in matter and phenomena in nature, thereby developing their ability and positive attitude to carry out analytical and synthetic thinking about the mechanism and function of nature; and (3) develop students' scientific view of nature and then realize that natural science is helpful in promoting the welfare of mankind. Curriculum Upper Elementary School Level. Science for the third grade through to the sixth grade is divided into three parts: (1) living things and their environment; (2) matter and energy; and (3) the earth and the universe. Each part is subdivided into teaching content areas. For example, in the fourth grade, matter and energy, is subdivided into the following topics which include to: (1) have students understand that the dissolution of a substance varies with the water temperature by examining the change of state when a solid dissolves in water; (2) make students understand the change of volume of air and water, and the change of the state of water caused by different temperatures while examining the states of air and water when heated or cooled; (3) make students understand that the weight of objects can be measured by scales, while constructing scales and examining their function; and (4) make students understand the differences in the brightness of a bulb, depending on the number of batteries and on the ways of connection, while examining the brightness in various types of circuits using a miniature bulb and dry batteries. Lower Secondary School Level. Science in the lower secondary school is divided into two areas, termed the First Area and Second Area. The First Area covers the content of physics and chemistry, and the Second Area covers the content of biology and earth science. The main topics considered in the first area (physics and chemistry) are: substances and reactions, forces, structure of matter, atoms and molecules; electric current, ions, motion and energy. The main topics taught in the second area (biology and earth science) are: kinds of living things, earth and the universe, physical mechanisms of life, weather changes, relationship between living things, changes in Earth's crust, human beings and nature. The content of teaching in elementary and lower secondary schools is prescribed by the Course of Study which is prepared and distributed by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture. The Course of Study has been a national standard curriculum and all curricula and textbooks must follow it. The Course of Study was formulated in 1947 and since then it has been

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revised three times. The Course of Study is revised when weak points are noticed after implementation and when demands for adaptation to the changing needs of society become strong. Whatever the reasons, when circumstances demand, the Curriculum Council is convened. The Curriculum Council has determined guidelines for subject committees which draft the Course of Study. After the Course of Study is published, new textbooks are developed by private publishing companies. These textbooks must be authorized by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture so there is close similarity between different textbooks for any one subject published by various publishing companies. Teacher Education All teachers are required to have a teaching certificate authorized by the local government at the prefectural level. In order to obtain this teaching certificate, teacher candidates must be educated in teacher training courses at universities. The requirements of a teaching certificate differ according to the school level. For example, the certificates for elementary school teachers are given for all subjects taught at elementary school, but those for lower and upper secondary school are only given for each particular subject. Trainee teachers must complete a certain number of credits in each of the areas of general education, teaching profession, and their area of speciality. Teaching Patterns Science teaching at the elementary level has been usually carried out by classroom teachers, but in some cases specialist science teachers are used. At the lower and upper secondary levels, science teaching has been in the hands of specialist teachers. Teaching Methods The most common form of teaching at all levels of education (i.e., elementary, lower, and upper secondary school) is that of one-way instruction by the teacher to one class unit. Teaching is conducted in a 'talk and chalk' method, but audiovisual devices are often used. Experiments are usually carried out, after demonstration by the teachers, in small groups each containing several students. In elementary schools, experiments and observations are carried out in almost every science class. In lower secondary schools, an experiment and observation session lasting one class hour (50 minutes) is usually conducted once every week or two. In upper secondary schools, one or two experiments lasting one class hour are carried out approximately ten times a year. Even so, in some schools students have very few opportunities to .perform them. The simplest form of field study in elementary schools is carried out in the school garden, making use of a plant garden, the school zoo or an artificial pond. Field study, carried out by taking students out from school also exists, but this form has not become common in elementary schools. In lower and upper secondary schools, there has been an increase in longer field study trips lasting 3 to 5 days, carried out at special public facilities, beaches, and mountains. Student Assessment In elementary and lower secondary schools, it has been common to use standardized tests. The total evaluation is based on a combination of the results of written tests and teachers' observations of students' daily activities. Objective tests and those of the teacher's own making are used. In lower and upper secondary schools, tests are normally administered 5 or 6 times a

