Prospects, progress, policies, and effects of rural electrification in Bangladesh

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 553–567

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Prospects, progress, policies, and effects of rural electrification in Bangladesh Sazib Mollik a, M.M. Rashid a,n, M. Hasanuzzaman b,n, M.E. Karim c, M. Hosenuzzaman b a

Department of Mechatronics Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Level 4, Wisma R & D, University of Malaya, 59990 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia c Faculty of Law, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 21 November 2014 Received in revised form 16 March 2016 Accepted 28 June 2016

Energy is instrumental for the development and economic growth of a country. Although Bangladesh is known as a developing country in South Asia, it has been recognized as a model country by the United Nations for its remarkable achievements in attaining the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Successive governments of the country have taken several developmental initiatives that aim to improve the standard of living and to provide basic rights to the citizens. An increase in the demand for energy, particularly electricity, is a normal consequence of many of these initiatives. Thus, the provision of sufficient electricity has become a genuine challenge for the government. Studies have indicated that even if the national demand for electricity remains static, another 35 years is required by the government to provide electricity to all, given the current production pace. Providing electricity to all may nearly be an impossible task because of the ever-increasing demand for electricity. The situation in rural areas, where many people are deprived of electricity supply, is even severe. Fortunately, this coastal and agro-based country is geographically located in an area that has a potential in exploiting different renewable forms of energy. Therefore, renewable energy sources can be considered potential solutions to satisfy the future energy demand of the country and to provide electricity, particularly in rural areas. Bangladesh is one of the countries that is seriously vulnerable to the effects of climate change; hence, the use of renewable energy can contribute to mitigate the effects of both climate change and environmental degradation in the country. & 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Energy Energy resource Renewable energy Rular electrification

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy sources and consumption scenario in Bangladesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rural electrification and energy security in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Potential resources and progress of rural electrification in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Solar energy-based rural electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Wind energy-based rural electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Biomass energy-based rural electrification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Biogas-based rural electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5. Hydroelectric energy-based rural electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6. Comparison of the progress of rural electrification with Asian countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Rural electrification policies in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Effect of rural electrification in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

n

Corresponding authors. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M.M. Rashid), [email protected], [email protected] (M. Hasanuzzaman).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.091 1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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1. Introduction Energy is instrumental for the progress, economic development, automation, and modernization of the industrial sector [1– 3]. Energy, particularly electricity, is considered one of the prerequisites for technological improvement, economic stability, and poverty eradication in any community. The continued escalating demand for electricity results in the projected increase of global energy consumption by 33% in 2030; this concern should be addressed [4,5]. Over 1.4 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity, 585 million of whom are from the sub-Saharan African region (over 76 million from Nigeria and 69 million from Ethiopia), and the rest are from Asian countries (400 million from India and 96 million from Bangladesh) [6]. The global hike in energy demand has spurred researchers worldwide to focus on managing the future demand for an adequate energy supply. Bangladesh is geographically located in the northeast corner of South Asia, and it shares its longest border, approximately 4000 km, with India. Myanmar is in the southeast part, whereas the Bay of Bengal is situated in the south of the country. As of July 2014, Bangladesh has a land area of 147 570 km2 with 156.7 million people [7]. It is popularly known as a country of villages because 72% of the total population lives in villages. Bangladesh is listed as a developing country with a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita income of US$ 1700 in 2010 and an average annual GDP growth of 6% [8,9]. Since July 2015, the World Bank Group has upgraded the country as one of the lower-middle income economies (i.e., a country with an annual income between US$ 1,046 to US$ 4,125) [10]. The demand for electricity has increased in many folds in the country with the improvement of economic conditions. The provision of uninterrupted electricity to the citizens has become important and a deciding factor in national elections. Bangladesh has been experiencing serious power crises for over a decade [11]; hence, every political party includes “supply of electricity” as an important issue in its election manifesto. The World Health Organization estimates that over 3 billion people worldwide depend on traditional solid fuels, including firewood, animal dung, agricultural crop residues, and coal to satisfy their energy demands [12]. The majority of rural residents rely mostly on wood for fuel although the total forest area, including natural forests and planted forests, has dwindled to less than 1% in Bangladesh [13]. An estimated 24,600 TJ of fuel wood are consumed every year. Given the unlimited pressure on fuel demands from the huge population of the country, fuel wood consumption has already exceeded its supply, thereby compelling the population to rely on supplementary alternative energy sources, such as agricultural and crop residues and animal dung. These practices deprive agricultural lands of much-required manure, which results in a constant degradation of soil fertility, and consequently, a decrease in food production. Fuels account for 99% of the energy consumed in the rural household activities of the country. The country mainly relies on hydrocarbon resources and known reserves, such as natural gas and coal, and power is generated from hydropower stations. The use of fossil fuels or nuclear energy is definitely not a suitable option. Fossil fuels, which contribute to environmental degradation, and nuclear energy, which have potential proliferation as well as waste management risks, are objectionable alternatives for future energy generation. Natural gas is used for nearly 88.8% of the electricity production in the country [14]. Nevertheless, the known reserves cannot be used exclusively for energy generation because other developmental requirements of the nation may be compromised in such case. In addition, the decrease in gas reserves at an alarming level because of the excessive use of natural gas for power generation is a serious concern. The current known reserves of the country may run

