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Promoting cleaner production in the Indian small-scale mining industry
Journal of Cleaner Production 11 (2003) 167–174 www.cleanerproduction.net
Promoting cleaner production in the Indian small-scale mining industry M.K. Ghose ∗ Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, 826004, India Received 13 December 2001; received in revised form 26 February 2002; accepted 28 February 2002
Abstract India is among the top ten mineral producing nations in the world and its economy depends on the value of minerals produced. Although mineral production has increased significantly since the country’s independence, what continues to be overlooked in is the contribution of resident small-scale mines to national mineral output. Approximately 90% of India’s mines are operating on a small-scale, employing some 0.5 million people. However, because of their rudimentary and highly migratory nature, these operations feature poor environmental management practices and safety conditions. This paper examines the unique techno-economic and socio-cultural characteristics of selected small-scale mining regions in India. It furthermore underscores the need for cleaner production in these regions, and outlines a series of legislative measures pertinent to the industry. The paper concludes by identifying educational- and training-related initiatives, which, if undertaken, could facilitate additional environmental improvement at sites. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Small-scale mining; Environmental; Mineral policy; Safety; Conservation
1. Introduction India is among the top ten mineral producing nations in the world, and its economy, to a great extent, depends upon the revenues accrued from mineral output [1,2]. The distribution of minerals in India is widespread, its prospective deposits occurring in a number of areas including the fragile foothills of the Himalayas, deserts, arid and semi-arid regions, along vast coastlines, and in plains and rich forests [3]. Because of significant variations in microclimates, the problems associated with mining activity in India are varied and complex, requiring the design and implementation of site-specific solutions [4]. Often, mineral deposits are worked in areas considered to be ecologically sensitive and/or rich in biodiversity [5]. In fact, environmental conservation is generally a major barrier to the successful development of mines in such regions, fueling a misconception that environmental management and mineral development are incompatible in this context [6]. An important, yet, overlooked, contributor to Indian
mineral production is the small-scale mining sector.1 Resident small-scale mines make important contributions to rural employment and national mineral exports [7], and when compared to large-scale mining, requirements in terms of minimum reserves, implementation times, and initial investment are small, skills and infrastructrul requirements are moderate, and employment output is high [8]. However, because of the rudimentary nature of operations, there is a pressing and obvious need to promote effective technology [9,10] capable of facilitating cleaner production in the sector. This paper examines the Indian national mineral scenario, with special emphasis on the small-scale mining sector, and identifies initiatives and opportunities for promoting cleaner production in resident operations. 2. An overview of mineral production in India Indian coal production, which is in the order of 320 Mt/y, is currently supporting some 70,000 MW of ther1
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Production capacity of 50,000 tonnes per annum has been accepted as the main criterion for defining an Indian “small-scale mine”.
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Table 1 Value of mineral production in India
Sector Total: All sectors 1. Fuels (i) Solid fuels (ii) Liquid & gaseous fuels 2. Metallic minerals 3. Non-metallic minerals 4. Minor minerals
1997–98
1998–99
9186 7604 3475 4129 684 331 567
9282 7656 4067 3587 690 362 574
mal power generation, and with further developments being planned for 2010AD, this quantum of power generation is expected to increase to 150,000 MW. In 2000, the total value of minerals produced in the country was approximately US$9.42 billion. During the 1990s, the production of coal, lignite, natural gas, iron ore, bauxite, and lead concentrate increased, while the production of petroleum (crude), barytes, copper concentrates, fire clay, kyanite, sillimanite, mica (crude) decreased. In 1999--2000, the share of fuel minerals constituted 82% of the total value of mineral production; non-metallic minerals, 10%; and metallic minerals, only 7% [11]. Table 1 provides details of mineral production in India [12]. As far as growth in India’s mining sector is concerned, since 1949—i.e. immediately after Independence—the value of mineral production increased significantly, from a mere US$13.5 million to US$9.42 billion. The value of fuel minerals has also increased since Independence, rising from US$10 million to US$7.77 billion. There has, however, been a recent decline in the number of mines operating in India, particularly in the past decade. In 1990–91, there were 4300 mines in operation, but by 1999–2000 the number of active operations declined to only 3100 (Table 2). The most significant declines experienced over this period was in the non-metallic mining (3017 to 1973) and metallic (578 to 561) subsectors. The number of coal and lignite mines rose from 525 to 566. A National Mineral Policy for India was first drafted in 1990, at the time envisaging reservation of 13 minerals of basic and strategic importance—namely, iron
(Million US$) 1999–2000 9424 7755 4164 3591 712 381 574
ore, manganese, chrome ore, sulphur, gold, diamonds, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, nickel and platinum group metals—for exploitation [13]. Subsequent economic liberalization and industry developments led to a redrafting of the Policy in 1993. The modified National Mineral Policy of 1993 outlines national strategies for mineral development, from exploration, through exploitation, to mineral processing, and adequately addresses the issue of environmental management [14]. Its main objectives are as follows: 1. To explore and identify mineral wealth on land and within offshore areas. 2. To develop mineral resources, taking into account national/strategic considerations, and the needs of the present and future. 3. To promote the necessary linkage for smooth and uninterrupted development of the mineral industry. 4. To ensure the establishment of appropriate educational and training facilities for human resource development, with a view to meeting the manpower requirements of the mineral industry. 5. To minimize adverse effects of mineral development on forest environments and ecology. 6. To address key safety and health concerns. This new Policy encourages increased input from the private sector, and allows as much as a 50% foreign equity participation in projects. In addition, and more significant to the discussion in this paper, the Policy promotes small-scale mining developments. A developing country like India must continue to pro-
Table 2 Number of operating mines in India Sector 1. 2. 3. 4.
All mineralsa Coal (including lignite) Metallic minerals Non-metallic minerals a
1990–91
1998–99
4300 525 578 3017
3283 567 621 2095
1999–2000 3100 566 561 1973
Excluding petroleum and natural gas wells, mines of minor minerals and minerals prescribed under the Atomic Energy Act. 1962.
