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Promoting learner autonomy in university language teaching
System, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 435-448, 1997 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. Printed in Great Britain 0346-251 X/97 $17.00 + 0.00
Pergamon
REVIEWS
Scholars who would like to publish in this section of System are requested to contact the Review Editor before submitting a paper. As a rule, all contributions should be made in English. French and German will, however, be considered. The Review Editor may be contacted at the following address: Centre for Language and Communication Studies Trinity College Dublin 2 Ireland
BROADY, ELSPETH and KENNING, MARIE-MADELEINE (eds) Promoting Learner Autonomy in University Language Teaching. London: Association for French Language Studies, in association with the Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research, 1996, 259 pp., £10.50. As a cluster of recent publications has shown (Gardner and Miller, 1994; C.R.A.P.E.L., 1996; Pemberton et al., 1996; Benson and Voller, 1997), "autonomous" or "self-directed" approaches to language teaching and learning, far from being of merely local interest, oblige theoreticians and practitioners in a wide range of the social and educational sciences to recast their basic tenets and methods. Consequently, research projects being carried out in this field are strikingly diverse. Promoting Learner Autonomy in University Language Teaching is a case in point: issues dealt with include social and interactive dimensions of the learning process, the pedagogical potential of the new technologies, learners' attitudes and beliefs, and the relationship between ethnicity and learning style. Such a rich variety of ingredients could easily have proved indigestible, but Elspeth Broady and Marie-Madeleine Kenning have managed both to keep a consistent focus on their central topic and to give this collection of 12 articles a clear internal organization and thematic development. In their own introductory article, they sketch in the intellectual and historical background to and present a generalized model of learner autonomy in language teaching. The following two articles, by Catrine Carpenter and Keith Marshall, describe teaching programmes aiming at social autonomy, which the editors state 435
436
REVIEWS refers to the fact that among the strategies and activities associated with increasing metacognitive awareness and learning management skills are some that involve interaction with o t h e r s - - f o r example, seeking and taking advantage of opportunities to communicate with native speakers of the language, or collaborating with other learners to pool information or obtain feedback (p. 16).
None of the major proponents of self-direction has ever equated it with "individualism" or "being alone", but attempts to introduce autonomy in institutional settings where the primary unit is the class or group will necessarily emphasize the importance of social factors. In their satisfyingly complementary papers, Carpenter and Marshall show practical ways in which this can be done without any loss of principle. It is now generally agreed that self-directed learning programmes can only function and develop successfully if adequate support and training is provided for the learners and staff concerned. This point is confirmed, though from very different perspectives, in articles by Mich~le Dickson and Kate Beeching. Where Dickson concentrates on one language skill, listening comprehension, over the three years of a first degree course, Beeching sets out to evaluate the self-access component in a large, institution-wide language programme. Preparing the staff involved in the increasing number of self-directed learning programmes has become a major priority over recent years. Little is available in the way of "counsellor training" for self-access, for example, that would correspond to, but be different from, teacher-training for traditional classroom teaching. That there are fundamental differences between "counselling" and "teaching" is clearly brought out and their pedagogical implications discussed in an article on tandem learning by Tim Lewis, Jane Woodin and Elke St John, in which there is some first-rate to-ing and fro-ing between the demands of theory and the exigencies of practice. Tandem learning involves native speakers and nonnative speakers meeting (or corresponding, by electronic mail, for example) to help with each other's language learning. In such a context, just what is the role of the counsellor: above all, how directive can he or she be without subverting the very rationale and aims of self-directed learning? Information technology provides the focus for the following three papers. In a balanced and helpful survey article, Marie-Madeleine Kenning discusses the wider potential of IT for promoting learner autonomy without ever taking her eye off the pedagogical ball, whilst insightful specific examples are provided by Marie-No6lle Guillot (using Le Monde sur C D - R O M to encourage more effective resourcing techniques) and Jane McKee (the text analysis programme as a learner-friendly tool for vocabulary development). The three remaining papers in this collection shift from a teacher's to a learner's perspective on language learning, analysed in terms of experience (Maria Fernandez-Toro and Francis R. Jones), attitudes (Elspeth Broady), and beliefs (Marie-Christine Press). Together, these papers form a valuable contribution to the ongoing debate about learners' representations, partly because they all dare to ask awkward questions, partly because they all illustrate the appropriate use of quantitative methods in a field often decried as having no empirical basis. Fernandez-Toro and Jones look at the links between independent learning and achievement, usefully identifying key strategies recommended by learners, and then go on to investigate what happens when other learners are trained in
REVIEWS
437
some of those strategies. Broady (p. 215) cheerfully takes on the paradox "that an approach to education predicated on empowering learners should ... fail to find favour with the learners themselves". Her frank analysis highlights the sources of such resistance and she suggests a number of practical ways in which it might be overcome. At a time when self-directed approaches are being "exported" all over the world, it is essential that they should be scrutinized for cultural bias in terms of the value systems they vehiculate and of the pedagogical practices they promote. Press's pioneering work on the relationship between ethnicity and learning style is a model (in both the quantitative and illustrative senses) of the type of investigation which urgently needs to be carried out if " a u t o n o m y " is not to fall victim to some of its own enthusiasts. Her conclusion is both salutary and optimistic: ... learner autonomy is considered a desirable aim. But increasing evidence of different cultural expectations requires a more sensitive interpretation of the concept. A priority given to self-knowledge could enable students of whatever cultural background to make informed choices as to the forms of learning which suit them best (p. 251).
