Prospect of biofuels as an alternative transport fuel in Australia

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Prospect of biofuels as an alternative transport fuel in Australia A.K. Azad n, M.G. Rasul, M.M.K. Khan, Subhash C. Sharma, M.A. Hazrat School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD 4702, Australia

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 22 April 2014 Received in revised form 13 October 2014 Accepted 4 November 2014 Available online 27 November 2014

The prospect of biofuels as a transport alternative fuel in Australia is reviewed and discussed in this paper. The Australian transport sector is the second largest energy consuming sector which consumes about 24% of total energy consumption. A part of this energy demand can be met by ecofriendly biofuels. A wide array of different biofuels feedstocks including Australian native species, their distributions, oil content, traditional uses are reviewed and listed in the descending order of their oil content. The world biofuel scenario as well as the 20 largest biofuel production countries and their mandates on biofuels blending with petroleum diesel are presented. Australia’s biofuel production, consumption, production facilities and future investment projects are also reviewed and discussed. The study developed a biofuel supply chain for Australia and found that the second generation biofuels have better prospects as a future alternative transport fuel in Australia. These biofuel feedstocks are readily available and can overcome the shortcomings of the first generation biofuels, such as socio-economic, environmental and food versus land use challenges. Although some research is in progress, further study is needed on the process development of second generation biofuel production at commercial scale in Australia and abroad. & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Biofuel Energy scenario First generation biofuel Second generation biofuel World biofuel scenario Biofuel supply chain

Contents 1. 2. 3.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Australia’s energy scenario by sector and fuel types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biofuel sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. First generation (1G) biofuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Second generation (2G) biofuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Third generation (3G) biofuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Fourth generation (4G) biofuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Biofuel scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. World biofuel scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Biofuel scenario in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Present biofuel production facilities, future projects and challenges in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Development of biofuel supply chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction Energy is available in different forms such as thermal energy, chemical energy, electrical energy, mechanical energy etc. which n

Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 61 4 6923 5722; fax: þ 61 7 4930 9382. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A.K. Azad).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.047 1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

331 332 334 334 338 338 338 339 339 340 341 343 343 344 344

can be transferred from one form to another through energy conversion processes [1]. The energy demand, which is increasing day-by-day, should be met by ecofriendly and cost effective sources of energy because energy, economy and environment (EEE’s) are the multidisciplinary concern now-a-days. Energy available in the universe is broadly categorised in two groups, namely renewable energy and non-renewable energy. Renewable

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energies are clean sources of energy that are freely available in nature. About 16% of global energy consumption comes from renewable resources [2–4]. Coal, crude oil, natural gas etc. are the main sources of non-renewable energy which meets more than 80% of the total energy demand worldwide [5–7]. Due to increased demand and consumption, the amounts of nonrenewable energies are gradually depleting. This energy is mainly consumed by the transport, industrial and electricity generation sectors [8] which causes serious environmental pollutions [9]. Therefore, the world is moving towards energy sources which are renewable, biodegradable, cost effective, freely available in nature and friendly for environment. According to the United States Energy Information Administration (USEIA), the world’s total energy consumption projected to 2040 shows an increasing trend towards renewable energy consumption [10]. This form of energy is clean and produces low emissions [11]. The classification of energy resources is shown in Fig. 1. In that classification, renewable energy can be divided into two groups, firstly clean energy such as, solar, wind, hydroelectric, wave and rain energy and secondly bioenergy such as biomass, and biofuel. The most effective and efficient form of renewable energy is biofuel. These can serve as a substitute for petroleum-derived gasoline and diesel fuel in the transport sector as reported by USEIA. Biofuel is a liquid fuel composed of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils, animal fats and other non-edible oil sources and meeting the standard requirements of ASTM D6751 [12–16]. The available types of biofuels are bioethanol [17,18], renewable methanol [19], biodiesel, biogas [20], biobutanol [20] and biohydrogen [21]. They are low emission, non-toxic, safer and environmentally acceptable sources of energy [22]. The biofuels are usually classified as first generation (1G) [23,24], second generation (2G) [23,24], third generation (3G) [23,25–27] and fourth generation (4G) biofuel. Research on biofuel is ongoing worldwide for technological development to use of this eco-fuel in the transport sector. Literatures reported that sustainable energy development strategies typically involve three major technical changes such as energy savings on the demand side [28,29], efficiency improvements in the energy production [30,31] and replacement of fossil fuels by various sources of renewable energy [32,33]. Renewables are the world’s fastest growing energy classification of which biofuels are the most rapidly growing

segment [34]. This paper reviews and discusses the prospect of biofuels as an alternative transport fuel in Australia. Logistically, the review follows the path indicated by the arrows in Fig. 1. Initially, Australia’s energy scenario by sector and fuel types is introduced to identify the significance and importance of both the transport sector and biofuels. Then, the biofuel sources, availability, production, yield, consumption, generation (such as 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G), scenarios, etc. are presented and discussed. Finally, the study developed a biofuel supply chain showing the nexus between primary resources and end users for Australia which can be applied to any country in the world.

2. Australia’s energy scenario by sector and fuel types Australia is the 6th largest developed country having the world’s 12th largest economy [35]. The Australian economy is dependent on energy use now and in the future. The world energy statistics shoes that Australia is 9th largest energy producer, 17th largest consumer of non-renewable energy resources and ranks 19th on an energy consumption per person basis [2,36]. Australia’s is primarily consumed 96% of total energy consumption from coal, oil, gas and related products [37]. Account for the remaining 4% consumption from renewable resources like bioenergy. Australia has one-third world’s uranium resources, one-tenth of black coal resources and almost 2% of world conventional gas resources [36]. It has only a small proportion of world crude oil resources. Australia is a member of Commonwealth of Nations, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), United Nations, G20, Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUST), World Trade Organization, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and Pacific Islands Forum. Australia is gifted with abundant, high quality and diverse renewable and non-renewable energy resources. Australia’s energy consumption by sectors is presented in Fig. 2 which shows that the highest energy consuming sector is electricity generation (36%), followed by the transport sector (24%). According to Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics (BREE) estimation, energy consumption in the transport sector has increased by an average of 2.4% per year during 2000–2001 to 2011–2012 [38]. This sector consumes mostly petroleum fuels and

Fig. 1. Classification of energy by source types and its contribution to global energy consumption.

A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

333

Table 2 Australian renewable energy consumption, growth and share in 2011–2012. Source: 2013 Australian Energy Statistic Data, Table C [39]. Renewable energy type

Energy source type

Consumption (PJ) 2011–2012

Growth (%)

Share (%)

2010–2011 to 2011–2012 Clean energy

Bioenergy

Fig. 2. Australia’s total energy consumption by sectors. Source: 2013 Australian Energy Statistics, Table B [39].

Fig. 3. Australian’s net energy consumption by fuel type [unit 1 petajoule, PJ ¼ 1015 J]. Source: 2013 Australian Energy Statistics, Table C [39].