M.K. Ghose / Journal of Cleaner Production 11 (2003) 167–174
mote industrial development if it is to achieve its target of establishing 200,000 MW-power generation capacity by 2010. This will require increased fuel mineral production [15]. More specifically, to meet its proposed energy needs, India must produce nearly double the quantity of coal it is mining at present, as fuel requirements will be in the range 550 Mt/y by 2010. The future of particular base metals in India is unclear. For example, in the iron ore mining sector, although there are sufficient reserves, recent slumps in steel production will, in all likelihood, stimulate decreases in mine production for some time [16], although there remain opportunities to export. Similarly, it is highly unlikely that the copper mining industry will increase outputs because of a persistence of low-grade ores and recently unfavourable international market trends [17].
3. Small-scale mining in India As already noted, small-scale mining is more prevalent in India than large-scale mining, and because of its increasing popularity nationwide [18], it is important that the techno-economic efficiency of operations is improved [19]. Present estimations of the contribution of Indian small-scale mining to global production is significantly high in the case of certain minerals such as antimony (45%), calcium (50%), chromite (75%), clays (75%), feldspar (80%), flourspar (90%), gypsum (70%), tungsten (80%) vermiculite (90%). Of the 80 different minerals (including minor ores) being worked in India, some 70 are being mined on a small-scale [20]. Table 3
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provides an overview of Indian small-scale mining during the period 1985–1990. The industry, at present, is highly variable from a production standpoint. Some operations produce less than ten tonnes of ore daily, whereas others have a daily throughput of as much as 200 tonnes of ore. Some operations feature manual methods, whereas others are highly mechanized. Irrespective of methods, small-scale mining has proven to be a viable means for exploiting hard-to-work deposits with minimal capital throughout the country. As many as 500,000 people are currently employed in India’s small-scale mining sector [21,22], each operation exhibiting unique techno-economic and socio-cultural characteristics. However, despite making important contributions to rural employment and national mineral outputs, these operations are inherently unsafe and responsible for a wide range of environmental damage. This section of the paper describes some of the important small-scale mining regions in India, emphasizing both socio-economic and environmental characteristics. Fig. 1 provides an overview of important Indian mineral deposits suitable for small-scale mining. 3.1. Slate mining in the Kangra Valley (Himachal Pradesh) Slate mining in the Kangra Valley of Himachal Pradesh and in the northern hilly states of India is concentrated near the Ghanayara and Dari villages, which are situated some 10–15 km northeast of the Dharmashala town of the Kangra District (Himachal Pradesh). The
Table 3 Number of small-scale mines in various sub-sectors of the Indian minerals industry (1985–1990) Minerals
Asbestos Bauxite Baryte Chromite Coal Dolomite Feldspar Fire clay Graphite Iron Ore Kaolin Kyanite Lime stone Manganese Ore Mica Ochre Pyrophilite Quartz Silica sand Steatite
No. of small mines (up to 50,000 t/annum) 1986 1987 1988 1989
1990
Percentage of total no. of mines 1986 1987 1988
1989
1990
82 154 52 22 48 137 138 247 31 243 180 13 486 199 165 93 40 206 257 278
76 183 45 23 54 120 120 212 50 206 170 9 546 185 148 91 44 205 274 239
100 93 100 100 9 95 100 100 100 71 100 100 77 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 94 100 100 8 95 100 100 100 73 100 100 76 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 93 100 100 11 94 100 100 100 68 100 100 77 96 100 100 100 100 100 100
82 195 46 23 49 133 138 263 40 259 198 15 563 207 181 113 45 229 275 258
87 182 51 22 56 132 116 239 51 237 182 15 569 199 150 91 43 198 272 252
74 186 51 22 41 134 117 232 51 238 183 10 525 199 045 87 44 198 3012 252
100 94 100 100 9 95 100 100 100 72 100 100 79 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 94 100 100 10 95 100 100 100 73 100 100 79 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
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“Ghanayara/Dari Panchayat Slate Board” supervises slate quarrying operations, its office located within the Ghanayara village and run by local people. About 403 quarries are found in the area at various altitudes. The Slate Board for Mining has allotted 625 hectares of land for these operations, which produce some US$979,160 of slate annually. Pits measure between five and eight metres deep, approximately ten feet wide, and are supported by natural rocks on two extremities. This practice of mining is both rudimentary and unsafe. Principal environment damage from these mining operations includes (a) waste deposited into rivers, deposition along slopes, sedimentation of rivers, and the flooding of villages located in close proximity to river banks; and (b) destruction of hill slopes, and forest destruction from landslides [23]. An accurate assessment of this damage is needed, as well as an environmental management plan for the entire mining region [24].
3.3. Chaibasa (Jharkhand) and Barbill (Orissa) regions Within these regions, there are a number of opencast mines, owned by both the private and public sectors. These two regions occur adjacently in two states with a similar socio-cultural environment [26]. Until only recently, there was insufficient financial support provided to private sector-owned mines, some of which are owned by big private houses such as TISCO, ACC, and the balance, by small- and medium-sized entrepreneurs. Some operations are semi-mechanized, whereas others are predominantly manual. Drilling and blasting is widely practiced at these mines, and environmental protection is seldom more than rudimentary. Improper exploration techniques, a lack of planning and low-to-intermediate technology, results in the poor recovery of minerable deposits.