only for another 6 or 7 years in case no new sources are identified and discovered. Given this scenario, alternative resources for electricity production should be explored to satisfy the demand of the next generation in Bangladesh [9,15]. Therefore, researchers have been exploring technologies to produce environmentfriendly energy and searching for the most effective means to preserve energy. As of 2009, only 38% of the population in Bangladesh used electricity. This situation compelled the present government to take the initiative in managing the power crisis in country by introducing furnace oil-run quick rental power plants, for which the government had to spend a huge amount of money. However, adding a huge number of power generation units to the national grid did not considerably help the government in managing the power crisis issue because electricity demand was increasing faster than the increase in electricity production rate. In fiscal year (FY) 2012–2013, the maximum peak power generation was approximately 6,434 MW, whereas the maximum peak demand was approximately 8,349 MW [16]. Consequently, a significant portion of the country was still deprived of electricity. The situation is severe in rural areas, where only 10% of the households enjoy the benefits of electricity connection [17]. From the sustainability view point, this scenario hinders both the economic and social development of the country. The government may presumably take approximately 35 years to provide electricity to all; however, a recent study has determined that the electricity demand will double in 35 years (i.e., by 2050) [18]. The majority of the villages do not have electricity connected from the national grid. The production, transmission, and distribution costs are relatively expensive in these areas because of their remoteness and the limited demand. Therefore, supplying electricity to the majority of the population, particularly to rural residents, through a national grid is nearly impossible in the near future and poses a genuine challenge to any government [19]. Thus, decentralized and stand-alone systems can be considered viable and alternative solutions for these areas [20]. Bangladesh, the most densely populated country in the world, is geographically located between 20,840° and 268,380° north latitude and 888,010° and 928,410° east longitude. This geographic location provides the country access to different sources of renewable and alternative energy, which, in turn, create ample opportunities for growth in the energy sector. The cost of grid expansion in rural areas is high; thus, the suitable geographic location of the country has encouraged the government to initiate measures to exploit various renewable energy sources (RESs). For example, the government promulgated its Vision and Policy Statement in February 2000, which aims to supply the entire country with electricity by 2020 in different phases [21]. In line with this statement, the government has further taken several initiatives, including the solar home service program. Although a considerable amount of literature on different aspects of energy in Bangladesh context is already available, literature on rural electrification is seriously lacking. As mentioned earlier, Bangladesh is both an agricultural country and a country of villages. The overall development of the country depends on the development of these villages, and such development can be propelled through electrification. Therefore, this issue should obtain sufficient importance. Under this circumstance, the objective of this review is to represent the prospects, progress, effects, and challenges of rural electrification in Bangladesh context. In the regard, this review is mainly divided into five main parts in addition to the Introduction and the Conclusion. The review begins by portraying the potential energy sources in the country with a specific discussion on the energy consumption scenario, followed by discussions on rural electrification and energy security in the country. Afterward, potential renewable energy resources based on solar, wind, biomass, biogas, and hydroelectric energy are projected in Bangladesh

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context. A comparison of the progress of rural electrification in Asian context is included. The next section sheds light on the rural electrification policy of the country. Finally, the effect of rural electrification is presented. This review is distinctive. It can presumably depict an overview of the rural electrification scenario of the country to stakeholders and policymakers. This review can eventually provide substantial opportunities for power generation and the exploitation of renewable resources, and consequently, sustainable and economic development can be promoted.