Table 1 Primary energy consumption, growth rate and share by fuel type in Australia. Sources: 2013 Australian Energy Statistic Data, Table C [39]. Fuel type

Coal Oil Gas Renewable Total

Consumption (PJ)

Growth (%)

Share (%)

2011–2012

2010–2011 to 2011–2012

5 Years average

2118 2411 1399 265 6193

 4.7 8.5 4.2  7.3 2.0

 2.3 10.6 1.2  2.8 2.7

34.2 38.9 22.6 4.3 100

the consumption is increasing day-by-day. Biofuel can be an alternative to the petroleum fuels for the transport sector, however, biofuel energy resources are still largely undeveloped [38]. Further study is therefore needed to investigate how biofuel energy resources can be used as an alternative fuel in the transport sector. Total energy consumption is calculated as original production plus imports, less exports and change in stock. In other words, the

Hydro Wind Solar Biomass Biofuels Total

51 22 17 165 11 265

 16.2 5.3 19.9  0.9  55.7  7.3

1.0 0.3 0.2 2.3 0.4 4.3

total energy used within the Australian economy is called net energy consumption. Australia’s net energy consumption trend from 1960 to 2012 by fuel type is presented in Fig. 3 and energy consumption, growth rate and share in fiscal year 2010–2011 and 2011–2012 by fuel type is summarised in Table 1. It can be seen from Table 1 that, in 2011–2012, total energy consumption increased by 2% with respect to 2010–2011, rising to 6193 PJ. Significant growth of energy consumption was found in the petroleum sectors (i.e. oil) which accounted for 38.9% of total energy consumption [38]. The relative consumption of coal (black and brown coal together) accounted for 34.2% and gas accounted for 22.6% of total energy consumption. Renewable energy consumption is around 265 PJ, accounting for 2% of Australia’s total primary production. Renewable generation decreased by 7.3% in 2011–2012 because of the lower production of bioenergy and hydro-energy, but solar and wind production increased in recent years [37,38]. Overall, the renewable energy share is 4.3% of total energy consumption. It is to be noted that Australia’s total energy production (17460PJ) in 2011-12 increased by 5% with respect to 2010–2011 (16640PJ) including exported energy. It has about 37% of domestic consumption and 63% of net energy export [38]. Presently, more than 60% of primary energy is derived from coal. Modelling by the Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO) investigated two futures in 2030 and 2050 scenarios [40]. This is the first study of its kind by AEMO in Australia by potential costs and the viability of moving the electricity generation system fuelled entirely by renewable resources [39]. The summary of renewable energy consumption, growth and share are presented in Table 2. A significant growth of solar energy (19.9%) occurred in 2011–2012 whose share accounted for 0.2% of total renewable energy consumption. In 2011–2012, hydro-energy consumption decreased 16.2% due to reduced water in-flows in southeast Australia due to low rainfall with respect to previous years. The production and uses biofuels has grown quickly in recent years because of the increases in petroleum oil and natural gas prices and also for maintaining the environmental safety. The statistics expected that biofuel will grow over the next 30 years worldwide. Renewable energy shares around 1.5% of the total energy production in Australia [38]. According to the Clean Energy Council (CEC), the Federal Government of Australia sets targets and designs their policies to ensure at least 20% electricity generation from renewable sources by 2020 [41,42]. In this article, renewable energy resources have been classified into two groups based on emissions, namely clear energy and bioenergy (see Fig. 1). As the focus of this paper is biofuel/biodiesel, only bioenergy is discussed here. Energy derived through biochemical processes is called bioenergy or low emission energy. Bioenergy has a strong track record as a cost-effective and reliable renewable energy source [43]. Bioenergy resources include biomass, biogas, biofuels and

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A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

renewable methanol [19] etc. Renewable methanol is one of the clean fuels that can be blended at different proportion with gasoline to use in automobiles and hybrid vehicles. Carbon Recycling International (CRI) is the world’s first renewable methanol manufacturing plant in Iceland. They started producing renewable methanol commercially from late 2011. The capacity of the plant was around 2 million litres of renewable methanol per year in 2011. In 2012, the production rose to 5 million litres to reclaim 4.5 thousand tonnes of carbon dioxide a year from the atmosphere [44]. CRI plan is one of the commercial plants for both domestic consumption and export of this fuel. Australia consumed 176 PJ of bioenergy from biomass and biofuel in 2011–2012 (Table 2). Biofuel is the most efficient and useful form of bioenergy in the world. It can be used in the transport sector as biodiesel which is the focus of the review and discussion in this paper.

3. Biofuel sources Biofuels are liquid fuels that are generated from biological materials such as waste plant and animal matter [45]. A concept that has recently been narrowed, “biofuel is a renewable source of carbon” [25]. It is a renewable fuel mainly derived from vegetable oils, animal fats and biomass. As discussed above, it is the fuel composed of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids which can meet the requirements of ASTM D6751 standards is called biofuel [12–16,46,47]. Sources of biofuels continue to be investigated with a view to finding new resources. Biofuels are classified based on

socio, economic and environmental contrast. The 2G, 3G and 4G biofuels are also called advanced biofuels. Table 3 shows the classification of biofuels based on their feedstocks and production technologies. The biofuel generations are briefly discussed in the remainder of this section. 3.1. First generation (1G) biofuel The 1G biofuels are generally derived from edible food crops and vegetable oils [25,48]. Food crops including rice, wheat, barley, potato wastes and sugar beets etc. are more marginal feedstocks to produce biofuel. However, sugarcane or corn is commonly used as feedstock to produce 1G bio-ethanol. Brazil is more advanced in using this fuel [25]. 1G biofuels are mostly produced from edible vegetable oils including soybean oil [49–64], sunflower oil [51,52,58–60,62,65,66], corn oil [51,52,58], olive oil [62,67], palm oil [58,62,65,68], coconut oil [62], rapeseed oil [69], mustard oil [70,71], castor oil [63,72–76]. Furthermore, 1G biofuels face social, economic and environmental challenges because these are derived from food crop feedstocks. Their use leads to increased food prices and also creates pressure on land use which makes it unlikely to be sustainable. Consequently, technologies are starting to develop for the use of alternative feedstocks to overcome the major shortcomings of 1G biofuels [77]. The 1G biofuel feedstocks, their availability, oil yield and uses are presented in Table 4. Table 4 shows that almost every species have higher oil yields and production rates with respect to 2G species. It has also acceptable fuel properties to use as engine fuel. The oil is widely

Table 3 Biofuel generations based on their production technologies [23]. Generation Feedstocks

Example

1G biofuel 2G biofuel

Bioethanol, vegetable oils, bio-diesel, bio-syngas, biogas etc. Bio-diesel, bio-alcohols, bio-oil, bio-DMF, biohydrogen, bioFischer-Tropsch diesel, wood diesel etc. Biodiesel, vegetable oil, biogas Renewable liquid methanol, renewable fossil fuel etc.

3G biofuel 4G biofuel

Rice, wheat, sugar, edible vegetable oils etc. Non-food crops, non-edible vegetable oil, waste cooking oil, animal fact, wheat straw, corn, wood, wood waste, solid waste, energy crops etc. Microalgae Industrial waste CO2, captured and recycling carbon, H2O etc.

Table 4 1G biofuel feedstocks available in literature. S.L.