3.2. Kotah stone mining (Rajasthan)
3.4. Kodarma region (Bihar)
Kotah stone, a minor mineral found in the northwest state of Rajasthan, is a popular dimensional stone used for flooring and wall-cladding [25]. It is inexpensive and is in high demand in both domestic and foreign markets. Ramganjmandi is the heart of the Kotah stone industry, and therefore, most mining activities are concentrated in and around this town; in total, some 50 mines are in operation, producing a combined 1,500,000 feet of stone slabs per annum. The splittable zone of the Kotah stone deposit is worked either artisanally or by semi-mechanized means. To date, most of the mining activities in the main lode have been completely manual. Slits are cut in a rectangular pattern using a chisel and hammer, thus isolating slabs from a layer of suitable thickness. Each slab is then removed manually using crowbars, in a process referred to locally as “splitting”. The detached slabs are then manually lifted and loaded on trucks and transported for grinding and polishing. Mining operations in the area have provided job opportunities to many local peoples who are dependent on forests for meeting subsistence requirements. The living standard of these people is poor, and amenities and other infrastructure facilities are severely lacking in the area. A lack of appropriate technology, primitive extraction techniques, a reluctance to plan and organize operations, and a disregard towards environmental issues have led to wasteful mining, poor mineral recovery, the generation of mass mine waste, seasonal scarcity of ground water, and multifarious environmental threats including, drastic damage to landscapes, alterations to drainage patterns, loss and lock-up of large areas of fertile land under waste dumps, and reductions in rainfall rates.
Within the Kodorma region of Bihar, operations are inherently unsafe and are highly environmentally destructive. Technologies rarely extend beyond jackhammers, drills, and winches, although a small group of operations have winding systems. Mica is the major mineral mined in this region, although statistics indicate that this industry is currently on the decline because of stiffer competition within the international mica market, and recent developments of artificial substitutes for mica. 3.5. Sukinda chroite belt (Orissa) In the Sukinda Valley region, both intermediate- and high-grade chromite ores are widely available within steeply dipping veins, occurring in both friable form or as lumps. Some of the chromite ore produced in this region is directly exported, and the remainder is sold as raw material feed to various industries in the country. Unlike other deposits, which are commonly exploited using surface mining techniques, chromite veins in the Sukinda valley are neither flat, nor very thick. As a result, the stripping ratio in these mines is quite high. Although overburden removal and handling systems are mechanized at some of the larger mines in the Valley, the ore extraction is performed manually at all sites. Local people object to proposals for increased mechanization, contending that it would reduce employment opportunities at resident mines. Because operations are therefore highly rudimentary, unhealthy and unsafe practices, and negligence towards environmental degradation prevails throughout the area. The appropriate scientific planning is also lacking at some mines.
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3.6. South Hlimen area (Mijoram) In South Hlimen, sandstone used for civil construction is mined from small hillside quarries producing 10–15 tonnes of material per day. Local investors own these mines, and workers are mainly from Bihar State and are very poorly paid. A small compressor, one or two jackhammers, and an electric crusher are the only machines found at sites. Blasting is commonly carried out using explosives, which are often illegally procured. Consciousness and knowledge regarding the safety and health of miners, mining statutes and environmental protection is low. On 9th August, 1992, a massive landslide occurred along the floor of six adjacent mines in the area, claiming 60 lives—mainly of miners sleeping in barracks located on the slope of the same hill just below operations. The landslide was triggered by the undercutting of upper layers of rocks in the hill, and heavy seasonal rains. With the appropriate scientific knowledge, these and related problems can be largely prevented. 4. Promoting Cleaner production (CP) in the Indian small-scale mining industry: an overview of regulatory initiatives and policy-making activities 4.1. Examples of important regulatory and policymaking initiatives It is generally recognized that a movement towards Cleaner production (CP) represents a makeshift change in environmental management philosophy. Predicated upon preventing pollution at the source, CP is a more progressive environmental management approach than reactionary pollution control, which focuses upon the treatment of pollutants once released into the environment. This discussion examines the policy initiatives undertaken by the Indian Government to facilitate CP in the small-scale mining industry. Whilst none stipulate “CP” per se, each nevertheless addresses a specific area of environmental management and aims to promote continuous environmental improvement. To date, a number of policies and laws have been implemented to regulate the environmental aspects of India’s mining industry, many of which are directly relevant to the small-scale mining sector. Two of the general environmental policy-related initiatives undertaken to date were implementation of the Industrial Policy in 1991, and implementation of the National Forest Policy in 1998. Implementation of the Industrial Policy marked one of the first attempts made nationally to address the need for integrating environmental concerns in developmental processes to meet the objective of “sustainable development”.2 The mineral industry in the country has 2
Although “sustainable development” has been defined in The
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to be tuned in accordance with the provisions in this new policy. The National Forest Policy of 1998, since a significant amount of the country’s mineral reserves is located in forested areas. The Forest Conservation Division of the Ministry of Environment and Forests issued guidelines for the mining of sedimentary deposits in forested areas, which stipulate reclamation, and rehabilitation requirements for mined areas [28,29]. More significant environmental policies relevant to mining have also been implemented. For example, in 1992, the Indian Government introduced the Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution and the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development. This was followed by the implementation of the Environmental Action Plan in 1993. These policy directives led to the identification of the following tasks in the 8th Plan of India: 앫 To protect the natural environment. 앫 To regenerate and restore degraded ecosystems and increase their productivity and to generate employment through these activities. 앫 To decentralize control over nature and natural resources. 앫 To develop and share an understanding of nature and natural processes. 앫 To formulate a national policy for environmental protection and appropriate institutional and legal frame works in support of the policy. 앫 To ensure co-ordinated and integrated government action aimed at conserving nature and the sustainable use of natural resources. 앫 To make individuals and institutions more accountable to the people for their actions impinging on the environment and ecosystem. 앫 To monitor the state of environment. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 1992 has the following provisions for mining: 앫 Mining will not ordinarily be taken up in ecologically fragile areas. 앫 A mining plan shall accompany every mining project, which should include an Environmental Management Plan. 앫 It should also include a time bound reclamation proBrundtland Commission’s Report Our Common Future as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”, it has been poorly defined in the mining context. Several interpretations have emerged in recent years, ranging from assessments of the mineral availability itself, to the environmental and socioeconomic performance of operations. However, as Hilson and Murck [27] explain, generally, sustainable development in the context of mining operations themselves generally refers to their performance in terms of environmental management and socioeconomic impact.