2. Energy sources and consumption scenario in Bangladesh Energy, particularly electricity, is one of the most crucial prerequisites for sustainable development. Bangladesh is not an exception. Even with huge prospects for developments, the country has been crawling and has been deprived of desired developments because of insufficient electricity supply in recent times [22]. Bangladesh depends mostly on monofuel in power generation (i.e., approximately 67.12% of power is produced from natural gas, and the remaining comes from other sources, such as liquid fuel, coal, and hydropower) [23]. Between 2001 and 2008, only 1,257 MW power was added to the national grid, given that the capacity for electricity generation was 4,005 MW in 2001 and reached 5,262 MW in 2008 [24]. Power generation is a priority for the present government. Thus, it is compelled to take many initiatives and to increase the generation capacity of 8537 MW and net generation of 38,229 GWh in FY 2013, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) has prepared a generation expansion plan to add approximately 11,000 MW by 2018 and approximately 24,000 MW by 2021 [23].

3. Rural electrification and energy security in Bangladesh The history of centralized grid-based rural electrification in the world dates back to post-development economics. As part of the import substitution industrialization development strategy, the availability of uninterrupted and cheap electricity is a prerequisite for an industrial revolution [25]. According to this view, failure to spread electricity to rural communities compromises potential development activities. Significant investment in developing rural infrastructure is instrumental in creating employment opportunities in developing countries [26]. The joint International Development Association/Global Environment Facility Bangladesh Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development project assists the development strategy of the government to increase the access of citizens to electricity in rural areas as well as to foster the social and economic development of the country. The following

Fig. 1. Total generation capacity in Bangladesh for FY 2013 [23].

Fig. 2. Total net generation in Bangladesh for FY 2013 [23].

strategies are considered to achieve the aforementioned objectives [27]. (a) Assistance is provided to the Rural Electrification Board (REB) to extend and strengthen grids in rural areas, to improve the operational and financial performance of rural cooperatives (known as Palli Bidyut Samity, PBS), and to minimize power outages in grid systems. (b) The development of decentralized mini-grids based on natural gas, diesel, wind, and hydro sources is facilitated wherever feasible. (c) The use of solar home systems (SHSs) in rural areas that are not suitable for grid expansion is promoted. (d) The productive use of electricity is increased, and the poverty effect is enhanced. The socioeconomic and welfare effects of rural electrification in Bangladesh context were studied [28]. After conducting a crosssectional survey of 20,000 households in rural Bangladesh in 2005, the study team from the World Bank Group reported that the total income increase caused by electrification could reach as high as 30% and as low as 9% on the basis of household exposure to grid electrification [29]. As stated earlier, national grid-generated electricity in Bangladesh mostly uses natural gas, diesel, and furnace oil. Gas is the most important natural resource in the country and is used to produce fertilizers and petrochemicals. A photovoltaic (PV) system can be used to generate power through solar energy. Conventional fuels are not required for successfully implementing this system. Sunlight is available everywhere; hence, this resource can be exploited to generate power for rural use. Many parts of the world have already benefited from this technology. The Bangladesh government and different nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have taken numerous initiatives to exploit solar energy. One of the initiatives taken by the REB in Bangladesh, with a French grant of 6.4 million French franc and 26.30 Bangladeshi taka, can be observed in some remote areas of the Narsingdi District in Karimpur and Nazarpur Unions, which are located by the Meghna River. These locations are far from the national grid. This program can presumably provide electricity to approximately 1000 consumers. Three central battery charging stations, namely, one in Karimpur with a capacity of 14.72 KW and the other two with a capacity of 7.36 KW, were constructed [28]. This initiative has enabled over 800 consumers to obtain electricity through solar PV (SPV) systems. In many cases, the availability of electricity is considered in the index for measuring quality of life in any given country. Given the geographic nature of some countries, such as Bangladesh, providing electricity to all parts of the country (i.e., in all isolated villages, islands, coastal regions, and mountainous areas) is impossible, even with efforts of the BPDB and the REB [27]. SPV