In other words, the problem is ethnographic rather than anthropological, the result of cultural variation rather than human nature and, as such, real, crucial and solvable. One or two drops of vinegar need to be added to the salad oil: there is a certain amount of repetition of common background ideas and theoretical frameworks, such as learning strategies (Wenden and Rubin, 1987; Oxford, 1989; O'Malley and Chamot, 1990), Kolb (1984) on "experiential learning", and Allen (1993) on "transferable personal skills". The role of authentic materials is often referred to as if it were uniform and uncontroversial, whereas there is clearly a major difference between those programmes which aim at preparing materials for learners and those which aim at preparing learners for materials. And there is, as noted above, little on the training of staff for self-direction and self-access, or on the topic of learner-counsellor discourse. Finally, there is no attempt to situate learnercentred approaches within a wider social epistemology or to compare them with other forms of informational economy. This is, of course, a wish list rather than realistic criticism. The overall tone of this selection of papers is one of enthusiasm and commitment, but it is entirely devoid of any kind of strident triumphalism. Indeed, the authors concerned investigate a number of tough questions about autonomous learning and make some telling criticisms about current practice. All they a s k - - t h o u g h never a l o u d - - i s that their work and results should not be compared with some mythical, ideal, 100% efficient, teacher-centred classroom. REFERENCES Allen, M. G. (1993) A Conceptual Model of Transferable Personal Skills. University of Sheffield and Employment Department Group, Sheffield. Benson, P. and Voller, P. (eds) (1997) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. Longman, London. C.R.A.P.E.L. (Centre de Recherches et d'Applications P6dadagogiques en Langues) (1996) Les Centres de Ressources. C.R.A.P.E.L., Universitb de Nancy. Gardner, D. and Miller, L. (eds) (1994) Directions in Self-Access Language Learning. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong.
438
REVIEWS
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Prentice Hall International, New York. O'Malley, J. M. and Chamot, A. U. (1990) Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Oxford, R. L., (1990) Language Learning Strategies. Hewbury House, New York. Pemberton, R., Li, E. S. L., Or, W. W. F. and Pierson, H. D. (eds) (1996) Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong. Wenden, A. and Rubin, J. (1987) Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Prentice Hall International, New York.
Philip Riley Centre de Recherches et d'Applications P6dagogiques en Langues Universit6 de Nancy II 3, place Godefroi de Bouillon F-54015 Nancy C6dex France
HOLLAND, V. MELISSA, KAPLAN, JONATHAN D. and SAMS, MICHELLE R. (eds) Intelligent Language Tutors: Theory Shaping Technology. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995, 384 pp. This is a large and important book that brings together discussion of language pedagogy, the available technology, and the crucial link between the two, software. It comprises a general introduction by Holland, "The case for Intelligent CALL", and 20 chapters arranged in four sections: "Text-Based Language Tutors and Learning Environments", "Dialogue-Based Language Games", "Graphics-Based Language Tutors and Learning Environments", and "Theoretical Issues in Language Tutor Design and Assessment". Each section has an introduction by Holland. The links within this interdisciplinary enterprise are set out in the general introduction and addressed in various chapters, especially those in the final section. The major justifications for the use of "intelligent" in the book's title are two. First, the type and range of feedback offered by the software goes beyond that provided by earlier gap-filling and multiple-choice forms of software. Second, the learning environment, conceptual and on-screen, makes use of a richer work space and interface. In addition, response and feedback are based on aspects of natural language processing (NLP), mostly parsing, and the learning, prompting and response environment comprises a microworld of text, graphics and actions. These features serve to distinguish ICALL from basic, "unintelligent" CALL, where there is no recourse to NLP and often a less rich and manipulative learning environment (cf. Pennington, 1996). Four motivations are offered for past, present and continued work on ICALL. First, there is a continuing need for form-focused (basically grammar) activity in language learning.