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year at fixed intervals. These tests are prepared by the teachers of each subject after discussing the content. Laboratories Each elementary school normally has one science room or laboratory and one preparation room. Every lower secondary school has one or two science rooms or laboratories and preparation rooms. In upper secondary schools, there are one or two separate laboratories for each of physics, chemistry, biology, and earth science, along with preparation rooms attached to each laboratory. Equipment and Supplies In each laboratory there is usually a large desk for demonstration of experiments, and ten or so desks equipped with gas, water, and electric fittings for experiments carried out by groups of five to six students. At the back of the room, there are usually cupboards containing equipment. Rooms are normally equipped with black curtains, television, overhead projectors, and other necessary services. Each room is sufficiently equipped to carry out every experiment.

Korea Im In-Jae Aims and Objectives of Science Education Primary School Level. The goals of science teaching at the elementary school level have been to cultivate students' interest in studying natural science and to develop students' scientific literacy. The specific objectives of science teaching have been to: (1) help students acquire the fundamental knowledge necessary to explain the natural phenomena surrounding them; (2) help students acquire simple ways of investigating the natural phenomena surrounding them; and (3) cultivate students' concerns and interest in studying natural science and to develop positive attitudes toward science and science learning. Lower Secondary School Level. The goals of science teaching at the lower secondary school level are to help students understand scientific facts, principles, laws and theories, and to help them apply scientific methods and processes to real life situations and problems. The specific objectives of science teaching are to: (1) help students acquire scientific facts, fundamental concepts and laws necessary for the further study of science; (2) help students learn the scientific method and inquiry process by providing them with experimental activities; (3) enhance motivation of learning and interest in science by providing students with opportunities to manipulate living and non-living things and to conduct experiments; and (4) develop positive attitudes towards science and science learning. Curriculum At the primary and lower secondary school levels, science is taught as a combined subject composed of topics in biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science. At the secondary school level, science is taught as four separate fields and each field is divided into two levels: general course (I) and advanced course (II). At the lower secondary school level, the content areas have consisted of units; each unit containing several key concepts and principles. For example, in the ninth grade the content has consisted of five units: energy, change of matter, earth and the universe, continuity of life, and

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conservation of nature. As an example, the earth and the universe unit, is subdivided into the earth and the moon, the solar system, and the stars and the universe. At the upper secondary school level, the content for each subject (earth science, biology, chemistry, and physics), and for each level (I, II) are provided separately. For example, Physics I consists of force and motion, electricity and magnetism, nuclei and elementary particles, etc. and Physics II consists of momentum and energy, motion of celestial bodies, molecular motion and heat, laws of thermodynamics, and atomic model and spectra. The content of teaching at the primary school, lower secondary school and upper secondary school levels is prescribed by the Curriculum and the Guide which are prepared and distributed by the Ministry of Education. The Curriculum is a national standard curriculum and all instruction for each subject and textbooks must follow it. Since 1945, the science curriculum has been revised four times. Revision has taken place every 8 or 10 years. The science curriculum is revised when its weak points are noticed after implementation or demands for adaptation to the new needs of society become strong. The latest revision of the science curriculum took place in 1981-83. Teacher Education All teachers are required to have a teaching certificate authorized by the government. In order to obtain this teaching certificate, prospective teachers must be educated in teacher training courses or schools at colleges and universities. The requirements of a teaching certificate differ according to the level of schooling involved. The certificates for primary school teachers are given for all subjects taught at primary school. Those graduating from the National Teacher's College after four years receive the primary school teacher certificate. The colleges in the educational system of teachers colleges were upgraded to four year schools in 1984. Previously they had been two year schools. In order to qualify as a middle school or high school teacher, teacher trainees must complete a certain number of credits in each of the areas of general education, the program of teacher education, and their areas of speciality in science at the university. Teaching Patterns At the upper primary school level, individual class teachers teach science to their own class. There are no specialized teachers for each subject including science. At the lower secondary and upper secondary school levels there are specialist science teachers teaching science to a group of classes. Teaching Methods The most common form of teaching at all levels of education (i.e., primary, lower, and upper secondary) is that of instruction by the teacher to one class unit. Factual knowledge is over emphasized as compared with experimental activities. Experiments are usually carried out by groups of several students. In primary and lower secondary schools one class hour (45 minutes and 50 minutes, respectively) is spent every week or two on experiments and observation. At the upper secondary school level, experiments are conducted approximately once a month but in some schools students have very few chances to perform them. Field study in primary schools is usually carded out in the school garden and excursions are made twice a year. In the case of lower and upper secondary schools, field study trips lasting three to five days are usually carried out at the end of the graduating year.