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gramme for controlling environmental damage and restoring “mined out” areas. Presently, all of the new mining projects and those undergoing reorganization and reconstruction involving more than five ha of land are required to obtain environmental clearance from the Central Government. Policies related to the promotion of environmental improvement—hence CP—in Indian small-scale mining, are governed by the respective government of the state in which the mining is being performed. Mineral and environmental policies, however, do not vary from state to state, as all of the states in India are working under the umbrella of the National Policy. The policies formulated by the central government are simply implemented and enforced at the state level. More specific directives and policies exist for the small-scale mining sector. It is clear from the discussion thus far that small-scale mining, despite having caused extensive damage in India, plays an important socioeconomic role in rural regions. The industrial policy resolutions of 1948 and 1956 first identified the value of small-scale mining to Indian economy. A significant aspect of these resolutions was that they did not place any hindrance on the operation of small mines by privately owned enterprise even for those minerals for which large-scale operation was envisaged through the public sector. The problems in the small-scale mining sector have since been taken into consideration in the recently declared National Mineral Policy. In paragraph 7.12 of the document, it is stated “small-scale mining with modest demand on capital expenditure and short lead time provides employment opportunities for the local population”. It then indicates that efforts will be made to promote the small-scale mining of small deposits in an efficient manner while safeguarding vital environmental and ecological imperatives. It further states that preference should be given to scheduled tribes for mineral concessions for small deposits in scheduled areas. For a major group of small mines covering minor minerals like building stone and sand, special provision has been made in the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules (MCDR) to relax the statutory qualification. The recently amended MCDR provides for the systematic planning of such deposits through mining plans, and leaves implementation to those with lesser qualifications. Most small-scale mines, however, are not subjected to regulation under the Mines Act; more specifically, mines that do not occur below the superjacent ground; opencast operations that do not use explosives; and opencast workings that do not extend more than 6 m below the ground, and which do not employ more than 20 persons each day are not considered purview under the Act. While the mineral policy decision clearly advocates leasing to local tribes, it is an accepted fact that statutory
provisions are generally complicated in language and operations, thus requiring a sound understanding of the implications of law. Most of the scheduled tribes for whose benefit the mineral policy resolution has been taken will therefore not be able to follow these provisions. The provisions of all laws are not applicable in every case and depend on the location and extent of deposit. Qualified experts can prepare a systematic mining plan encompassing conservation, development, environment, and safety aspects. The local people through persons experienced in mining can implement the annual action plan. Relaxation of legal provisions can be sought and granted by the statutory authority under the existing provisions of MCDR and MMR. What is needed, however, is a government agency to help operators obtain a lease through a single-window system. The Government of Gujarat has taken steps in this direction through the Department of Industry, by setting up an Industrial Extension Bureau. 4.2. Recommended responsibilities for the state As already explained, although environmental- and mineral-related policies are drafted by the national government, state authorities enforce them. According to Indian law, states are the owners of property and are thus the receivers of ‘royalty’ and ‘dead rent’. It is therefore recommended that state governments enter an agreement with the entrepreneur (small-scale miner) before the commencement of the mineral property development. Such agreements should be based upon the following basic principles: 앫 Easiness in processing and timely granting of a mining lease. 앫 Assurance from the entrepreneur, through regional EIA and EMP undertakings, that the development will not pose a threat of irreparable environmental damage. 앫 Assurance from the government that basic services, such as roads, power, water, and community markets, are provided where a large number of small-mines are expected to occur, without over-legislating basic educational facilities (a minimum of high school level). 앫 That opportunities are given to local people. 앫 That there be provision for direct employment-oriented training and the widest possible opportunity of employment for such trained local people. 앫 That opportunities are created for the development of small-scale ancillary industries surrounding the project. 앫 That emphasis is placed on the development of rurally located mineral resources; this in turn, requires developing a rural area, which directly contributes to the development of the rural economy.
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There is also the requirement for state governments to educate mine operators and workers, and for statutory authorities to consider arranging free dialogue/workshops so that legal provisions are properly understood. This will go a long way toward better observation of rules by small mine owners. The training programme should focus on strengthening capacities for a participatory process in decision-making, in order to provide incentives for local initiatives and enhance local management capacity; the strategy envisioned is to focus on specific problems in mineral resources management and to capitalize on the existing databases, maps, and environmental and socio-economic studies that are available. The specific training objectives should be: 앫 To provide the necessary tools, techniques and methods that will assist local and national agencies in the assessment of the environmental and socio-economic impacts of alternative strategies of resource management, and to enable other interests, including, in particular, local communities, to formulate their concerns in ways that can be integrated into the decision making process; and 앫 To provide training in the application of management tools.
An adequate training infrastructure should also be created so that an integral aspect of eco-friendly mining can be covered. A task force should also be implemented in a sequential manner to ensure the sustainable development of artisanal mining areas. It should constitute a committee/working group of administrative personnel with delegative powers to remove the bottlenecks of policy (for example, demarcation of the forest land, Panchayat land, mining lease area, etc.) and social issues (such as alternate employment and its potential). It should also constitute a group of local people to create awareness about the advantages of environmental preservation, encouraging them to enlighten others. (NGO may call for this task). The task force must first map the area and prepare location plans for each and every small-scale mining pit. It must then prepare a Regional Environmental Management Plan (featuring capacity studies) for clusters of mines in an area, and then establish modules for environmental protection. In addition to the aforementioned initiatives, which focus mainly on training and education, there is merit in inviting experts/expert organizations for consultation on possible solutions to various environmental problems in the sector. The implementation and adoption of such suggestions could improve overall strategy, and facilitate an improved future course of action.
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5. Conclusion Small-scale mining provides a wealth of socio-economic benefits to the rural inhabitants of India but at the same time, is responsible for a wealth of environmental problems. It is therefore imperative that CP is promoted in the sector. The Government has already accomplished much in the way of legislation and regulations. Emphasis must now be placed on improving training for resident operators.
Acknowledgements The author is thankful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, for supporting grants for infrastructral facilities at Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad and providing financial support for the work. The author would also like to thank the editor, Gavin Hilson, and two anonymous referees, for their comments and edits to earlier versions of this paper.