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systems can be a suitable option in such case because it can provide a decentralized mode of power distribution. The oil crisis in 1973 has captured the attention of the entire world with regard to energy security (i.e., uninterrupted supply of energy from available sources at an affordable price) [30]. Energy security can be ensured by making energy readily available, affordable, and obtainable from a reliable source in a sustainable manner at a stable price without vulnerability to any economic and political disruption. Energy security has long- and short-term aspects. In its long-term aspects, energy security deals with timely investments to provide energy based on economic developments and environmental needs. On the contrary, immediate reactions by an energy system by maintaining a supply–demand balance are focused in short-term energy security [30]. Numerous factors, such as population growth, urbanization, expansion of diversified economic activities, and change in lifestyle, have increased the demand for energy, although the supply to satisfy this demand is lacking. Therefore, long-term energy deficiency can be identified in many countries, which results in short-term insecurity. Many Bangladeshis are deprived of electricity even though per capita consumption in the country is low compared with those of other countries with similar socioeconomic status. Therefore, all citizens should be brought under energy coverage to attain the vision and goal of the government to become a middle-income country by 2021 [31].

4. Potential resources and progress of rural electrification in Bangladesh Available energy sources were considered, and their benefits and drawbacks were analyzed in the configuration of the kit. Fig. 3 shows the benefits and drawbacks of the different energy sources

considered during the analysis. These energy sources in the rural electrification framework of Bangladesh are discussed in the following sections. 4.1. Solar energy-based rural electrification Energy derived from the sun, which reaches the surface of the Earth, may be utilized and exploited for electricity generation. An SPV system, the most promising of all the prevailing technologies, has considerable potential in different countries and is regarded as an effective and evolving option to produce electricity [33–35]. This form of energy is considered to be one of the most popular, viable, and efficient RESs because of its abundant availability compared with other renewable sources (i.e., wind, hydropower, biomass, biogas, and wave). Some unique and competitive features make SPV systems worthwhile for nearly every part of the globe. High modularity, nondemand for additional resources (e.g., water and fuel), immovable portions, and low maintenance cost have led to the growing popularity of SPV energy. The Earth receives approximately 3,400,000 EJ solar radiation annually [36], which can deliver 450 EJ energy. This amount is 7500 times higher than the energy consumption of the world. In 2013, the generation capacity of SPV systems increased at 135 GW worldwide because of its huge potential; in addition, it has increased at a rate of 49% annually for over a decade [37]. A PV system can be installed easily on existing buildings (e.g., rooftop) to provide electricity [38]. This system is particularly suitable in places that cannot be reached by grid electricity. A rural house can have access to reliable electricity for its household and commercial activities through an SHS. In general, this energy can be utilized in lighting, heating, and power generation. A 20–100 Wp PV array 1; a rechargeable battery for energy storage; a battery charge controller; one or more light sources (usually fluorescent); an outlet for a TV set, radio/cassette player,

Fig. 3. Benefits and drawbacks of the different energy sources [32].

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4.2. Wind energy-based rural electrification

Fig. 4. Typical SHS components [39].

or other low power-consuming appliances; switches; interconnecting wires; and mounting hardware are required in a typical SHS. Array size and the availability of sunlight determine the amount of electricity that will be available for daily use [39]. Fig. 4 shows the components of a typical SHS-. SPV technology also has limitations. It is highly expensive, even though its current cost has already been reduced several times. Manufacturing cost can be decreased by 20% when the installed capacity is doubled [40]. Lack of information dissemination and after-sale service are the main drawbacks for promoting solar energy-based electricity [41]. An appropriate application of solar energy can provide an incentive to overcome the socioeconomic problems of developing countries, including Bangladesh. The geographic location of Bangladesh is convenient for tapping the huge amount of radiation from solar energy [42]. The average solar radiation in 94% of the country throughout the year varies within a range of 4e 5 kWh/m2. Solar radiation, the maximum of which can be detected between March and April and the minimum of which can be detected from December to January, is highly suitable for exploiting solar energy [43]. The SPV system has been successful in Bangladesh. When it was introduced a decade ago, this system had limited applications. At present, SPV systems are used directly by village households and communities. Different initiatives have been taken by the government and NGOs to exploit solar energy, and installing SHS is one of such initiatives. NGOs with financial support from different donor agencies have made the installation of solar energy systems in rural areas possible. The Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL), a government-owned investment company, has been supporting NGOs to install SHSs. As of January 2011, 801,358 SHSs, with a capacity of approximately 36.5 MW, have been installed in different places around the country [9,37]; thus, SHSs have gained remarkable popularity as on-grid electricity systems, but the necessary infrastructure remains unavailable in rural areas [39]. SHSs can provide energy solution, progress in small rural businesses, and socioeconomic development in rural areas. Approximately 3,863,964 SHSs (as of October 2015) installed in different places in Bangladesh with the assistance of donors through soft loans and grant facilities are shown in Fig. 5 [44]. In addition, the BPDB has completed a project on SPV electrification in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region; this project is the most suitable technological option that can bring these areas under electrification [45,46]. Fig. 6 shows the installation of an SPV system in a rural area. A 10 kW central AC SPV system was installed in a designated market in one of every three subdistricts (upazilas) of Rangamati District, as shown in Fig. 7 [47].