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Student Assessment In primary schools, and lower and upper secondary schools, student assessment is usually carried out by paper and pencil tests which are prepared by teachers. They are usually composed of objective and short answer items. At the primary and lower secondary school levels, evaluation of capacity to perform experiments and carry out observation and measurement is also taken into consideration, and accounts for about 20 percent in determining a student's total grade in science. In the case of upper secondary school students the proportion have been far less, and achievement on paper and pencil tests has tended to be more the only measure of performance employed. Laboratories Each primary, lower, and upper secondary school normally has one science room or laboratory. Equipment and Supplies In each laboratory there is usually a large desk for the demonstration of experiments and seven or more desks equipped with gas, water, and electric fittings for experiments carded out by groups of seven or eight students. Each room is not sufficiently equipped to carry out every essential experiment and the number of desks is insufficient for the students to perform experiments individually or even in pairs.

Singapore Yeoh Oon Chye Aims and Objectives of Science Education

Primary School Level. The primary science curriculum is designed to help students to: (1) utilize their natural curiosity for inquiry, observation, and discovery; (2) use their intellectual skills of observation, classification, and interpretation of observations, to make inferences and communicate their experiences in writing; (3) develop an interest in learning about objects and events in the environment by asking questions, formulating ideas and performing purposeful investigatory activities; (4) develop a progressive understanding of the ideas of change, cause and effect, relationships, energy, matter and the characteristics of life, and the interactions between the living and nonliving systems of the environment; and (5) become aware of science as part of human activity and its contributions to daily life. Secondary School Level. The secondary science curriculum, in broad terms, is intended to help students to: (1) develop science concepts and an understanding of their physical and biological environment; (2) acquire the essential scientific knowledge and skills that will contribute to their educational and vocational needs; (3) establish a good grounding in the study of the subject, so as to prepare them for the General Certificate of Education O-Level Examinations; (4) develop their ability to use the methods of science; and (5) appreciate the humanistic aspects of science. From Grade 3 to Grade 8, science is a compulsory subject in the school curriculum. From Grade 9 upwards, science is merely one of the optional subjects.