Edible sources

Oil content (%)

Oil yield

Density

Viscosity at

Food crops

Seed

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Rice burn oil Wheat Corn Whey Barley Potato waste Sugar beets

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Vegetable oil Cocos nucifera (Coconut oil) Brassica napus (Rapeseed) Palm oil Soybean oil Canola oil Sunflower oil Hemp oil Palm kernel oil Sesame oil Moringa oil Mustard oil Peanut oil Olive oil Castor oil Cotton seed Linseed

Kernel

(L/ha)

(kg/m3)

40 1C (Mm2/s)

15–23 – 48 4.5–5.0 2.5–5.0 20 40

– 2.5 – – – – –

825 – 172 – – – –

885.5 – 885.0 – – – –

4.958 – 4.400 – – – –

[59,78,79] [80] [59,78,80] [81] [82] [83,84] [85,86]

63–65 37–50 30–60 15–20 43 25–35 30–35 44–65 41 35–40 30 45–55 45–70 45–50 18–25 40–44

– – – – – 45–55 – – – – – –

2689 1190 5950 446 – 952 – – – 250 – 1059 1212 1413 325 –

– 882.0 876.0 884.0 – 880.0 – – – 877.2 – 883.0 – 899.0 – 892.5

4.500 4.439 5.700 4.039 – 4.439 – – – 4.830 – 4.900 4.500 15.250 – 3.752

[59,78–80,87] [59,78,80,88] [59,78,79,88] [78–80,88] [66,78,80] [66,78,79,89] [66,78] [59,78–80] [90] [59,78,79] [11,91,92] [59,78–80] [59,78,79] [59,78,79] [78,79] [59,78–80]

– –

References

A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

335

Table 5 2G biofuel feedstocks with scientific name, distribution, oil content and uses. S. L.

Non-edible feedstocks

Distribution

Plant type

Plant part

Oil content Seed (wt%)

1.

2

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

Vegetable oil Sleichera triguga (Kusum) Sapium sebifeum L. Roxb (Stillingia) Ximenia Americana (Sea lemon) Guizotia abyssinica L. (Niger) Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber seed oil) Croton tiglium (Jamaal Gota) Jatropha curcas L. (Jatropha)

Native in China, Japan, India and grows well Tree in the southern coastal United States

Seed, 13–32 kernel

53–64

Africa, India and South East Asia to Australia, Tree New Zealand, Pacific Islands, West Indies, South America Cultivated in Ethiopia and India Herbaceous annual

kernel –

49–61

Seed

50–60

–

Commercial oil, biodiesel

[124–132]

Printing inks, rubber/ plastic processing, pharmaceuticals. Biodiesel, resin, oil Oil illuminant (burns without soot), lubricant, biodiesel Hairdressing, body moisturiser, skin protector etc. Illuminant (release thick smoke) Oil, biodiesel

[133–141]

Nigeria, India, Brazil, Southeast Asia, West Africa

Tree

Seed

40–60

40–50

China, Malabar, Ceylon, Amboina (of the Molucca islands), the Philippines and Java Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Nepal.

Herbaceous perennial Tree

Seed, 30–45 kernel Seed, 20–60 kernel

50–60

Grows in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of Shrub Mexico, California and Arizona

Cerbera odollam Native to India and other parts of Southern (Sea mango) Asia

Seed

45–55

40–60

–

Tree

Seed, 54 kernel

6.4

Asia (India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan), America, Europe

Tree

Seed, 51.8 kernel

–

Cuba, Brazil, China, India, Italy, French and the countries of the former Soviet Union

Tree/ shrub

Seed

45–50

–

Forests in NorthEast India, Nepal, Indochina, Philippines, Malaysia, Sumatra.

Herb

Seed

35– 50

–

India states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttar Tree Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala and Gujarat Tree Northern Australia, Native Western Ghats mountain range in India, Fiji, Some regions in Eastern Asia Australia, Asia, Africa, Brazil Tree

Growing in arid regions in Africa and Asia

Tree

Kernel

Australia, Java, Malaysia, South Asia etc.

Tree

Kernel 46.73 78.23 –

Australia, East Africa, Southern coastal India to Malaysia

Tree

46.51 74.49 –

Tropical rain forests of Western Ghats, Konkana, North Kanara, South Kanara, Bombay, Goa and Coorg, Asia, Africa 20. Raphanus Widely grown throughout the world sativus (Radish) including Australia 21. Salvadora Native in arid regions of Punjab and West oleoides (Vann) India, Pakistan, Southern Iran etc 22. Michela chaampaca (Yellow jade orchid)

Oil, hairdressing, [109–112] traditional medicine use, skin afflictions Fatty oil known [109,110,113–117] as strillengia oil, drying oil Oil, lubricant [118–123]

55–70

9.

14. Pongamia pinnata (Karanja) 15. Terminalia catappa (Bengal almond) 16. Balanites aegyptiaca (Desert date) 17. Aleurites moluccana (Kukui nut) 18. Calophyllum inophyllum (Beauty Leaf Tree) 19. Garcinia indica (Kokum)

Kernel (wt%)

Seed

Simmondsia chinensis (Jojoba)

12. Mesua ferrea (Cobra's saffron) 13. Madhuca indica (Mahwa)

Reference

Himalayas, the western Deccan to Sri-Lanka Tree and Indo-China. Malaysia, Indonesia, Java etc.

8.

10. Sapindus mukorossi (Soap nut) 11. Ricinus communis (Castor)

Uses

Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Burma, China, Western Ghats in India

Oil fuel, cathartic, lubrication and illumination Soaps, lubricants, illumination Biodiesel

[118] [64,88,110,118,142–158]

[110,138,159–161]

[110,153,162–169]

[154,155,170–173]

[75,109,110,174–179]

[88,180,181]

Seed, 35–50 kernel

50

Seed, 25–50 kernel

30–50

Oil-illuminant, [88,118,138,141,150,158,169,189– timber, firewood 198]

Seed

–

Timber, oil, biodiesel

[89,141,148]

36–47

Oil, biodiesel

[78,199–206]

49

[64,110,118,141,182–188]

[197,207]

[145,208–211]

Tree

Seed

45.5

–

Biodiesel, resin, oil

[110,118,212,213]

Herbaceous annual Tree

Seed

40–45

–

[109,214–217]

Seed

45

–

Tree

Seed

45

–

Oil production, biodiesel Seed is used candle making and candles Oil, biodiesel

[88,110,218]

[109,118,213]

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A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

Table 5 (continued ) S. L.

Non-edible feedstocks

Distribution

Plant type

Plant part

Oil content Seed (wt%)

Herbaceous annual

23. Linum usitatissimum (Linseed)

Mediterranean, through Western Asia and the Middle East to India. Europe and wide range in Canada and Argentina.

24. Azadirachta indica (Neem)

Australia, Native to India, Burma, Bangladesh, Tree Sri Lanka, Malaysia Pakistan and Cuba, growing in tropical and semitropical regions

25. Melia azedarach Australia, Southern China, India, Indomalaya, Shrub/tree (White cedar) Southeast Asia Distributed in India Tree 26. Putranjiva roxburghii (Putranjiva) 27. Brassica carinata (Ethiopian mustard) 28. Syagrus romanzoffiana (Queen palm) 29. Nicotiana tabacum (Tobacco)

30.

31. 32.

33. 34.

35.

