Profiling Tourists to Ecotourism Operations

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Pedersen, A. 1998 Linking Tourism and Conservation in the Arctic. Oslo: WWF International Arctic Programme, Internal Report—Project Description. Prokosch, P. 1998 Introduction, Linking Tourism and Conservation in the Arctic. Meddelelser No. 159 In Linking Tourism and Conservation in the Arctic, B. Humphreys, A. Pedersen, P. Prokosch, S. Smith and B. Stonehouse, eds., pp. 2–5. Tromso: Norwegian Polar Institute. The Office of the Lt. Governor of the State of Alaska 2001 Lt. Governor Ulmer Unveils the Links Program [press release]. . UNEP, 1995 Environmental Codes of Conduct, Technical Report No. 29. Paris: United Nations Environmental Program. Viken, A., and F. Jørgenson 1998 Tourism on Svalbard. Polar Record 34(189):123–128. WWF 1997 Linking Tourism and Conservation in the Arctic (Supplement). WWFArctic Bulletin, No. 4, 1997, Oslo, Norway. .

Submitted 6 August 2000. Resubmitted 10 November 2000. Resubmitted 20 June 2001. Accepted 3 August 2001. Final version 5 November 2001 PII: S0160-7383(02)00016-6 Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 1168–1171, 2002  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0160-7383/02/$22.00

Profiling Tourists to Ecotourism Operations James E.S. Higham Anna Carr University of Otago, New Zealand

The rapid development and widening appeal of ecotourism has caused growing pains for its sector (Duffus and Dearden 1990). Operators offering various experiences face increasing pressure to ensure that the diverse consumers of their products receive the experiences that they anticipate. However the term has been applied so widely that it has in many regards become meaningless, prompting a debate on “what constitutes an ecotourism experience” (Chirgwin and Hughes 1997:2). Ecotourists represent a broad range of demographic characteristics, personal backgrounds, preferences, motivations and types (Wight 1996). Under these circumstances, defining ecotourism may become an exercise in futility. However, there are advantages to be achieved, for both operators and tourists, in profiling the latter for such operations. In the past, this has been undertaken based on motivations and preferences (Wight 1996), environmental attitudes (Uysal, Jurowski, Noe and McDonald 1994), benefit segmentation

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(Palacio and McCool 1997), and cultural values (Blamey and Braithwaite 1997; Diamantis 1999). The academic literature establishes a strong relationship between individual and group values, choice of product and consumer behavior (Lawson, Tidwell, Rainbird, Loudon and Della Bitta 1996). The importance of consumer values as a motivator, determinant of onsite behavior, and potential tool for market segmentation has been researched, utilizing personal (Madrigal 1995) and social values (Blamey and Braithwaite 1997). An extension of these involves the study of the environmental values held when visiting ecotourism operations. Research in the field of consumer behavior confirms the importance of values as a means of profiling and segmenting markets (Lawson et al 1996). Rokeach defines values as “centrally held and enduring beliefs that guide actions and judgments across specific situations and beyond immediate goals to more ultimate end-states of existence” (1968:111). Therefore, values may be the basis upon which behavior takes place, as their consequences are “present in all aspects of their behavior” (Lawson et al 1996:83). The relevance of environmental values is recognized by Akama (1996) who discusses Western influences and the development of nature-based tourism in Kenya. The current research is a two-year project funded by the New Zealand Foundation of Research, Science and Technology. It adopts a mixed-method approach to measure and analyze the environmental values held by those visiting ecotourism attractions in New Zealand. Its 1999–2000 phase employed qualitative methods to provide insights into ecotourism experiences, with the 2000–2001 phase involving the development of a questionnaire informed by both existing literature in the field of environmental values and an understanding of the study context achieved in the first phase. The initial stage involved the development of a comprehensive database of ecotourism and nature-based tourism attractions. This was achieved via Internet searches of websites listing such attractions, requests for information from all regional tourism organizations and visitor information centers in New Zealand, and content analyses of national and regional directories, guidebooks, magazines, and brochures. For preliminary insights into their diversity, information was obtained on over 400 operations in New Zealand whose primary business was offering nature-based or ecotourism activities. These included mechanized forms of nature-based recreation (such as four-wheel drive trips), physical/adventure experiences (like hiking and rafting), and operations that place the main emphasis on observing, learning, or experiencing nature. From the operations database, 12 participating companies were selected to represent the spectrum of ecotourism businesses ranging from small scale (low tourist numbers) and locally owned, through to government or corporateowned operations with annual numbers exceeding 100,000. For logistical purposes, case study operations were selected in three regions utilizing selection criteria such as type of operation (transport, guiding, observation, and education), core product (native forest, geological, ornithological, and marine mammals), focus on conservation, and scale of operation. Those with domestic as well as international tourist foci and recognition in national and/or international ecotourism awards were also considered. The purpose was to identify the scope of this tourism sector, rather than attempt to define the ecotourism phenomenon. The first phase of the research employed qualitative methods including participant observations and interviews with tourists to selected case study operations. Over 80 personal interviews were conducted, undertaking participant observations on between 3 and 8 tours/excursions per case study. The researchers worked in pairs to mitigate observer bias. This provided valuable insights into ecotourism operations, management techniques, and tourist pro-