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Curriculum In Singapore, earth science is not taught as a separate subject in the school curriculum. Any concepts included are incorporated into the teaching of physical geography (at the secondary level), or as part of other science content areas. Since 1980, primary science is taught as a formal subject only from Grade 3. General science taught in Grades 3 to 8 (extended stream) follows a common set of syllabuses, prescribed by the Ministry of Education. For the monolingual stream students, science is integrated into the language arts curriculum. At the upper primary level approximately 50 percent of science is basic biology while the other half deals with the concepts and principles of the physical sciences. At the lower secondary school level (i.e., Grades 7 and 8), all students are required to take the compulsory subject general science. This science subject has employed several conceptual themes to provide a multidisciplinary approach to the study of physics, chemistry, biology, and environmental science or ecology. General science has been one of the eight compulsory core subjects in the curriculum. Of the six periods or lessons taught each week (approximately 240 minutes) 2 to 4 periods are devoted to the conduct of science laboratory practical studies. Lower secondary science is designed to present the science concepts of the separate science disciplines through unified conceptual themes and offers a multidisciplinary approach to learning science. At Grades 9 and 10 students have a choice of subject combinations. The science subjects taught at present involve combinations of physics-chemistry; chemistry-biology; biology-physics, and combined science, a subject made up of biology, chemistry, and physics combined together as a general science. In addition, human and social biology, physics, chemistry, biology, and science/integrated science (provided as a double subject) are generally offered as electives to the more able science oriented students. For the O-level examinations, the student is allowed a maximum of three separate science subjects out of 7 or 8 subjects for the special and express stream students. For the normal course students, science has been optional but they are encouraged to take at least one subject which may be science or human and social biology. At these levels, a range of 4 to 6 periods (approximately 210-240 minutes) per week is prescribed for each subject. Of this, about half the amount of time available is devoted to the conduct of science laboratory practical work. Students who are in the academic science stream (Grades 11, 12, and 13) study 5 or 6 subjects, of which a maximum of three may be science subjects. The science options are physics, chemistry, biology, physical science, additional chemistry, additional physics, or computer science. Depending on the number of subject combinations, a student devotes about 5 to 7 hours each subject per week (i.e., 300-420 minutes). Of this, approximately one-third of the time is spent on science laboratory practical work. Teacher Education The Institute of Education was, in 1984, the only institution in Singapore engaged in teacher education. The Institute conducted preservice and inservice training of teachers for the schools. The teaching of science was a key component of the full-time preservice programs. The two year Certificate in Education program prepared non-graduates to teach at the preprimary and primary levels. There was a component of science teaching that was geared specifically to the needs of the preprimary and lower primary levels. After completion of a four year Baccalaureate degree, graduates were required to participate in a one year Diploma in Education program enabling them to teach at the secondary and preuniversity levels. The main emphasis in the training of science teachers has been practice teaching (practicum). Approximately 12 weeks of practicum are required for the Diploma in Education and 22 weeks are required for the Certificate of Education. The emphasis has been on translating theory into the practice of science teaching. This practice is also used as a means to clarify and

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understand the underlying theories. The focus has been on pedagogy and teaching methods rather than on upgrading subject content. Out of the total of 820 hours for the Diploma in Education and 1490 hours for the Certificate of Education programs, the science trainees are required to devote about 180 contact hours to the mastery of two science teaching subjects. In contrast, teachers at the primary school level are trained as generalist teachers. Science is only one of the five teaching subjects, namely English and reading, mathematics, science, social studies, art, and music education. Of the 360 contact hours, science teaching methods in the Certificate of Education program have taken about 120 hours. During the period of training, the prospective science teachers are exposed to various innovative approaches, techniques, and resources. Teaching Patterns

Lower Primary School Level. The class teacher teaches science in addition to English, mathematics and social studies at Grade 3. Upper Primary School Level. There is a tendency for some schools to have teachers who specialize in Science, especially at Grades 5 and 6. Secondary School Level. As a result of subject specialization of graduate teachers, the science subjects are generally taught by the respective specialist subject teachers in these grades. Teaching Methods The methods and approaches for science teaching are clearly outlined and prescribed in the Teachers Guide that accompanied the primary science and lower secondary science curriculum materials. While the intention has been to achieve a realistic balance between student centered learning and teacher directed exposition, in practice the methods of science teaching have varied according to the school and class circumstances on the one hand, and the individual differences in teaching competence and cognitive styles, on the other. In general, whichever method of science teaching is adopted, it is clearly examination oriented. At the upper primary school level, teachers have attempted to use a hands-on, activity based approach to teaching science. This is strongly advocated by the primary science curriculum materials. Teacher centered demonstrations of activities have been more common than the use of independent pupil investigations. Science is taught in the regular classroom or, at best, in the special science room. Field study is often limited to visits to the Science Center where special science classes may be conducted. Science teaching at the secondary school level has become progressively less formal and more student directed as students become increasingly more independent. Science laboratory practical work has been a regular feature of science learning. Basically, science practical work is used as an opportunity to verify and to confirm what the students have already learned during the science theory lessons conducted by the teacher in the class. During school instruction time, science learning has been generally formal with a high degree of teacher direction. However, throughout the year, outside the class time, students have many opportunities to explore, create, innovate, invent and to investigate in the tradition of open ended scientific and technological enquiry. Student Assessment At all grade levels, there have been regular assessments of student progress. Monthly tests have constituted a continuous assessment which is used to complement the mid-year and end-of-year examinations. All school based tests and examinations are designed by the respective science teachers. Generally, at the primary school level, multiple choice tests are used extensively. The format of the public Primary School Leaving Examination has been a