39. Samadera indica 40. Jagera pseudorhus (Foambark) 41. Pongamia glabra (Koroch seed)

–

25–45

Seed, 10–45 kernel Seed 41–42

2.8

Seed, 42 kernel

Australia, South America, from northern Argentina to eastern Brazil, Bolivia

Tree

Seed

Tree

Seed, 36–41 kernel

Tree

Seed

Tree

Reference

Oil, floor oil, biodiesel resin, fibre, linoleum m. Oil-illuminant, timber, firewood, biodiesel Biodiesel

[110,219–224]

Kernel (wt%)

Seed, 20–30 kernel

Herbaceous annual

–

Oil burning, Kernel yield, burning an essential oil 2.2– 10.8 Biofuel, Jet fuel

41.647 3.78 –

[109,110,118,138,225–229]

[109,230,231] [109,110,232–234]

[110,141]

Biodiesel

[197,235,236]

17

Oil, ethno medicinal

[109,110,237–243]

24–40

–

Timber, oil, biofuel.

[109,244–249]

Seed

35–40

–

Oil, biodiesel

[109,189,250–254]

Legume tree Seed

27–39

–

Oil, biodiesel

[165,255,256]

Herb

Seed

30–38

–

Oil, lubricant

[109,110]

Herbaceous annual

Seed

20–38

–

Biodiesel

[109,257–261]

Tree

Seed

32– 37

–

Africa, Asia, Latin America, Oceania

Tree

Seed

35

[109,110,262–264] Oil, soaps, pressed cake for cattle and fertiliser. Oil, biodiesel [207,229,265–267]

Growing in India, China

Tree

Kernel –

35

Oil illuminant

[109,268]

Europe, the Mediterranean, America, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Northwest of China, South Asia Indonesia, tropical region

Herbaceous perennial

Seed

35

–

Oil, biofuel

[269–273]

Tree

Seed

 35

–

Oil

[109]

Australia, New Guinea

Tree

Seed

34.017 0.62 –

Biodiesel

[197]

Tree

Seed

33.6

–

Oil for diesel generator, firewood

[109,189]

Tree

Seed

31.16

–

Biodiesel

[197,274,275]

Tree

Seed

18.5–28.3

–

Hair care, biofuel [276,277]

Tree

Fruit, Seed Seed

26.26

–

Oil, biodiesel

[109,278–281]

18–26

–

Oil, biofuel

[109,282,283]

Naturally distributed in tropical and Temperate Asia, from India to Japan to Thailand to Malaysia to north and northEastern Australia to some Pacific islands 42. Ochna serrulata Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (Mall-leaved plant) 43. Passiflora South America, Asia, China platyloba 44. Idesia polycarpa China, Japan 45. Bombax malabaricum (Silk cotton tree)

35–45

Ethiopia

Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Macedonia, India, England, Pakistan, Serbia, Brazil, Cuba, Columbia, East Africa, Ecuador, Fiji, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Iran, United States, Tanzania Ceiba pentandra Native to Mexico, Central America and the (Kapok) Caribbean, northern South America, to tropical west Africa, Indonesia (Java) Vernicia fordii Southern China, Taiwan, Burma, and (Tung) northern Vietnam Australia, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, and Millettia Pacific Islands pinnata (Pongam Oiltree) Crambe Mediterranean, Ethiopia, Tanzania, East of abyssinica Africa, Italy, Argentina. The eastern United States, North Central USA Cuphea to Argentina hyssopifolia (Cuphea) Australia, Turkey, Greece and growing in Solanum tropical and semitropical regions. Originated lycopersicum (Tomato seed) in Mexico

36. Moringa oleifera (Drumstick tree) 37. Aphanamixis piolystachya (Pithraj) 38. Eruca sativa (Garden rocket)

Seed

Uses

Asia

Tree

A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

337

Table 5 (continued ) S. L.

Non-edible feedstocks

Distribution

Plant type

Plant part

Oil content Seed (wt%)

46. Asclepias syriaca (Milkweed) 47. Santalum album (Sandalwood) 48. Koelreuteria formosana (Chinese rain tree) 49. Murraya exotica 50. Petalostigma pubescens (Quinine bush) 51. Brachychiton acerifolius (Illawarra Flame Tree) 52. Ricinus communis (Castor oil plant) 53. Petalostigma triloculare (Long-leaved Bitter Bark) 54. Dianella caerulea (Blue flax-lily) 55. Argemone Mexicana (Cardosanto) 56. Annona squamosa (Sugar-apples) 57. Cordyline mannerssuttoniae (Broad Leafed Palm Lily) 58. Atalaya hemiglauca 59. Crotalaria retusa L. (Fabaceae) 60. Grevillea banksii (Red silky oak) 61. Aleurites trisperma Balanco 62. Barringtonia racemosa Roxb. (L.) Spreng. 63. Brachychiton bidwillii (Dwarf kurrajong) 64. Acacia tetragonophylla (Curare/dead finish) 65. Waste cooking oil Lingo cellulosic 66. Bagasse 67. Rich Straw 68. Wheat straw 69. Barley straw Animal fats 70. Lard 71. Tallow

Uses

Reference

Oil

[109,110,141,284–286]

Kernel (wt%)

Distributed to the northeast and northcentral United States

Herbaceous perennial

Seed

20– 25

Australia, India, Sri Lanka

Tree

Seed

24.49 7 3.23 –

Oil, Biodiesel

[197,287–289]

Australia, Taiwan

Tree

Seed

22.17 70.51

Biofuel

[197,290,291]

Australia Australia

Tree Tree

Seed Seed

21.86 7 0.36 – 21.13 72.37 –

Biodiesel Biodiesel

[197,292–294] [197,295]

Australia

Tree

Seed

19.86 72.17

–

–

[197,296]

Australia, Native to Africa and Eurasia

Tree

Seed

45-50

–

Castrol oil, biodiesel

[174–176,197,297–300]

Australia, Asia

Tree

Seed

19.067 0.07 –

–

[197,301]

Australia and Tasmania

Tree

Seed

18.66 72.6

–

–

[197]

18.38 75.4

–

Biodiesel

[197,302–306]

–

Oil, biodiesel

[226,307–309]

Biodiesel

[197]

Australia, Mexico, Western US and any part of the world

0.019

–

Tree

Seed

15–20

Tree

Seed

15.84 71.77 –

Tree

Seed

15.62 75.53 –

Herbaceous annual

Seed

15

Australia

Tree

Seed

13.85 71.21 –

Asia, South America, Cuba

Tree

Kernel –

–

Paraffin, lubricant

[109,229]

Widely spread in East Africa, Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands

Tree

Seed

–

–

Oil illuminate used in lamps

[109,312]

Australia

Tree

Seed

11.157 3.37

Biofuel

[197]

Australia

Tree

Seed

–

Treat warts

[313]

All countries

–

–

97.02

–

Biodiesel

[314]

Tree Tree Tree Tree

– – – –

– – – –

Bio-ethanol Biodiesel Biodiesel Biodiesel

[315–317] [318] [319] [320]

– –

– –

– –

Biodiesel Biodiesel

[89] [89]

Australia, Caribbean, Central America, Northern South America, Western South America, Southern South America, Pacific, Indonesia Australia

Australia, New Guinea, Southern Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique Native in Asia, Coastal Eastern and Africa

biomass Almost every Almost every Almost every Almost every

country country country country

in in in in

the the the the

world world world world

Almost every country in the world Almost every country in the world

–

[197] Oil, biodiesel

[109,310,311]

[197]

338

A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

used as vegetable oil for food processing. It can lead to increased food prices though conventional oil extraction methods are used to extract oil. Pure biofuel or more blends used in internal combustion (IC) engine causes more NOx and PM emission than conventional fossil fuel.