Pergamon
REVIEWS
Scholars who would like to publish in this section of System are requested to contact the Review Editor before submitting a paper. As a rule, all contributions should be made in English. French and German will, however, be considered. The Review Editor may be contacted at the following address: Centre for Language and Communication Studies Trinity College Dublin 2 Ireland
BROADY, ELSPETH and KENNING, MARIE-MADELEINE (eds) Promoting Learner Autonomy in University Language Teaching. London: Association for French Language Studies, in association with the Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research, 1996, 259 pp., £10.50. As a cluster of recent publications has shown (Gardner and Miller, 1994; C.R.A.P.E.L., 1996; Pemberton et al., 1996; Benson and Voller, 1997), "autonomous" or "self-directed" approaches to language teaching and learning, far from being of merely local interest, oblige theoreticians and practitioners in a wide range of the social and educational sciences to recast their basic tenets and methods. Consequently, research projects being carried out in this field are strikingly diverse. Promoting Learner Autonomy in University Language Teaching is a case in point: issues dealt with include social and interactive dimensions of the learning process, the pedagogical potential of the new technologies, learners' attitudes and beliefs, and the relationship between ethnicity and learning style. Such a rich variety of ingredients could easily have proved indigestible, but Elspeth Broady and Marie-Madeleine Kenning have managed both to keep a consistent focus on their central topic and to give this collection of 12 articles a clear internal organization and thematic development. In their own introductory article, they sketch in the intellectual and historical background to and present a generalized model of learner autonomy in language teaching. The following two articles, by Catrine Carpenter and Keith Marshall, describe teaching programmes aiming at social autonomy, which the editors state 435
436
REVIEWS refers to the fact that among the strategies and activities associated with increasing metacognitive awareness and learning management skills are some that involve interaction with o t h e r s - - f o r example, seeking and taking advantage of opportunities to communicate with native speakers of the language, or collaborating with other learners to pool information or obtain feedback (p. 16).
None of the major proponents of self-direction has ever equated it with "individualism" or "being alone", but attempts to introduce autonomy in institutional settings where the primary unit is the class or group will necessarily emphasize the importance of social factors. In their satisfyingly complementary papers, Carpenter and Marshall show practical ways in which this can be done without any loss of principle. It is now generally agreed that self-directed learning programmes can only function and develop successfully if adequate support and training is provided for the learners and staff concerned. This point is confirmed, though from very different perspectives, in articles by Mich~le Dickson and Kate Beeching. Where Dickson concentrates on one language skill, listening comprehension, over the three years of a first degree course, Beeching sets out to evaluate the self-access component in a large, institution-wide language programme. Preparing the staff involved in the increasing number of self-directed learning programmes has become a major priority over recent years. Little is available in the way of "counsellor training" for self-access, for example, that would correspond to, but be different from, teacher-training for traditional classroom teaching. That there are fundamental differences between "counselling" and "teaching" is clearly brought out and their pedagogical implications discussed in an article on tandem learning by Tim Lewis, Jane Woodin and Elke St John, in which there is some first-rate to-ing and fro-ing between the demands of theory and the exigencies of practice. Tandem learning involves native speakers and nonnative speakers meeting (or corresponding, by electronic mail, for example) to help with each other's language learning. In such a context, just what is the role of the counsellor: above all, how directive can he or she be without subverting the very rationale and aims of self-directed learning? Information technology provides the focus for the following three papers. In a balanced and helpful survey article, Marie-Madeleine Kenning discusses the wider potential of IT for promoting learner autonomy without ever taking her eye off the pedagogical ball, whilst insightful specific examples are provided by Marie-No6lle Guillot (using Le Monde sur C D - R O M to encourage more effective resourcing techniques) and Jane McKee (the text analysis programme as a learner-friendly tool for vocabulary development). The three remaining papers in this collection shift from a teacher's to a learner's perspective on language learning, analysed in terms of experience (Maria Fernandez-Toro and Francis R. Jones), attitudes (Elspeth Broady), and beliefs (Marie-Christine Press). Together, these papers form a valuable contribution to the ongoing debate about learners' representations, partly because they all dare to ask awkward questions, partly because they all illustrate the appropriate use of quantitative methods in a field often decried as having no empirical basis. Fernandez-Toro and Jones look at the links between independent learning and achievement, usefully identifying key strategies recommended by learners, and then go on to investigate what happens when other learners are trained in
REVIEWS
437
some of those strategies. Broady (p. 215) cheerfully takes on the paradox "that an approach to education predicated on empowering learners should ... fail to find favour with the learners themselves". Her frank analysis highlights the sources of such resistance and she suggests a number of practical ways in which it might be overcome. At a time when self-directed approaches are being "exported" all over the world, it is essential that they should be scrutinized for cultural bias in terms of the value systems they vehiculate and of the pedagogical practices they promote. Press's pioneering work on the relationship between ethnicity and learning style is a model (in both the quantitative and illustrative senses) of the type of investigation which urgently needs to be carried out if " a u t o n o m y " is not to fall victim to some of its own enthusiasts. Her conclusion is both salutary and optimistic: ... learner autonomy is considered a desirable aim. But increasing evidence of different cultural expectations requires a more sensitive interpretation of the concept. A priority given to self-knowledge could enable students of whatever cultural background to make informed choices as to the forms of learning which suit them best (p. 251).