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combination of different kinds of objective type test items. It is designed and conducted by the Central Testing Service of the Ministry. At the secondary school level, there have been two types of science assessments, namely the paper and pencil science theory test (a combination of multiple choice items and essay type items) and the science practical test. Laboratories At the primary school level a special science room has been set aside to promote the activities of primary science. In addition, it has been a common practice to have a science corner in the regular classroom. Teacher demonstrations in science are conducted in the classroom. Most schools have developed a school pond with an associated garden for purposes of field science studies. To supplement the needs of the primary school, the Singapore Science Center has set up a Primary Science Activity Room for use by visiting schools. The Ecogarden has been set up specifically to help teachers in the teaching of ecology outside the school. The science laboratories for the secondary schools and junior colleges are specially designed for their respective subjects. These have included multipurpose laboratories as well as specialized laboratories for the teaching of biology, chemistry, and physics. At the secondary school level, the science laboratories are manned by full-time laboratory attendants or assistants who are experienced in the techniques of laboratory maintenance and management. Equipment and Supplies All schools are well equipped with the full range of science equipment and supplies that are needed for normal teaching and examination purposes. Except for special purposes, teachers are not required to improvise or to rely on low cost equipment. The schools have received a per capita grant for the recurrent expenditure on the annual purchase of science equipment and supplies. In addition, students may have paid a small science fee to offset the recurrent cost of consumable science supplies.

United States

Willard Jacobson, Rodney L. Doran, and June Miller Aims and Objectives of Science Education Goals of science education for the 1980s have focused on making all students scientifically literate. To achieve this end, curricula have been developed using the following criteria by the National Science Teachers Association. Academic Knowledge of Science and Technology. This knowledge should encompass the factual information within the disciplines and the technological ramifications of scientific research. However, while most organizations and agencies affiliated with science education have agreed in principle to the inclusion of technology, less consensus has existed upon the content of such ongoing science programs. Additionally, many experts have believed that a separate course offering should be developed for non-academic students. Practice and Application of Science Process Skills. These skills have involved developing laboratory skills (e.g., observation, measurement, classification, and data collection) and cognitive skills used to examine objectively physical phenomena (e.g., hypothesis formulation, data analysis and interpretation, verification, and generalization). Application of Knowledge and Skills in Daily Life and Society. The relevance of learning science should extend beyond the subject domain to areas that have affected the course of personal and societal development (e.g., ramifications or implications of science in personal health, career

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choices, the environment, and technology). An 'informed citizenry' that can make prudent decisions on issues having significant scientific and technological dimensions has been one important outcome of this. These broadly described goals for science education in the 1980s were categorized by the National Science Teachers Association into four general blocks: (1) process skills, (2) concept development, (3) application to the students' personal lives, and (4) science-based societal issues. Instruction at all levels should encompass all four categories.