3.2. Second generation (2G) biofuel 2G biofuels are produced from a wide array of feedstocks, ranging from lignocellulosic feedstocks to municipal solid waste and animal fat [23,25]. In other words, 2G biofuels are obtained from non-edible feedstocks such as wood and wood waste, animal fats [60,61], non-food crops [93], waste cooking oil [94,95] etc. A wide range of feedstocks are available for 2G biofuel production including jatropha curcas [46,65,96,97], lesquerella oil, cotton seed [52,59,62,63,72], pongamia glabra [65,98], karanja [99] and salvadora oleoides and linseed oil [59], forestry residues, switch grass [51], wood [51] and biomass sources. 2G biofuels are not being produced commercially yet because they require more sophisticated processing equipment and more production costs compared with 1G biofuels. However, 2G biofuel can overcome the social, economic and environmental challenges without hampering our food cost and creating pressure on land use because it is nonedible, biodegradable and can grow on marginal land [100]. 2G biofuel have some other advantages. For example, it can be used at different proportion in diesel engines without any modification with 15–20% more efficient than gasoline engines. It is low emission fuel which emit less carbon monoxide (CO), carbon di-oxide (CO2) and hydro carbon (HC) than fossil diesel fuel [101]. The 2G has some excellent fuel properties like high cetane number, very high flash point, excellent lubricity and very favourable energy balance etc. It can be blended in any proportion with petroleum diesel fuel [102–108]. The research activities on the 2G biofuel feedstock resources are ongoing. The available feedstocks for 2G biofuel are listed in Table 5. The content of the Table is in descending order of the oil content of the feedstocks. Table 5 presents useful information about 2G biofuel species such as distribution of the species, plant type, part of the plant used for oil extraction, plus oil content in seed and kernel separately. The traditional uses of the 2G oil have also been presented in the same table. The study listed 71 species including Australian native species for 2G biofuel conversion. The study identified some more prospective native species, namely sea mango, beauty leaf tree, karanja, Bengal almond, kukui nut, radish, white cedar, queen palm, pongam oiltree, foambark, castor oil plant, neem, mall-leaved tree etc. due to their high oil content in seed and kernel. These species are readily available, fast growing and environmentally sustainable oil tree. There is a wide array of 2G species available in Australia. These species can be grown in largely unproductive areas and are mostly located in degraded forest and coastal areas. Due to the presence of some toxic acids in the oil, it is not edible by human beings. For these reasons, 2G biofuel can overcome the major shortcomings of 1G biofuel such as food versus fuel contrast, economic and environmental issues etc. The 2G biofuels have some desirable physical and chemical fuel properties compared to fossil fuel. Some factors directly influence the fuel properties of biofuels. The key factors are: fatty acid composition of the feedstock, quality of the feedstock, type of production and refining process and post treatment of the biofuel. Standard characteristics are required to be maintained before biofuel is used as engine fuel. Though ASTM and European biofuel standards are widely used, some countries have developed their own standard. Australia follows the ASTM standard for biofuel application in the transport sector.

3.3. Third generation (3G) biofuel Third generation (3G) biofuels are the fuels which are produced from micro algal biomass. It has a very distinctive growth yield compared to classical lignocellulosic biomass [25,321]. In other words, the fuels that are related to algae biomass are called oilgae [23,27]. It could to a certain extent be linked to utilisation of environmental CO2 as feedstock [322]. Some literature reported microalgae as 3G biofuel feedstock [25–27,64,95,322–326]. Algae are photosynthetic aquatic organisms. The term is often used to refer specifically to eukaryotic organisms, thus excluding photosynthetic bacteria (such as cyanobacteria, which are also referred to as ‘blue-green algae’) [327]. Microalgae have some remarkable advantages for use as 3G feedstock such as being cultured to act as low-cost, high energy, eco-friendly and entirely renewable feedstock [322]. It can grow using undeveloped land and water which is not suitable for food production, therefore reducing the strain on already depleted water sources. It is predicted that algae will have the potential to produce more energy per acre of land use than conventional crops [328]. The lipid content of the microorganisms is the key factor to produce 3G biofuel from algae. Usually, targeted species within the green algae are Chlorella vulgaris, Chamydomonas reinhardtii, Dunaliella salina etc. due to their high lipid content (around 60–70%) [327,329,330] and their high productivity (7.4 g/L/d for C. vulgaris) [331]. Using the traditional transesterification process, 2G biofuel lipids can be easily produced from algae. Alternatively, they can be submitted to hydrogenolysis to produce kerosene grade alkane suitable for use as drop-in aviation fuels [332]. 3G biofuel can be used in a wide range of fuel blends such as diesel, petrol, jet fuel and aviation gasoline [27]. The species used for 3G biofuel production are reviewed here; some of them are arrayed by descending order of their oil content in Table 6.

3.4. Fourth generation (4G) biofuel 4G biofuels are defined as fuels that are produced from captured carbon from the environment by using advanced technologies like petroleum-hydro-processing, advanced bio-chemistry, geosynthesis or low pressure and low temperature electrochemical processes [19,385,386]. Lu [26] defined the 4G biofuel production concept through algae metabolic engineering forms. The concept is used to produce renewable fuel as 4G biofuel by chemical processes. 2G and 3G biomass feedstocks absorb CO2 while growing and converting to fuel, whereas 4G processes are different. Different authors define 4G biofuel in different ways. Demirbas [23] defined 4G biofuel as the conversion of vegetable oil and bio-diesel into biogasoline using the most advanced technology. There are two methods to produce 4G biofuels described in the literature. The first is to capture carbon from industrially emitted CO2 into water by electrochemical process and to produce liquid methanol. The renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, geothermal etc. can be used as electricity and heat energy. These processes consists series of electrolytic cracking and catalytic synthesis. It also leads to a low pressure and temperature electrochemical production process. Liquid renewable methanol is a cost-effective, emission free fuel which can blend with biodiesel and aviation gasoline [19]. In the second method, the captured CO2 can be geosequestered by storing it in old oil and gas fields or saline aquifers. This carbon capture makes 4G biofuel production carbon negative rather than simply carbon neutral, as it locks more carbon than it produces. The literatures reported that this system not only captures and stores CO2 from the atmosphere, but also reduces CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuels [328]. 4G biofuel is an advanced biofuel of an aromatic and sulphurfree rich fuel with a high cetane blending value that is fully

A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

339

Table 6 List of the spaces used for 3G biofuel production in the literature. S. L.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

Name of microorganisms Microalgae Schizochytrium sp. Botryococcus braunii Nitzschia laevis Neochloris oleoabundans Chlorella vulgaris Parietochloris incise Crypthecodium cohnii S. obiquus Nannochloris sp. Nannochloropsis oculata Nitzschia sp. Scenedesmus dimorphus Monodus subterraneus Cylindrotheca sp. Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chamydomonas reinhardtii Haematococcus pluvialis Dunaliella primolecta Tetraselmis sueica Chlorella sorokiana Monallanthus salina Dunaliella salina Porphyridium cruentum Spirulina platensis Isochrysis galbana Bacterium Arthrobacter sp. Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Rhodococcus opacus Bacillus alcalophilus Yeast Rhodotorula glutinis Rhodotorula glutinis Rhodosporidium toruloides Cryptococcus albidus Lipomyces starkeyi Candida curvata Fungi Mortierella isabellina Humicola lanuginosa Mortierella vinacea Aspergillus oryzae M. ramanniana Cunninghamella japonica Cunninghamella echinulata Mortierella alpina C. bainieri Mucor rouxii Mucor circinelloides Mucor sp.