Wind power can be utilized in power generation for domestic purposes in small-scale industries and farm houses. People in ancient times also applied this technique. Continuously blowing wind, captured through wind turbines and converted into electric energy, is highly prospective in producing energy. Wind turbines require an extremely small amount of investment for its operation and maintenance, and fuel is not required given that wind flows because of atmospheric changes. The power output of a turbine depends on the cube of wind speed; therefore, an increase in wind speed significantly increases power output. Offshore and high-altitude areas with strong and constant winds are suitable locations for wind farms [48]. Not all wind energy can be converted into electricity, and Betz limit suggests that only 59% of wind can be converted [49]. Places with sufficiently high wind speed and power density are promising locations for wind energy generation [50]. A crucial term, “capacity ratio,” is defined as the ratio of the average output over a given period to a maximum output while selecting a site for installation of a wind power system. For an excellent site location, the value of this ratio should be 45% or higher, and is typically 20–35%. The availability of strong and consistent sea breezes makes offshore wind turbines efficient. Offshore wind is comparable with other renewable and conventional energy systems. Wind velocity increases while moving away from the shore, but it also imposes difficulty in constructing structures, foundations, and offshore grid connections. This issue is solved to a certain extent by using floating foundations. Therefore, high hub heights and large rotor diameters are recommended to capture the maximum power of high wind speeds and altitude. Wind energy has gained tremendous success over the last 20 years, and an annual growth of 25% has been recorded globally over the past decade. In 2012, the global share of wind energy in power generation was reported at 2.3%, with a record addition of 44 GW accounting to 282 GW within the year [51]. In 2007, the total installed wind power capacity worldwide reached 94 GW [52]. This amount was increased by 31% in 2009, with a record increase in capacity from 38 GW to 160 GW in 2009, which was the sixth consecutive year of increasing growth. This increase was a significant accomplishment at a period when the world community was facing a worldwide economic crisis. Wind energy has several limitations, and its prospect tends be confined within coastal areas and some islands with extremely strong and powerful winds. Although coastal areas promise tremendous opportunities to harness wind power and produce electricity, wind machines must address the problem of winds exceeding the design parameters during monsoon season (from March to October). In tropical monsoon regions, additional work on technical issues and scopes for wind power should be performed. Detailed wind development is now explored in India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, wherein the conditions are identical to those of Bangladesh. The government of Bangladesh has estimated that the total capacity of wind energy in the country is 235 MW. Thus, wind energy can be exploited for the development of a locality, in particular, and of the country, in general. The country has a costal belt measuring approximately 724 km, including the offshore islands along the Bay of Bengal. Electricity is generated from wind in different areas of the country, including coastal areas, through high-voltage transmission lines [53]. The coastal areas of Bangladesh receive strong south–southeast monsoon wind from the Indian Ocean because of its geographic location. The wind that blows continuously at an average speed of 3 m/s to 6 m/s approximately between March and September can be captured and converted into kinetic energy using an integrated system comprising both mechanical and electrical components. Subsequently, this energy

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Fig. 5. Distribution of SHSs in seven divisional headquarters in Bangladesh [44].