Curriculum

Upper Elementary School Level (Grade 5). Science programs have not been standardized to a great extent at this level in American schools. Content may include units from any one, or all of the basic or applied sciences. Frequently, however, the content is grouped by broadly conceptual themes, such as circulation or systems of the body, which reflect a focus on one of the physical or biological and environmental fields. Process skills, particularly those associated with basic laboratory experiences, such as classification, observation, and measurement of phenomena, are commonly considered essential elements of science instruction. These are introduced and reinforced through 'hands-on' activities, in which students are encouraged to use these skills to draw tentative conclusions about the objects being examined. The acquisition of practical skills, along with attainment of knowledge and comprehension of factual content, have been the areas of greatest importance in the science curricula. Middle Secondary School Level (Grade 9). At the lower secondary level, courses in general science, physical science, earth science, and biological science are often taught. Less frequently, a unified or integrated science course is offered. Laboratory skills are commonly emphasized in planned science curricula at this level. Attendant process skills related to scientific methodology and data gathering are considered of equal importance, and included within the science curricula. Upper Secondary School Level (Grade 12). Consensus with respect to the content of science programs at the upper secondary school level is greater than that at the lower secondary level. The science curriculum at the terminal year of second.ary schooling is usually a full year sequence in one branch of science. Most often, the science offered is physics, but many schools also include a second year of biology or chemistry. Since many states have required no more than two years of upper secondary science credit for graduation, the numbers of students enrolled in science courses at Grade 12 have been much fewer than at lower levels. There has been no standard method for developing science curricula in the United States; rather, several approaches have been commonly employed. Dedicated professionals, teachers, and supervisors, have worked to develop science curricula for their school systems, often adapting state or city guidelines to the needs of local student bodies. However, from the late 1950s to the early 1970s, major curriculum development projects funded by government agencies, such as the National Science Foundation, spawned reforms in the approaches to instructional development. These projects had the following characteristics: (1) although projects were often identified with prominent scientists, almost all involved the cooperation of a large number of scientists, teachers, and administrators; (2) many of the projects were classroom tested, but the results of the trials did not necessarily influence subsequent versions in any significant way; (3) mechanisms such as summer institutes and short term workshops were set up to familiarize teachers and administrators with the new curriculum materials; and (4) commercial publishers were selected to print and market the materials.

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Teacher Education Teacher certification guidelines are established by the individual states. Different courses of collegiate study are generally prescribed for elementary school accreditation and secondary school accreditation. Preservice teacher education is carried out in more than 3,000 colleges, universities, and branch campuses across the nation. Classroom teachers are trained in both undergraduate and graduate institutions. The teacher education institutions are concerned that their graduates will be recruited by school systems, and many try to prepare the types of teachers that school systems say they need. This feedback process is one of the factors that has lead to some uniformity. Elementary school teachers have generally perceived themselves as less well qualified to teach science than mathematics, reading, and social studies. This may be because they usually have had very little science in their academic work. To be certified to teach at the elementary level, a student must complete a four year baccalaureate program. Some colleges have offered elementary education degree programs that lead to state certification, while others have required students to pursue a broad liberal arts background augmented with special courses in education. Many state requirements for elementary certification have required a bachelors degree including 24 semester hours of education courses and one semester of supervised student teaching in an elementary school. States have seldom required that elementary school teachers take science courses before being certified. Secondary school science teachers usually have considerably stronger preparation in the sciences. For example, in the State of New York a minimum of 36 semester hours of college level work in the sciences is required for certification to teach science. Many science teachers have a more substantial background in the academic sciences. The general pattern of preparation for a secondary science teacher is a bachelors degree including at least 36 semester hours of science, 12 semester hours of education courses, and one semester of supervised student teaching in science in a secondary school. A few states have separate certification requirements for junior and middle high school teachers, but the vast majority have only the elementary (Grades K to 6, or Grades K to 8) and secondary (Grades 7 to 12 or Grades 9 to 12) level certificates. Teaching Patterns Science in the elementary school is usually taught by the generalist classroom teacher in the self-contained classroom or by a cooperative or team teaching arrangement. In the case of the generalist classroom teacher, she has the responsibility for instruction in reading, mathematics, social studies, science, art, music, and other subjects. Most often, the teacher does not have a strong background in any of the sciences. Relatively little time is devoted to science in the elementary schools. It is reported that the average time spent teaching science in the lower Grades (K to 3) is about 85 minutes per week. In Grades 4 to 6, an average of 140 minutes a week is given to science. Instruction becomes 'departmentalized' in the secondary (i.e., junior and senior high) schools. This means that instruction is either undertaken in a team teaching situation or is provided by a teacher specifically certified in a particular field, such as biology, earth science, chemistry, or physics. In addition, science is becoming a required full-year course in each of the grades. However, in some schools and states, junior high science is still a half-year course. In these cases, students study health, industrial arts, etc., in the remainder of the school year. Teaching Methods The following teaching and learning practices have characterized science education in the elementary and secondary schools in the United States.