Oil content per tonne of biomass (wt% dry mass)

Lipid content (%, w/wdw)

Lipid productivity (mg/L/day)

References

50–77 64 69.1 35–65 63.2 62 56 35–55 – 50 45–47 16–40 39.3 16–37 20–30 25.25 25 23 15–23 22 4 20 14–20 19.3 5–17 14.5

35–55 25–75 – 29–65 5–58 – 20–51.1 11–55 20–56 22.7–29.7 16–47

– – – 90–134 11.2–40 – – – 60.9–76.5 84–142 –

16

30.4

18–57

44.8

25 23.1 8.5–23 19–22 20–22 6–25 9–18.8 4–16.6 7–40

– – 27–36.4 44.7 – 116 34.8 – –

[333,334] [64,330,333–337] [334,338] [334,339–341] [327,334,342–347] [334,348,349] [64,334,350–352] [334,353] [64] [327,334,354–356] [64,333,334] [334,340,357] [334] [333,334] [64] [327,358–360] [327,361] [64,327] [64] [334,362] [64] [327,334,339,357] [334] [334] [334]

4 40 27–38 24–25 18–24

24–31 – – –

– – – –

[333] [333] [333] [333]

72 72 48–67.5 65 64 58

– – – – – –

– – – – – –

[333] [363–365] [366–371] [333] [333] [333]

86 75 66 57 54.2 50 46 42 38 32 23 3–17

–

–

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

[333,334,372–374] [333,334] [333,334] [333,334] [334] [334,375,376] [334,377] [334,378] [334,379] [334,380–382] [334,378,383,384] [334,380]

compatible with oil-derived diesel [387,388]. The carbon recycling fuel is used as an important ingredient for production of biodiesel. For this reason this fuel is called 4G biofuel. The carbon recycling cycle is presented in Fig. 4. The feedstocks of 4G biofuel are environmental CO2, H2O and heat energy [44,386,389–396]. Finally, carbon recycling liquid renewable methanol can be considered a 4G biofuel because it is an important ingredient to produce biodiesel and it can be directly used as gasoline in the transport sector.

4. Biofuel scenarios 4.1. World biofuel scenario World biofuels production has been growing steadily over the last decade from 314,570 BPD in 2000 to 1897,200 BPD in 2011 (Fig. 5). Literature reported that biofuels met around 3% of total

transport fuel on an energy basis and considerably higher proportion in certain countries. For example, Brazil met about 23% of its road transport fuel demand by biofuel in 2009 [397]. The IEA analysis shows that biofuels will have to play an important role if the world is to make meaningful reductions in CO2 emissions. It will also reduce reliance on crude oil at costs similar to those of gasoline and diesel in the medium-term. Fig. 5 shows that world biofuels production and consumption trends are gradually raising. According to USEIA, there are no records found on biofuels before 2000. Most of the countries only started using biofuel in the past decade. Many more countries are in the early stages of using biodiesel and they are trying to develop their own technologies. The world’s 20 largest biofuels producing countries are presented in Table 7. The global biofuel market is dominated by the USA and Brazil. They are producing huge amounts of biofuel annually to try to meet their transport fuel demand [399]. Brazil currently produces 27 billion litres of bioethanol annually, supported by the

340

A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

Fig. 4. Carbon recycling cycle to produce liquid renewable methanol [386].

development of new sugarcane varieties and agricultural technologies [400]. The USA widely uses bioethanol from corn and grain, and biodiesel from soybean as an alternative fuel [401]. They set targets to replace 30% of petroleum fuel with biofuels, while Europe is aiming for 5.75% [40,402,403]. The European Union (EU) produced over 9.5 million tons of biofuel in 2010, 67% of global output and an increase of 5.5% from 2009. EU production in 2011 decreased by 10.06%, accounting for 8.6 million tons compared to 2010. In 2012, production of biofuel rose to 23.5 million tons per year based on calculation of 330 working days. Different countries in the world meet their fuel demand by different blend types to suit their local requirements. Thirty countries in the world have expressed their specific biofuel blend mandates and targets of biofuel used as presented in Table 8. In addition, Mexico has a pilot E2 (2% bioethanol) biofuel mandate in the city of Guadalajara. Chile has a target for E5 and B5 (5% biodiesel) but has no current blending mandate. The Dominican Republic has a target for B2 and E15 for 2015 but has no current blending mandate. The ethanol mandate for Panama is as follows; in 2013 at E4 in 2014, E7 in 2015, and E10 in 2016. Fiji approved voluntary B5 and E10 blending in 2011. The Kenyan city of Kisumu has an E10 mandate. Nigeria has a target for E10 but has no current blending mandate. Ecuador has set targets of B2 by 2014 and B17 by 2024. They also have an E5 pilot programme in several provinces. 4.2. Biofuel scenario in Australia Australia’s total annual biofuel production per day is presented in Fig. 6. The figure shows that, in 2004, Australia produced 100 BPD of biofuel and increased the production rate in every year, rising to 9100 BPD in 2011 [58]. This biofuel can meet only 0.4% of the total Australian energy demand annually [37]. The Federal Government in Australia aimed to support 350 million litres of biofuel production per year from 2010 [404] and the pricing for biofuel is estimated to fall by as much as 12.5 cents/L for ethanol and 19.1 cents/L for biodiesel by 2015 [405]. At present, Australia produces biofuels from 2G feedstocks such as waste cooking oil, animal fats such as beef tallow and port lard etc. in different states. The New South Wales and Queensland State Government have taken initiatives to produce biofuels to meet their state fuel demand. They have already expressed their biofuel mandates for E4 and B4 in New South Wales

Fig. 5. World total biofuels production and consumption . Source: (USEIA, 2013) [398].