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Promoting cleaner production in the Indian small-scale mining industry M.K. Ghose ∗ Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, 826004, India Received 13 December 2001; received in revised form 26 February 2002; accepted 28 February 2002
Abstract India is among the top ten mineral producing nations in the world and its economy depends on the value of minerals produced. Although mineral production has increased significantly since the country’s independence, what continues to be overlooked in is the contribution of resident small-scale mines to national mineral output. Approximately 90% of India’s mines are operating on a small-scale, employing some 0.5 million people. However, because of their rudimentary and highly migratory nature, these operations feature poor environmental management practices and safety conditions. This paper examines the unique techno-economic and socio-cultural characteristics of selected small-scale mining regions in India. It furthermore underscores the need for cleaner production in these regions, and outlines a series of legislative measures pertinent to the industry. The paper concludes by identifying educational- and training-related initiatives, which, if undertaken, could facilitate additional environmental improvement at sites. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Small-scale mining; Environmental; Mineral policy; Safety; Conservation
1. Introduction India is among the top ten mineral producing nations in the world, and its economy, to a great extent, depends upon the revenues accrued from mineral output [1,2]. The distribution of minerals in India is widespread, its prospective deposits occurring in a number of areas including the fragile foothills of the Himalayas, deserts, arid and semi-arid regions, along vast coastlines, and in plains and rich forests [3]. Because of significant variations in microclimates, the problems associated with mining activity in India are varied and complex, requiring the design and implementation of site-specific solutions [4]. Often, mineral deposits are worked in areas considered to be ecologically sensitive and/or rich in biodiversity [5]. In fact, environmental conservation is generally a major barrier to the successful development of mines in such regions, fueling a misconception that environmental management and mineral development are incompatible in this context [6]. An important, yet, overlooked, contributor to Indian
mineral production is the small-scale mining sector.1 Resident small-scale mines make important contributions to rural employment and national mineral exports [7], and when compared to large-scale mining, requirements in terms of minimum reserves, implementation times, and initial investment are small, skills and infrastructrul requirements are moderate, and employment output is high [8]. However, because of the rudimentary nature of operations, there is a pressing and obvious need to promote effective technology [9,10] capable of facilitating cleaner production in the sector. This paper examines the Indian national mineral scenario, with special emphasis on the small-scale mining sector, and identifies initiatives and opportunities for promoting cleaner production in resident operations. 2. An overview of mineral production in India Indian coal production, which is in the order of 320 Mt/y, is currently supporting some 70,000 MW of ther1
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Production capacity of 50,000 tonnes per annum has been accepted as the main criterion for defining an Indian “small-scale mine”.
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Table 1 Value of mineral production in India
Sector Total: All sectors 1. Fuels (i) Solid fuels (ii) Liquid & gaseous fuels 2. Metallic minerals 3. Non-metallic minerals 4. Minor minerals
1997–98
1998–99
9186 7604 3475 4129 684 331 567
9282 7656 4067 3587 690 362 574
mal power generation, and with further developments being planned for 2010AD, this quantum of power generation is expected to increase to 150,000 MW. In 2000, the total value of minerals produced in the country was approximately US$9.42 billion. During the 1990s, the production of coal, lignite, natural gas, iron ore, bauxite, and lead concentrate increased, while the production of petroleum (crude), barytes, copper concentrates, fire clay, kyanite, sillimanite, mica (crude) decreased. In 1999--2000, the share of fuel minerals constituted 82% of the total value of mineral production; non-metallic minerals, 10%; and metallic minerals, only 7% [11]. Table 1 provides details of mineral production in India [12]. As far as growth in India’s mining sector is concerned, since 1949—i.e. immediately after Independence—the value of mineral production increased significantly, from a mere US$13.5 million to US$9.42 billion. The value of fuel minerals has also increased since Independence, rising from US$10 million to US$7.77 billion. There has, however, been a recent decline in the number of mines operating in India, particularly in the past decade. In 1990–91, there were 4300 mines in operation, but by 1999–2000 the number of active operations declined to only 3100 (Table 2). The most significant declines experienced over this period was in the non-metallic mining (3017 to 1973) and metallic (578 to 561) subsectors. The number of coal and lignite mines rose from 525 to 566. A National Mineral Policy for India was first drafted in 1990, at the time envisaging reservation of 13 minerals of basic and strategic importance—namely, iron
(Million US$) 1999–2000 9424 7755 4164 3591 712 381 574
ore, manganese, chrome ore, sulphur, gold, diamonds, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, nickel and platinum group metals—for exploitation [13]. Subsequent economic liberalization and industry developments led to a redrafting of the Policy in 1993. The modified National Mineral Policy of 1993 outlines national strategies for mineral development, from exploration, through exploitation, to mineral processing, and adequately addresses the issue of environmental management [14]. Its main objectives are as follows: 1. To explore and identify mineral wealth on land and within offshore areas. 2. To develop mineral resources, taking into account national/strategic considerations, and the needs of the present and future. 3. To promote the necessary linkage for smooth and uninterrupted development of the mineral industry. 4. To ensure the establishment of appropriate educational and training facilities for human resource development, with a view to meeting the manpower requirements of the mineral industry. 5. To minimize adverse effects of mineral development on forest environments and ecology. 6. To address key safety and health concerns. This new Policy encourages increased input from the private sector, and allows as much as a 50% foreign equity participation in projects. In addition, and more significant to the discussion in this paper, the Policy promotes small-scale mining developments. A developing country like India must continue to pro-
Table 2 Number of operating mines in India Sector 1. 2. 3. 4.
All mineralsa Coal (including lignite) Metallic minerals Non-metallic minerals a
1990–91
1998–99
4300 525 578 3017
3283 567 621 2095
1999–2000 3100 566 561 1973
Excluding petroleum and natural gas wells, mines of minor minerals and minerals prescribed under the Atomic Energy Act. 1962.