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1.

Hands-on or manipulative materials are used in about half the classrooms at least once a week. Science educators are concerned about science classes where manipulative materials are never or seldom used and that the amount of hands-on experiences will be further reduced by declines in school budgets. 2. The textbook has continued to occupy a central role in science instruction. Textbooks are used in virtually all science classes with approximately one-third of the classes using multiple texts. 3. Lecture and discussion have been the predominant techniques used in science classes. 4. Alternate activities such as library work, student projects, field trips, and guest speakers have been other approaches to science instruction. 5. Films, filmstrips, film loops, slides, tapes, and records are used. Calculators, computers, television, and other technological developments have also influenced science instruction. In reviewing three studies of science education, a committee of the National Science Teachers Association concluded that the teacher is the key to good science instruction, and that more support must be given to the teacher to make good science instruction possible. Many teachers have evolved an eclectic approach to teaching science by incorporating the demonstration and practical work with the textbook, lecture, and question/answer formats. Student Assessment As there are no national examinations and only one science examination system administered by a state (New York), the schools and teachers have the major responsibility for developing appropriate assessment plans. Laboratories Laboratory facilities for science are usually not provided at the elementary level. Only about 9 percent of elementary science classes in Grades 4 to 6 are conducted in laboratories and special science rooms. Most students are taught science in rooms containing portable science materials, while over one third leam in rooms that contain no special facilities whatever. There is a greater emphasis upon laboratory experiences at the secondary level. About 40 percent of upper secondary level students taking science have some aspect of laboratory work or projects incorporated fairly often, or frequently, in their coursework. Allocation and upkeep of special laboratory rooms for science instruction, at all grade levels, is heavily dependent upon space availability and perception of need by the individual school districts or educational systems. Equipment and Supplies A frequent complaint of science teachers in the United States is lack of functioning, modem equipment and an adequate supply of materials to conduct high quality, activity oriented science programs. The underlying problem has been a lack of money in the school budget for such items. Relatively few schools have budgets specifically allocated for science equipment and supplies, although the likelihood of the existence of such budgets increases at the higher school levels or grades. In general, more funding is allotted for the purchase of supplies than science equipment. References Rosier, M.J., & Keeves,J.P. (1991). Science education and curricula in twenty-three countries. Oxford:Pergamon Press.

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The Authors ZOLTAN BATHORY is a science education specialist with the Center for Evaluation of Hungary's National Institute of Education. He was the Associate National Research Coordinator for Hungary in the Second International Science Study. PETER VARI is a science education specialist with the Center for Evaluation of Hungary's National Institute of Education. He was the Associate National Research Coordinator for Hungary in the Second International Science Study. PINCHAS TAMIR is a professor at the School of Education and the Science Teaching Department, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. His major research interests are: curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation; innovative approaches to student assessment; teacher education; and various aspects of science education with special reference to biology. MASAO MIYAKE studied engineering at Kagoshima University. He is currently the chief of the science education section of the National Institute for Educational Research in Tokyo, Japan. IM IN-JAE is a science education specialist in the Department of Education at Korea's Seoul National University. He was the National Research Coordinator for Korea in the Second International Science Study. YEOH OON-CHYE is an educational research specialist at the Institute of Education in Singapore. He was the National Research Coordinator for Singapore in the Second International Science Study. WILLARD JACOBSON studied Chemistry and Science Education at the University of Wisconsin and Columbia University, where he also obtained his Ed.D. Since 1951, Dr. Jacobson has been on the faculty at Teachers College, Columbia University, where he currently is Professor of Natural Sciences. He was the National Research Coordinator for the United States in the Second International Science Study. RODNEY L. DORAN studied Physics at the University of Minnesota and Cornell University and obtained his PhD. in Science Education at the University of Wisconsin. Dr. Doran is currently Professor of Science Education at the University at Buffalo where he has been since 1969. JUNE MILLER studied Biology and Science Education and received her doctorate from Teachers College, Columbia University. She currently is an assistant professor at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. She was a Research Associate for the United States in the Second International Science Study.