Table 7 World’s 20 largest biofuel production countries (production in thousand BPD) . Source: USEIA [398]. Country

United States Brazil Germany France China Canada Argentina Spain Italy Thailand India Poland United Kingdom Austria Indonesia Sweden Jamaica Czech Republic Australia South Korea

Year 2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

105.5 183.9 4.3 7.9 0 3.7 0.1 1.6 1.6 0 2.9 0 0 0.4 0 0 0 1.3 0 0

115.7 197.6 5.4 7.9 0.1 3.9 0.2 1.6 2.8 0 3 0 0 0.4 0 0.5 0 1.4 0 0

140.3 216.9 8.8 8.4 5.1 4 0.2 3.5 4.1 0 3.2 0 0.06 0.5 0 1.06 1.9 2 0 0.02

183.9 249.4 14 9 13.9 4 0.2 5 5.3 0 3.3 1 0.2 0.6 0 1.08 2.6 2.23 0 0.04

223.3 251.7 20.4 9.4 17.3 4 0.2 6.2 6.2 0.1 3.5 0.2 0.2 1.1 0 1.4 1.97 1.7 0.1 0.1

260.6 276.4 35.8 10.9 21.5 4.6 0.2 8.2 7.8 1.6 3.9 3.2 0.9 1.6 0.2 1.6 2.2 2.5 0.6 0.2

334.9 307.3 59.4 16.6 32 5.2 0.7 8.2 13.8 2.6 4.5 4 5 2.4 0.5 2.3 5.2 2.5 1.7 0.9

457.3 395.7 63.8 28 30.7 15.4 3.9 10.5 10.2 4.2 4.7 2.9 8.3 5.5 1.2 3.7 4.8 2.2 2.1 1.7

649.7 486.3 65 50.4 39.4 16.7 14.1 10.3 14.1 13.4 5.2 7 6.7 5.7 2.2 4.5 6.4 2.8 3.4 3.2

747.1 477.5 58 58 43 22.1 23.5 22 16.6 17.4 7 9 5.3 8.6 6.2 6.5 6.9 5 5.2 5

889.8 527.1 62 55 43 26.4 38.1 24 16.5 18.5 7 11 9 8.2 8.1 7.5 2 6 7.9 6.5

971.7 438.1 65.3 51.4 46.8 32.7 50.34 20 12.2 19.1 8 10.4 9 8.7 20.1 8.4 3 6 9.1 6.3

A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

341

Table 8 World biofuel blend mandates by country (national and state/provincial). S.L.

Country

Mandate

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Angora Argentina Australia Belgium Brazil Canadaa China Colombia Costa Rica Ethiopia Guatemala India Indonesia Jamaica Malawi Malaysia Mozambique Paraguay Peru Philippines South Africa South Korea Sudan Thailand Turkey United Statesb

27. 28. 29. 30.

Uruguay Vietnamc Zambia Zimbabwe

E10 E5 and B7 E5 in Queensland, E4 and B4 in New South Wales (provincially) E4 and B4 E18 to E25 and B5 E5 and B2 E10 in 9 provinces E8 E7 and E20 E5 E5 E5 E2.5 and E3 E10 E10 B5 E10 in 2012–2015; E15 in 2016–2020; E20 from 2021 E24 and B1 B2 and E7.8 E10 and B2 E10 B2.5 E5 E5 and B5 E2 National: The Renewable Fuels Standard 2 (RFS2) requires 136 billion litres (36 billion gallons) of renewable fuel to be blended annually with transport fuel by 2022 B5; E5 by 2015 E5 E10 and B5 E5, to be raised to E10 and E15

a

Provincial: E5 and B4 in British Columbia; E5 and B2 in Alberta; E7.5 and B2 in Saskatchewan; E8.5 and B2 in Manitoba; E5 in Ontario. State: E10 in Missouri and Montana; E9–10 in Florida; E10 in Hawaii; E2 and B2 in Louisiana; B4 by 2012, and B5 by 2013 (all by July 1 of the given year) in Massachusetts; E10 and B5, B10 by 2013, and E20 by 2015 in Minnesota; B5 after 1 July 2012 in New Mexico; E10 and B5 in Oregon; B2 one year after in-state production of biodiesel reaches 40 million gallons, B5 one year after 100 million gallons, B10 one year after 200 million gallons, and B20 one year after 400 million gallons in Pennsylvania; E2 and B2, increasing to B5 180 days after in-state feedstock and oil-seed crushing capacity can meet 3% requirement in Washington. c Biofuel: equivalent to 1% of domestic petroleum demand by 2015; 5% of demand by 2025. b

Biofuel demand in the Australian energy market exceeds the production rate as shown in Fig. 6. To meet this demand, biofuel imports were started after 2006. In 2007, the total imported biofuel quantity was 5.1 million litres which increased further and reached 20 million litres in 2012. Trade of biofuel (both exports and imports) can play an important role in the economic growth of Australia. Biofuel trading from 2006 to 2011 are presented in Table 9. The total biofuel production, consumption, exports, imports and stocks at year ending July are summarised in Table 10. It can be seen from Table 10 that consumption increased by more than production, the shortfall having to be met by imported biofuels. The record shows that Australia never exports biofuel. It has more potential and demand in its own energy market.

5. Present biofuel production facilities, future projects and challenges in Australia Fig. 6. Australia’s total biofuel production and consumption. Sources: BREE [39], USEIA [398].

and E5 in Queensland. Other states are at the initial stages of producing biofuel on a commercial scale. The Australian Government has set a target to reduce 80% of emissions on 2000 levels by the year of 2050 [406]. Australia’s renewable energy resources have high impact on improving the environment and can contribute directly to the Australian economy.

Biofuel production facilities are growing in Australia day-byday. They are trying to increase their production by installation of new projects or by extension of existing projects. There are many production companies available; among them, three major bioethanol facilities in operation are the Manildra facility in Nowra (New South Weals), the Sarina Distillery in north Queensland and the Dalby bio-refineries in Queensland [40]. The Manildra group is the largest commercial bioethanol producer in Australia. All of them are trying to increase their production capacity to meet their

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A.K. Azad et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 331–351

Table 9 Biofuel trading from 2006 to 2011 in Australia (million litres) . Source: Australia Biofuel Annual [407]. Type

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Biodiesel component of blends of biodiesel and others HS 3824.90.30.46 Biodiesel manufactured by chemically altering Vege-3824.90.20.20 Total litres

0.0 2.15 5.15

1.6 5.16 4.12

1.4 2.52 12.47

0.02 11.11 8.55

0 8.53 8.53

0 24.98 24.98

Table 10 Summary of biofuel scenarios in Australia (conventional and advanced biofuel in million litres). Source: Australia Biofuels Annual [407]. Year-end July

2006

Production 43 Imports 5 Exports 0 Consumption 47 Ending stocks 2 Production capacity (Conventional biofuel) No. of bio-refineries 7 Capacity 174

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

54 4 0 58 2

98 11 0 109 6

80 8.5 0 88.5 7

80 25 0 105 9

115 20 0 125 10

9 136

8 283

7 215

7 280

6 215

Table 11 Biofuels production facilities available in Australia, their capacity and feedstocks. Source: (BAA) [409]. Biofuel plant ARFuels Barnawartha ARFuels Largs Bay ARFuels picton ASHOIL Biodiesel industries EcoFuels Australia EcoTech BioDiesel Macquarie oil Neutral fuels Smorgon fuels—BioMax plant Territory biofuels

Location

Owner (n BAA member) n

Capacity (ML/year)

Feedstocks

Status at (1 Dec’2013)

Barnawartha, VIC Largs Bay, SA Picton, WA Tom Price, WA Rutherford, NSW Echuca, VIC Narangba, QLD Cressy, TAS Dandenong, VIC Laverton, VIC

Australian Renewable Fuels

60

Tallow, used cooking oil

In production

Australian Renewable Fuelsn Australian Renewable Fuelsn Ashburton Aboriginal Corporationn Biodiesel Industries Australia Pty Ltdn EcoFuels Australia Pty Ltd. Gull Groupn Macquarie Oil Co. Neutral Fuels (Melbourne) Pty Ltd Smorgon Fuels Pty Ltd.