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mote industrial development if it is to achieve its target of establishing 200,000 MW-power generation capacity by 2010. This will require increased fuel mineral production [15]. More specifically, to meet its proposed energy needs, India must produce nearly double the quantity of coal it is mining at present, as fuel requirements will be in the range 550 Mt/y by 2010. The future of particular base metals in India is unclear. For example, in the iron ore mining sector, although there are sufficient reserves, recent slumps in steel production will, in all likelihood, stimulate decreases in mine production for some time [16], although there remain opportunities to export. Similarly, it is highly unlikely that the copper mining industry will increase outputs because of a persistence of low-grade ores and recently unfavourable international market trends [17].
3. Small-scale mining in India As already noted, small-scale mining is more prevalent in India than large-scale mining, and because of its increasing popularity nationwide [18], it is important that the techno-economic efficiency of operations is improved [19]. Present estimations of the contribution of Indian small-scale mining to global production is significantly high in the case of certain minerals such as antimony (45%), calcium (50%), chromite (75%), clays (75%), feldspar (80%), flourspar (90%), gypsum (70%), tungsten (80%) vermiculite (90%). Of the 80 different minerals (including minor ores) being worked in India, some 70 are being mined on a small-scale [20]. Table 3
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provides an overview of Indian small-scale mining during the period 1985–1990. The industry, at present, is highly variable from a production standpoint. Some operations produce less than ten tonnes of ore daily, whereas others have a daily throughput of as much as 200 tonnes of ore. Some operations feature manual methods, whereas others are highly mechanized. Irrespective of methods, small-scale mining has proven to be a viable means for exploiting hard-to-work deposits with minimal capital throughout the country. As many as 500,000 people are currently employed in India’s small-scale mining sector [21,22], each operation exhibiting unique techno-economic and socio-cultural characteristics. However, despite making important contributions to rural employment and national mineral outputs, these operations are inherently unsafe and responsible for a wide range of environmental damage. This section of the paper describes some of the important small-scale mining regions in India, emphasizing both socio-economic and environmental characteristics. Fig. 1 provides an overview of important Indian mineral deposits suitable for small-scale mining. 3.1. Slate mining in the Kangra Valley (Himachal Pradesh) Slate mining in the Kangra Valley of Himachal Pradesh and in the northern hilly states of India is concentrated near the Ghanayara and Dari villages, which are situated some 10–15 km northeast of the Dharmashala town of the Kangra District (Himachal Pradesh). The
Table 3 Number of small-scale mines in various sub-sectors of the Indian minerals industry (1985–1990) Minerals
Asbestos Bauxite Baryte Chromite Coal Dolomite Feldspar Fire clay Graphite Iron Ore Kaolin Kyanite Lime stone Manganese Ore Mica Ochre Pyrophilite Quartz Silica sand Steatite
No. of small mines (up to 50,000 t/annum) 1986 1987 1988 1989
1990
Percentage of total no. of mines 1986 1987 1988
1989
1990
82 154 52 22 48 137 138 247 31 243 180 13 486 199 165 93 40 206 257 278
76 183 45 23 54 120 120 212 50 206 170 9 546 185 148 91 44 205 274 239
100 93 100 100 9 95 100 100 100 71 100 100 77 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 94 100 100 8 95 100 100 100 73 100 100 76 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 93 100 100 11 94 100 100 100 68 100 100 77 96 100 100 100 100 100 100
82 195 46 23 49 133 138 263 40 259 198 15 563 207 181 113 45 229 275 258
87 182 51 22 56 132 116 239 51 237 182 15 569 199 150 91 43 198 272 252
74 186 51 22 41 134 117 232 51 238 183 10 525 199 045 87 44 198 3012 252
100 94 100 100 9 95 100 100 100 72 100 100 79 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 94 100 100 10 95 100 100 100 73 100 100 79 97 100 100 100 100 100 100
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“Ghanayara/Dari Panchayat Slate Board” supervises slate quarrying operations, its office located within the Ghanayara village and run by local people. About 403 quarries are found in the area at various altitudes. The Slate Board for Mining has allotted 625 hectares of land for these operations, which produce some US$979,160 of slate annually. Pits measure between five and eight metres deep, approximately ten feet wide, and are supported by natural rocks on two extremities. This practice of mining is both rudimentary and unsafe. Principal environment damage from these mining operations includes (a) waste deposited into rivers, deposition along slopes, sedimentation of rivers, and the flooding of villages located in close proximity to river banks; and (b) destruction of hill slopes, and forest destruction from landslides [23]. An accurate assessment of this damage is needed, as well as an environmental management plan for the entire mining region [24].
3.3. Chaibasa (Jharkhand) and Barbill (Orissa) regions Within these regions, there are a number of opencast mines, owned by both the private and public sectors. These two regions occur adjacently in two states with a similar socio-cultural environment [26]. Until only recently, there was insufficient financial support provided to private sector-owned mines, some of which are owned by big private houses such as TISCO, ACC, and the balance, by small- and medium-sized entrepreneurs. Some operations are semi-mechanized, whereas others are predominantly manual. Drilling and blasting is widely practiced at these mines, and environmental protection is seldom more than rudimentary. Improper exploration techniques, a lack of planning and low-to-intermediate technology, results in the poor recovery of minerable deposits.