can be connected to the central grid [54]. For the financially viable grid-connected wind turbines, an essential annual wind speed of 6 m/s, on average, is required. For example, the average wind speed in the Muhuri Dam areas of the Feni District is 6.50 m/s, and wind power density varies from 100 W/m2 to 250 W/m2 in the coastal regions of Bangladesh [55]. Such wind speeds inspire grid-connected wind energy projects in the aforementioned area [45]. At present, Bangladesh has 1.9 MW wind turbines set up in the Feni District and Kutubdia. Table 1 presents prospective sites for

wind power systems and the approximate energy output for each square meter in the country. A site should suitable and sufficiently large to construct largescale wind energy projects. Considering this requirement, the BPDB installed a 48.8 m tower in May 2003 at the Muhuri Dam site in the Feni District for a 0.90 MW capacity grid-connected wind energy (GCWE) system. The construction, installation, and commissioning works of four units of 225 kW GCWE turbines at this site were finalized in 2004 [57]. Two high-resolution anemometers, one at 24.4 m (80 ft) and another at 48.8 m, were

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Table 1 Potential wind energy at selected sites in Bangladesh with a mean height of 20 m [56].

Fig. 6. Installation of an SPV system in a rural area [57].

Fig. 7. Solar arrays of 10 kW centralized AC market electrification systems in Barkal, Rangamati, Bangladesh [47].

installed on this tower. A wind vane at 24.4 was installed in this first-ever GCWE project of the country. The BPDB implemented another 1000 kW-capacity wind battery hybrid power project, which officially started on March 30, 2008, at the Island of Kutubdia in the Bay of Bengal under the southern district of Cox's Bazar. A total of 50 20 kW-capacity stand-alone-type wind turbines were installed under this project. All the wind turbines produced 1 MW electricity, which was stored in a battery bank. However, after measuring and analyzing upper air data, the Center for Wind Energy Technology of India concluded that wind energy resources in Bangladesh were unsuitable (47 m/s) for grid-connected wind parks [58]. Total power generation from wind energy in Bangladesh is projected as 50 kW [59], which is only 0.001% of the total amount of power generated by all the power plants installed in the country (4995 MW). 4.3. Biomass energy-based rural electrification Biomass, as the fourth largest contributor to RESs, is highly promising for supplying basic energy support in rural areas in

Station name

Mean velocity (m/s)

Energy density (kW/m2)

Engineering Staff College, Munshiganj BIT Campus Chittagong Sitakundu Khagrachari Kutubdia Kuakata Pakshey Naogaon Panchagarh Kishoreganj

3.5

0.059

1.7

0.013

2.3 1.2 3.6 4.2 2.8 1.9 1.4 2.2

0.045 0.014 0.057 0.090 0.034 0.015 0.012 0.019

developing countries, such as Bangladesh. Forest and agriculture residues, such rice husks, trees, branches, yard clippings, and wood chips, can be used as sources of biomass. The list even includes solid waste of the locality (e.g., municipal waste), corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, and sugarcane [60,61]. Biomass is exploited to provide maximum energy in the rural areas of many developing countries because of some of its comparative advantages over other RESs. Appropriate technology (i.e., direct combustion and gasification) must be used for power generation. In the direct gasification process, biomass is converted into steam via oxidation reaction in the presence of excessive air [62]. Up to 40% electrical conversion efficiencies are possible on a scale of approximately 30 MW in the short term through gasification [63]. Direct combustion from biomass produces both steam and electricity. Steam can be used in the regenerative cycle of power generation. Biomass can also produce low-medium gas, which can be used in a medium-sized combined cycle power plant [64]. The utilization of biomass energy (bioenergy) has recently gained particular attention because of the continuous depletion of traditional fossil fuels [65]. Simultaneously, it is highly considered because of the following factors [66]: (a) It contributes to reducing poverty. (b) It can always support energy needs, and installing any expensive or costly conversion devices is unnecessary. (c) It can deliver all forms of energy (i.e., liquid and gas fuels, heat, and electricity) [67]. (d) It is carbon dioxide neutral and can function as carbon sinks. (e) It can help restore land productivity and increase biodiversity, soil fertility, and water retention. Thus, biomass energy also offers beneficial solution for some environmental problems. Although the energy potential of biomass resources has been evaluated in the context of other Asian countries (e.g., China, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Malaysia) [68–70], the literature in Bangladesh context remains highly limited [60,71–74]. Biomass can be found in huge amounts in an agricultural country, such as Bangladesh [75]. Biomass offers promising possibilities in setting up small-scale projects to generate electricity; thus, it can be exploited as the most significant energy source [76]. Biomass fuels account for 54% of the total national energy consumption, where 45% of fuels come from agricultural residue and 15% is derived from trees. The domestic and industrial sectors consume 42% and 11.4% biomass of the total national energy, respectively [77]. Bangladesh is also known as a major rice-producing country in the world. On average, the country produces approximately 35 million tons of rice annually. In the rice-processing sector, the major industrial biomass is used because a significant amount of thermal energy is required to parboil, dry, and process 35 million MT of rice. From this total amount, the country produces approximately 6.62 million MT of rice husks [78]. Using only 20% of rice (i.e., 7 MT) through gasification technology can bring a positive change. Consequently, the power generated from rice husks can reach a substantial