Tallow, used cooking oil Tallow, used cooking oil Used cooking oil Used cooking oil, vegetable oil Canola oil Tallow, used cooking oil Poppy oil and waste vegetable oil Used cooking oil Tallow, canola oil and juncea oil

In production In production In production In production In production In production In production In production Closed

Darwin, NT

Territory Biofuels Ltd.

45 45 Unknown 20 1.5 30 15 Unknown N/A (Prior to closure 15–100) 140

Refined, palm oil, tallow, waste oil

Restart in 2014

Total capacity (ML/year)

360

n

Member of Biofuels Association of Australia (BAA).

state government’s demand [40]. A summary of biofuel production facilities, their feedstocks and capacity per year is presented in Table 11. The State of Queensland produces around 120 ML/year of bioethanol from 1G feedstocks such as sugar and grain [40,408]. The Queensland Government invested AUD 3.6 million in biofuel research in 2010, of which AUD 2.0 million was invested in the “Queensland Sustainable Aviation Fuel Initiative” to produce biofuel from sugarcane bagasse, oilseed trees and algae, and AUD 1.5 million in the production of a low cost, high productive photobioreactor to grow algae for biofuel production under the “High Efficiency Microalgal Biofuel System Project” [40]. Australian research is focused on understanding how national feedstocks can be used for biofuel, and to resolve the challenges involved in its production. The Australian Government has recently established a “Clean Energy Finance Corporation (CEFC)” which will invest AUD 10 billion in developing renewable energy and lowpollution and energy efficient technologies. Biofuel industries are expanding gradually in Australia which offers bidirectional opportunities. The investors get investment

options both in feedstock production, harvesting and processing of biofuel; and the employees get a job opportunity in this sector which plays an important role in social and economic development in Australia. From the biofuel projects, regional populations will benefit from economic development and employment. However, biofuels technology is not yet fully developed. The government has made substantive investments in research and development in this sector. More research investment projects are blessings for new and existing researchers. So, biofuel development will play an important role in meeting the energy demand in the transport sector and in socio-economic development in Australia. The Clean Energy Finance Corporation (CEFC)’s quarterly investment on renewable energy in Australia is presented in Table 12. The investment is ongoing to meet the renewable energy mandate in Australia. The developments of biofuel industries have been facing different challenges all over the world. Though, biofuel is one of the efficient ways to mitigate the energy demand in transport sector. However, its production, processing, storage and transport

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343

Table 12 Renewable energy investment projects (quarterly: 30 September 2013) in Australia. Sources: CEFC [410]. Date

Form of investment

Value ($million)

Length of investment

Expected rate of return (%)

Place of investment

1 July 2013 15 July 2013 17 July 2013 26 July 2013 26 July 2013 1 August 2013 1 August 2013

Loans gifted from LCAL Finance for energy efficiency project Co-finance of the renewable energy project Co-finance of the renewable energy project Finance for low emission and remote renewables projects Finance for a renewable energy projects Co-finance agreement for energy efficiency and renewable energy projects Co-finance agreement for energy efficiency Co-finance for a renewable energy project

63.3 0.5 43.5 40.0 75.0 60.0 7.0

Up to 10 Y 4 Y 11 M 10 Y 9.5 Y 6Y 6.5 Y Up to 7 Y

5.29 5.19 7.81 9.15 8.13 8.22 4.47

Australia wide Victoria New South Wales South Australia Queensland New South Wales Australia wide

50.0 70.0

Up to 10 Y Up to 15 Y

3.95 9.25

Australia wide Victoria

1 August 2013 1 August 2013

Fig. 7. Biofuel supply chain from primary resources to end user/customer for Australia.

are still facing challenges. Some of the challenges are addressed here. They are lack of constant supply of raw materials, relative pricing with respect to fossil fuel, food versus energy debate, lacks of awareness to use biofuel, different fatty acid profile of the feedstocks, other technological challenges and long-time storage to become acidic. Its also faces problems in exportation barrier and public supports. The literatures reported that strong government supports and fruitful policy can play an important role to accelerate the development of biofuel industries [411]. Though, research and development are needed to find out new, prospective and sustainable feedstocks to overcome the challenges for biofuel production. For better understanding of the biofuel production process from raw materials, the study developed biofuel supply chain which has briefly discussed below.

6. Development of biofuel supply chain Australia’s biofuel supply chain nexus from producers to customers has been developed in this study, incorporating the elements of primary resources, secondary resources, development and production projects, processing, transport and storage, and finally end users or customers are considered as the main part of the supply chain development. The biofuel supply chain is presented in Fig. 7.

In the chain, the sun, atmospheric CO2 and water are considered as primary resources. The secondary resources are nurtured by the primary resources and convert the energy inflow into their usual form. For development and production, three types of project namely biogas, biomass and biofuel are needed to convert the secondary resources into their usual form of energy. The secondary resources are indeed the recycling of the emitted carbon into an energy form, being converted through biological processes. The available bioenergy is processed, transported or stored as required and it finally reaches the end user or customer. Biomass and biogas is commonly used for heating or direct burning and electricity generation. This energy is used for industrial, commercial and residential purposes to satisfy an end user. Biomass can also be used to produce biofuels such as bio-ethanol. Bio-ethanol and biodiesel are the most efficient forms of recycling carbon having elite customers in the transport sector. Thus, in this supply chain, anyone can clearly find the nexus between primary resources and end users.

7. Conclusions The transport sector is one of the energy and emission intensive sectors in Australia. According to BREE estimation, energy consumption in the transport sector is increasing at the rate of 2.4% per year. This increasing energy demand can be

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mitigated by biofuel. However, this resource is still largely undeveloped. Australia started biofuel production in 2004 at the rate of 100 BPD which has increased to 91,000 BPD in 2011. The review found that 2G biofuels are widely available in Australia and it can overcome the major shortcomings of 1G biofuels. The research into 3G and 4G biofuels has started recently and is ongoing for further investigation. According to the USEIA, biofuel provides about 3% of total transport fuel globally and considerably higher in some countries. The world biofuel market is dominated by the USA and Brazil. They are aiming to replace about one-third of fossil fuel by biofuel in the transport sector. On the other hand, thirty countries have expressed their blend mandates which may create new pathways to other countries to use biofuel. The study summarised biofuel scenarios in Australia. The present biofuel production facilities, future investment projects initiated by the Australian Government and challenges facing for biofuel development are also outlined. This study developed a biofuel supply chain for Australia showing the nexus between primary resources and end users. This biofuel supply chain can also be applied to any other country in the world. In this supply chain, two intermediate steps show their importance to convert it as a useful form of energy. Australian research to date has focused on potential sources of biofuel and advancement of the technology. The 2G biofuels can be further developed as a sustainable source of energy in the future. Only limited research has been conducted on this so far. Further study is needed for the development of 2G biofuel production on a commercial scale in Australia.

Acknowledgement This work was conducted under the Strategic Research Scholarship funded by the Central Queensland University, Australia. The authors would like to acknowledge Mr. Tim McSweeney, Adjunct Research Fellow, Higher Education Division at Central Queensland University, Australia for his contribution in English proof read of this article.

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