In other words, the problem is ethnographic rather than anthropological, the result of cultural variation rather than human nature and, as such, real, crucial and solvable. One or two drops of vinegar need to be added to the salad oil: there is a certain amount of repetition of common background ideas and theoretical frameworks, such as learning strategies (Wenden and Rubin, 1987; Oxford, 1989; O'Malley and Chamot, 1990), Kolb (1984) on "experiential learning", and Allen (1993) on "transferable personal skills". The role of authentic materials is often referred to as if it were uniform and uncontroversial, whereas there is clearly a major difference between those programmes which aim at preparing materials for learners and those which aim at preparing learners for materials. And there is, as noted above, little on the training of staff for self-direction and self-access, or on the topic of learner-counsellor discourse. Finally, there is no attempt to situate learnercentred approaches within a wider social epistemology or to compare them with other forms of informational economy. This is, of course, a wish list rather than realistic criticism. The overall tone of this selection of papers is one of enthusiasm and commitment, but it is entirely devoid of any kind of strident triumphalism. Indeed, the authors concerned investigate a number of tough questions about autonomous learning and make some telling criticisms about current practice. All they a s k - - t h o u g h never a l o u d - - i s that their work and results should not be compared with some mythical, ideal, 100% efficient, teacher-centred classroom. REFERENCES Allen, M. G. (1993) A Conceptual Model of Transferable Personal Skills. University of Sheffield and Employment Department Group, Sheffield. Benson, P. and Voller, P. (eds) (1997) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. Longman, London. C.R.A.P.E.L. (Centre de Recherches et d'Applications P6dadagogiques en Langues) (1996) Les Centres de Ressources. C.R.A.P.E.L., Universitb de Nancy. Gardner, D. and Miller, L. (eds) (1994) Directions in Self-Access Language Learning. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong.
438
REVIEWS
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Prentice Hall International, New York. O'Malley, J. M. and Chamot, A. U. (1990) Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Oxford, R. L., (1990) Language Learning Strategies. Hewbury House, New York. Pemberton, R., Li, E. S. L., Or, W. W. F. and Pierson, H. D. (eds) (1996) Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong. Wenden, A. and Rubin, J. (1987) Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Prentice Hall International, New York.
Philip Riley Centre de Recherches et d'Applications P6dagogiques en Langues Universit6 de Nancy II 3, place Godefroi de Bouillon F-54015 Nancy C6dex France
HOLLAND, V. MELISSA, KAPLAN, JONATHAN D. and SAMS, MICHELLE R. (eds) Intelligent Language Tutors: Theory Shaping Technology. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995, 384 pp. This is a large and important book that brings together discussion of language pedagogy, the available technology, and the crucial link between the two, software. It comprises a general introduction by Holland, "The case for Intelligent CALL", and 20 chapters arranged in four sections: "Text-Based Language Tutors and Learning Environments", "Dialogue-Based Language Games", "Graphics-Based Language Tutors and Learning Environments", and "Theoretical Issues in Language Tutor Design and Assessment". Each section has an introduction by Holland. The links within this interdisciplinary enterprise are set out in the general introduction and addressed in various chapters, especially those in the final section. The major justifications for the use of "intelligent" in the book's title are two. First, the type and range of feedback offered by the software goes beyond that provided by earlier gap-filling and multiple-choice forms of software. Second, the learning environment, conceptual and on-screen, makes use of a richer work space and interface. In addition, response and feedback are based on aspects of natural language processing (NLP), mostly parsing, and the learning, prompting and response environment comprises a microworld of text, graphics and actions. These features serve to distinguish ICALL from basic, "unintelligent" CALL, where there is no recourse to NLP and often a less rich and manipulative learning environment (cf. Pennington, 1996). Four motivations are offered for past, present and continued work on ICALL. First, there is a continuing need for form-focused (basically grammar) activity in language learning.