3.2. Kotah stone mining (Rajasthan)
3.4. Kodarma region (Bihar)
Kotah stone, a minor mineral found in the northwest state of Rajasthan, is a popular dimensional stone used for flooring and wall-cladding [25]. It is inexpensive and is in high demand in both domestic and foreign markets. Ramganjmandi is the heart of the Kotah stone industry, and therefore, most mining activities are concentrated in and around this town; in total, some 50 mines are in operation, producing a combined 1,500,000 feet of stone slabs per annum. The splittable zone of the Kotah stone deposit is worked either artisanally or by semi-mechanized means. To date, most of the mining activities in the main lode have been completely manual. Slits are cut in a rectangular pattern using a chisel and hammer, thus isolating slabs from a layer of suitable thickness. Each slab is then removed manually using crowbars, in a process referred to locally as “splitting”. The detached slabs are then manually lifted and loaded on trucks and transported for grinding and polishing. Mining operations in the area have provided job opportunities to many local peoples who are dependent on forests for meeting subsistence requirements. The living standard of these people is poor, and amenities and other infrastructure facilities are severely lacking in the area. A lack of appropriate technology, primitive extraction techniques, a reluctance to plan and organize operations, and a disregard towards environmental issues have led to wasteful mining, poor mineral recovery, the generation of mass mine waste, seasonal scarcity of ground water, and multifarious environmental threats including, drastic damage to landscapes, alterations to drainage patterns, loss and lock-up of large areas of fertile land under waste dumps, and reductions in rainfall rates.
Within the Kodorma region of Bihar, operations are inherently unsafe and are highly environmentally destructive. Technologies rarely extend beyond jackhammers, drills, and winches, although a small group of operations have winding systems. Mica is the major mineral mined in this region, although statistics indicate that this industry is currently on the decline because of stiffer competition within the international mica market, and recent developments of artificial substitutes for mica. 3.5. Sukinda chroite belt (Orissa) In the Sukinda Valley region, both intermediate- and high-grade chromite ores are widely available within steeply dipping veins, occurring in both friable form or as lumps. Some of the chromite ore produced in this region is directly exported, and the remainder is sold as raw material feed to various industries in the country. Unlike other deposits, which are commonly exploited using surface mining techniques, chromite veins in the Sukinda valley are neither flat, nor very thick. As a result, the stripping ratio in these mines is quite high. Although overburden removal and handling systems are mechanized at some of the larger mines in the Valley, the ore extraction is performed manually at all sites. Local people object to proposals for increased mechanization, contending that it would reduce employment opportunities at resident mines. Because operations are therefore highly rudimentary, unhealthy and unsafe practices, and negligence towards environmental degradation prevails throughout the area. The appropriate scientific planning is also lacking at some mines.
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3.6. South Hlimen area (Mijoram) In South Hlimen, sandstone used for civil construction is mined from small hillside quarries producing 10–15 tonnes of material per day. Local investors own these mines, and workers are mainly from Bihar State and are very poorly paid. A small compressor, one or two jackhammers, and an electric crusher are the only machines found at sites. Blasting is commonly carried out using explosives, which are often illegally procured. Consciousness and knowledge regarding the safety and health of miners, mining statutes and environmental protection is low. On 9th August, 1992, a massive landslide occurred along the floor of six adjacent mines in the area, claiming 60 lives—mainly of miners sleeping in barracks located on the slope of the same hill just below operations. The landslide was triggered by the undercutting of upper layers of rocks in the hill, and heavy seasonal rains. With the appropriate scientific knowledge, these and related problems can be largely prevented. 4. Promoting Cleaner production (CP) in the Indian small-scale mining industry: an overview of regulatory initiatives and policy-making activities 4.1. Examples of important regulatory and policymaking initiatives It is generally recognized that a movement towards Cleaner production (CP) represents a makeshift change in environmental management philosophy. Predicated upon preventing pollution at the source, CP is a more progressive environmental management approach than reactionary pollution control, which focuses upon the treatment of pollutants once released into the environment. This discussion examines the policy initiatives undertaken by the Indian Government to facilitate CP in the small-scale mining industry. Whilst none stipulate “CP” per se, each nevertheless addresses a specific area of environmental management and aims to promote continuous environmental improvement. To date, a number of policies and laws have been implemented to regulate the environmental aspects of India’s mining industry, many of which are directly relevant to the small-scale mining sector. Two of the general environmental policy-related initiatives undertaken to date were implementation of the Industrial Policy in 1991, and implementation of the National Forest Policy in 1998. Implementation of the Industrial Policy marked one of the first attempts made nationally to address the need for integrating environmental concerns in developmental processes to meet the objective of “sustainable development”.2 The mineral industry in the country has 2
Although “sustainable development” has been defined in The
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to be tuned in accordance with the provisions in this new policy. The National Forest Policy of 1998, since a significant amount of the country’s mineral reserves is located in forested areas. The Forest Conservation Division of the Ministry of Environment and Forests issued guidelines for the mining of sedimentary deposits in forested areas, which stipulate reclamation, and rehabilitation requirements for mined areas [28,29]. More significant environmental policies relevant to mining have also been implemented. For example, in 1992, the Indian Government introduced the Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution and the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development. This was followed by the implementation of the Environmental Action Plan in 1993. These policy directives led to the identification of the following tasks in the 8th Plan of India: 앫 To protect the natural environment. 앫 To regenerate and restore degraded ecosystems and increase their productivity and to generate employment through these activities. 앫 To decentralize control over nature and natural resources. 앫 To develop and share an understanding of nature and natural processes. 앫 To formulate a national policy for environmental protection and appropriate institutional and legal frame works in support of the policy. 앫 To ensure co-ordinated and integrated government action aimed at conserving nature and the sustainable use of natural resources. 앫 To make individuals and institutions more accountable to the people for their actions impinging on the environment and ecosystem. 앫 To monitor the state of environment. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 1992 has the following provisions for mining: 앫 Mining will not ordinarily be taken up in ecologically fragile areas. 앫 A mining plan shall accompany every mining project, which should include an Environmental Management Plan. 앫 It should also include a time bound reclamation proBrundtland Commission’s Report Our Common Future as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”, it has been poorly defined in the mining context. Several interpretations have emerged in recent years, ranging from assessments of the mineral availability itself, to the environmental and socioeconomic performance of operations. However, as Hilson and Murck [27] explain, generally, sustainable development in the context of mining operations themselves generally refers to their performance in terms of environmental management and socioeconomic impact.