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amount. The husks that can be obtained from rice can be used perfectly as biomass fuel, which can be realized as an excellent source of renewable energy in Bangladesh. 4.4. Biogas-based rural electrification Biogas is a type of gas produced through the biological breakdown of organic matter, wherein oxygen remains absent. Biogas, which is a type of biofuel that originates from biogenic materials, is the converted gaseous fuel stage of organic waste (e.g., dead plants and animals, kitchen waste) [79]. It is produced in an anaerobic digester, where anaerobic fermentation occurs daily in livestock manure, animal dung, and poultry droppings. Biofuel can be used to generate power. Diesel can be used as the pilot fuel, whereas biogas can be used as the main fuel. In biogas systems, the digester and gas holder are the most expensive parts, and materials, such as cement and steel, must be imported in rural places. Reducing the prices of digesters and gas holders is crucial to improve the economic viability of biogas. Technical problems, such as low yield of biogas during winter season, which is estimated at only 50%, should also be solved. However, in weighing the installation costs and the prospects for further improvements, biogas technology exhibits considerable potential to satisfy the demand for rural energy [80]. Many countries in the world are now considering the importance of biogas, which is an environment-friendly technology, with some countries using this technology for large-scale power production and as a supplement for gradually decreasing fossil fuel reserves [81]. The efficiency of biogas stoves has been quoted as 20–56% [82,83], although such figures are significantly affected by operating conditions and stove design. Many health benefits may also result from switching from traditional to clean fuels. Biogas is produced at a temperature of approximately 35 °C; thus, the climate of Bangladesh, in which temperature remains between 6 °C and 40 °C, is geographically suitable for biogas production. As an agricultural country, Bangladesh has an abundance of raw materials required for biogas production, which make these materials readily available and inexpensive. The prospects of biogas have been assessed in Bangladesh context [73,84]. The government of Bangladesh and several NGOs have been working together to develop power production from biogas. In 1983, the then Environmental Pollution Control Department, now the Department of Environment, started the official program and installed 110 fixed-dome plants and over 150 floating-top plants. In the next 10 years, the activities of the government were limited and confined mostly to provide trainings to selected responsible officials. In 1992, the Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research built an experimental biogas plant with a digester volume of 85 m3 at Saidabad, Dhaka, for waste treatment. During 1995– 2000, the Asian Development Bank successfully implemented the “Biogas Pilot Plant,” and 4,664 biogas plants were installed across the country. Among these plants, 99% remained in operation, and 91% of the owners were able to satisfy their fuel demands [77]. From 1971 to 2005, 24,000 domestic biogas plants were installed. However, a limited scale study on 66 plants found that only 3% were functioning smoothly, whereas the rest were either not functioning or functioning with defects [85]. In the private sector, the NGO Grameen Shakti, which is the pioneer in this regard, has completed 13,500 biogas plants [86]. The Seed Bangla Foundation, another NGO, has joined the race and has proposed a 25 kW biogas-based power plant in the Rajshahi District [87]. IDCOL started a project, namely, the National Domestic Biogas and Manure Programmers, and set a goal to install 37,669 biogas plants in the country by 2012 [88]. Nevertheless, studies have determined that people remain unaware of the benefits of biogas plant installation; therefore, massive awareness programs through mass media communication should be started with the provision of a financial incentive to expand biogas technology in the country [89].