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files and behavior at selected case study sites. Observations confirmed that all 12 cases received both specialists (experts) and generalist (novice) participants. Observed indicators included aspects such as group size and composition, tourist interaction with guides, carrying and use of personal equipment (including binoculars, sketch pads, microphones, and identification books), specific subjects of interest, on site behavior, and compliance with guidelines. The personal interviews provided information on experiences at selected operations, and the environmental values held. The laddering technique (Reynolds and Gutman 1988) was employed in interviews to gain insights into important aspects of the experience. Participants sought a variety of experiences and held a wide range of environmental values. Interviews confirmed that some had planned their visit often months in advance, while many others acted spontaneously. The latter reported that they were traveling for reasons such as to visit friends and relatives or, in the case of many domestic tourists, to socialize with acquaintances. Insights into their environmental values were achieved through interviews during which participants were asked to consider issues relating to their ecotourism experience, their responses to interpretation programs, awareness of local or national environmental issues, group membership, and global issues of concern to them. This process provided valuable qualitative insights into the widely varied environmental values held. These perspectives guided the development of the questionnaire, with established instruments, most notably the New Environmental Paradigm used in this process. Dunlap and Van Liere’s (1978) paradigm is one of the few quantitative instruments developed to assess environmental values. Its scale has been widely applied in a variety of research contexts including tourism (Ryan 2000; Uysal et al 1994). The current research supports the need to investigate niche tourist profiles generally considered to exist within the ecotourism sector (Blamey 1995). In doing so, this research is intended to assist operators in terms of product development, management, the development of promotional materials, and the use of distribution channels. Few ecotourism operations appeal to those across the ecotourism spectrum. Therefore, it is important to develop products that appeal to niche interests. Based on environmental values, quantitative research forms the basis of the current second phase which involves an A exercise in profiling ecotourists visiting operations in New Zealand. 왎 James Higham: Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Email .

REFERENCES Akama, J. 1996 Western Environmental Values and Nature-based Tourism in Kenya. Tourism Management 17:567–574. Blamey, R. 1995 The Nature of Ecotourism. Canberra: Bureau of Tourism Research. Blamey, R., and V. Braithwaite 1997 A Social Values Segmentation of the Potential Ecotourism Market. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(1):29–45. Chirgwin, S., and K. Hughes 1997 Ecotourism: The Participants’ Perceptions. The Journal of Tourism Studies 8(2):2–7. Diamantis 1999 The Concept of Ecotourism: Evolution and Trends. Current Issues in Tourism 2(2):93–122.

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Duffus, D., and P. Dearden 1990 Non-consumptive Wildlife-oriented Recreation: A Conceptual Framework. Biological Conservation 53:213–231. Dunlap, R., and K. Van Liere 1978 The “New Environmental Paradigm”. Journal of Environmental Education 9(4):10–19. Lawson, R., P. Tidwell, P. Rainbird, D. Loudon, and A. Della Bitta 1996 Consumer Behavior in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: McGraw-Hill. Madrigal, R. 1995 Personal Values, Traveler Personality Type and Leisure Travel Style. Journal of Leisure Research 27:125–142. Palacio, V., and S. McCool 1997 Identifying Ecotourists in Belize through Benefit Segmentation: A Preliminary Analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5:234–243. Reynolds, T., and J. Gutman 1988 Laddering Theory, Method, Analysis and Interpretation. Journal of Advertising Research February/March:11–29. Rokeach, M. 1968 Beliefs, Attitudes and Values; A Theory of Organization and Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ryan, C. 2000 Australian Tourists and their Interests in Wildlife-Based Tourism Attractions. In Reflections on International Tourism: Motivations, Behaviour and Tourist Types, M. Robinson, P. Long, N. Evans, R. Sharpley and J. Swarbrooke, eds. Sunderland: Centre for Travel and Tourism. Uysal, M., C. Jurowski, E. Noe, and C. McDonald 1994 Environmental Attitude by Trip and Visitor Characteristics. Tourism Management 15:284–294. Wight, P. 1996 North American Ecotourism Markets: Motivations, Preferences and Destinations. Journal of Travel Research 35(1):3–10. Submitted 25 February 2001. Resubmitted 24 April 2001. Resubmitted 20 June 2001. Revised 18 August 2001. Revised 19 November 2001 PII: S0160-7383(02)00037-3 Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 1171–1174, 2002  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0160-7383/02/$22.00

Tourism as the Subject of North American Doctoral Dissertations, 1987–2000 Klaus J. Meyer-Arendt Cynthia Justice University of West Florida, USA Over 50 years have passed since the first dissertation in tourism research was completed, and thus a retrospective of late 20th-century North American dissertation research on this subject is presented. The number of related jour-