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gramme for controlling environmental damage and restoring “mined out” areas. Presently, all of the new mining projects and those undergoing reorganization and reconstruction involving more than five ha of land are required to obtain environmental clearance from the Central Government. Policies related to the promotion of environmental improvement—hence CP—in Indian small-scale mining, are governed by the respective government of the state in which the mining is being performed. Mineral and environmental policies, however, do not vary from state to state, as all of the states in India are working under the umbrella of the National Policy. The policies formulated by the central government are simply implemented and enforced at the state level. More specific directives and policies exist for the small-scale mining sector. It is clear from the discussion thus far that small-scale mining, despite having caused extensive damage in India, plays an important socioeconomic role in rural regions. The industrial policy resolutions of 1948 and 1956 first identified the value of small-scale mining to Indian economy. A significant aspect of these resolutions was that they did not place any hindrance on the operation of small mines by privately owned enterprise even for those minerals for which large-scale operation was envisaged through the public sector. The problems in the small-scale mining sector have since been taken into consideration in the recently declared National Mineral Policy. In paragraph 7.12 of the document, it is stated “small-scale mining with modest demand on capital expenditure and short lead time provides employment opportunities for the local population”. It then indicates that efforts will be made to promote the small-scale mining of small deposits in an efficient manner while safeguarding vital environmental and ecological imperatives. It further states that preference should be given to scheduled tribes for mineral concessions for small deposits in scheduled areas. For a major group of small mines covering minor minerals like building stone and sand, special provision has been made in the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules (MCDR) to relax the statutory qualification. The recently amended MCDR provides for the systematic planning of such deposits through mining plans, and leaves implementation to those with lesser qualifications. Most small-scale mines, however, are not subjected to regulation under the Mines Act; more specifically, mines that do not occur below the superjacent ground; opencast operations that do not use explosives; and opencast workings that do not extend more than 6 m below the ground, and which do not employ more than 20 persons each day are not considered purview under the Act. While the mineral policy decision clearly advocates leasing to local tribes, it is an accepted fact that statutory
provisions are generally complicated in language and operations, thus requiring a sound understanding of the implications of law. Most of the scheduled tribes for whose benefit the mineral policy resolution has been taken will therefore not be able to follow these provisions. The provisions of all laws are not applicable in every case and depend on the location and extent of deposit. Qualified experts can prepare a systematic mining plan encompassing conservation, development, environment, and safety aspects. The local people through persons experienced in mining can implement the annual action plan. Relaxation of legal provisions can be sought and granted by the statutory authority under the existing provisions of MCDR and MMR. What is needed, however, is a government agency to help operators obtain a lease through a single-window system. The Government of Gujarat has taken steps in this direction through the Department of Industry, by setting up an Industrial Extension Bureau. 4.2. Recommended responsibilities for the state As already explained, although environmental- and mineral-related policies are drafted by the national government, state authorities enforce them. According to Indian law, states are the owners of property and are thus the receivers of ‘royalty’ and ‘dead rent’. It is therefore recommended that state governments enter an agreement with the entrepreneur (small-scale miner) before the commencement of the mineral property development. Such agreements should be based upon the following basic principles: 앫 Easiness in processing and timely granting of a mining lease. 앫 Assurance from the entrepreneur, through regional EIA and EMP undertakings, that the development will not pose a threat of irreparable environmental damage. 앫 Assurance from the government that basic services, such as roads, power, water, and community markets, are provided where a large number of small-mines are expected to occur, without over-legislating basic educational facilities (a minimum of high school level). 앫 That opportunities are given to local people. 앫 That there be provision for direct employment-oriented training and the widest possible opportunity of employment for such trained local people. 앫 That opportunities are created for the development of small-scale ancillary industries surrounding the project. 앫 That emphasis is placed on the development of rurally located mineral resources; this in turn, requires developing a rural area, which directly contributes to the development of the rural economy.
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There is also the requirement for state governments to educate mine operators and workers, and for statutory authorities to consider arranging free dialogue/workshops so that legal provisions are properly understood. This will go a long way toward better observation of rules by small mine owners. The training programme should focus on strengthening capacities for a participatory process in decision-making, in order to provide incentives for local initiatives and enhance local management capacity; the strategy envisioned is to focus on specific problems in mineral resources management and to capitalize on the existing databases, maps, and environmental and socio-economic studies that are available. The specific training objectives should be: 앫 To provide the necessary tools, techniques and methods that will assist local and national agencies in the assessment of the environmental and socio-economic impacts of alternative strategies of resource management, and to enable other interests, including, in particular, local communities, to formulate their concerns in ways that can be integrated into the decision making process; and 앫 To provide training in the application of management tools.
An adequate training infrastructure should also be created so that an integral aspect of eco-friendly mining can be covered. A task force should also be implemented in a sequential manner to ensure the sustainable development of artisanal mining areas. It should constitute a committee/working group of administrative personnel with delegative powers to remove the bottlenecks of policy (for example, demarcation of the forest land, Panchayat land, mining lease area, etc.) and social issues (such as alternate employment and its potential). It should also constitute a group of local people to create awareness about the advantages of environmental preservation, encouraging them to enlighten others. (NGO may call for this task). The task force must first map the area and prepare location plans for each and every small-scale mining pit. It must then prepare a Regional Environmental Management Plan (featuring capacity studies) for clusters of mines in an area, and then establish modules for environmental protection. In addition to the aforementioned initiatives, which focus mainly on training and education, there is merit in inviting experts/expert organizations for consultation on possible solutions to various environmental problems in the sector. The implementation and adoption of such suggestions could improve overall strategy, and facilitate an improved future course of action.
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5. Conclusion Small-scale mining provides a wealth of socio-economic benefits to the rural inhabitants of India but at the same time, is responsible for a wealth of environmental problems. It is therefore imperative that CP is promoted in the sector. The Government has already accomplished much in the way of legislation and regulations. Emphasis must now be placed on improving training for resident operators.
Acknowledgements The author is thankful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, for supporting grants for infrastructral facilities at Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad and providing financial support for the work. The author would also like to thank the editor, Gavin Hilson, and two anonymous referees, for their comments and edits to earlier versions of this paper.
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