4.5. Hydroelectric energy-based rural electrification The term “hydroelectricity” refers to the production of electricity by exploiting the gravitational force of flowing or falling water. Hydroelectric energy can be another option for countries, such as Bangladesh, with a large network of rivers, wherein kinetic energy from falling or flowing water can be utilized in hydropower plants to generate electricity. Constructing a hydroelectric complex does not produce any direct waste. It also has a relatively low output level of emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide, compared with energy plants run using fossil fuels. In 2006, an installed capacity of 777 GW supplied 2998 TWh of hydroelectricity, which supplied approximately 20% of the world's electric energy and generated approximately 88% of electric energy from RESs [90]. Two types of hydropower plants exist: (1) large hydropower plants (4 10 MW), which have reservoirs, can produce electricity continuously and are simultaneously capable of adjusting their output on the basis of the demand for electricity; and (2) small hydropower plants (o10 MW), which are less flexible in terms of load or demand fluctuation [91]. Microhydro and minihydro systems do not have sufficient potential in Bangladesh, with the exception of the Chittagong District and the Hill Tracts District (i.e., Khagrachari, Rangamati, and Bandarban). Some prospective sites for generating 10 kW to 5 MW power have been identified through hydropower assessments; however, no significant capacity has yet been installed. The only hydropower plant on the Karnaphuli River at Kaptai in Rangamati was installed during the 1960 s. This plant is now operated by the BPDB and has a capacity of 230 MW [92]. Several reconnaissance surveys and studies were conducted earlier to install small hydropower plants in the country. The Sustainable Rural Energy (SRE) Project under the Ministry of Local Government Engineering Department was successful in demonstrating the first microhydropower unit in Bamerchara, Chittagong. The installed capacity of this unit is 10 kW, but only approximately 4 kW power is generated because of an inadequate water head [61]. The SRE also conducted a study to check the possibility of installing microhydro sites in the Chittagong Hill Tract region and identified eight potential sites with an estimated capacity of 135 kW [93]. Over 90% of the rivers originate from outside the country. Thus, appropriate water resource planning is genuinely challenging, unless the neighboring countries, particularly India, provide cooperation and support. 4.6. Comparison of the progress of rural electrification with Asian countries The preceding discussion shows that among the aforementioned RESs, solar, hydropower, tides, wind, biomass, and biogas can be effectively used in Bangladesh. Solar power is highly prospective and the most utilized in the country. Different organizations have installed low-capacity wind turbines, mainly for battery charging in the coastal region of Bangladesh. Microhydropower plants can be installed in the northeastern hilly regions and in the existing irrigational canal system with a sufficient head. Scopes of integrated small tidal power plants exist in the coastal regions. Biomass and biogas can provide basic energy requirements for cooking and heating of rural households in developing countries, such as Bangladesh [61,94]. Asia is the largest continent in the world, and the majority of the people in this region rely mostly on agriculture and reside in rural areas. The prospects and situation of rural electrification have been considered in many Asian countries. Table 2 shows the contribution of different types of RESs for the progress of rural electrification in some Asian countries (i.e., Bangladesh, Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Myanmar,

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Table 2 Comparison of the progress of rural electrification in Asian countries. Country

Renewable Energy Installation capacity (MW) (Year)

Reference

Bangladesh

Solar Solar home system Wind Biomass and Biogas Hydro

35 (2012) 45 (2012) 0.9 (2012) o 1 (2012)

[61] [61,95] [61,96] [61]

230 (2012)

[61]

Malaysia

Solar Wind Biomass and Biogas Small Hydro

40 (2013) 10 (2013) 70 (2013)

[97] [97] [97]

30 (2013)

[97]

India

Solar Solar home system Wind Biomass and Biogas

174 (2014) 13.2 (2014) 2.25(2014) 21.27(2014)

[98] [98] [98] [98]

Sri Lanka

Solar Wind Biomass and Biogas Small Hydro

11 (2015) 85 (2015) 328 (2015)

[99,100] [99,100] [99,100]

300 (2015)

[99,100]

Pakistan

Solar Wind Biomass Hydro

100 kW (2013) 500 (2013) 3600 6720 (2011)

[101] [101] [101] [102]

Nepal

Solar home system Wind Biomass and Biogas Small Hydro

1839.5 GWh (2008/2009) 300 (2008) 5040 (2008)

[103] [103] [103]

50 (2008)

[103]

Solar home system Wind Small Hydro

175 (2006) 400 (2006) 500 – 1100 (2006)

[104] [104] [104]

Afghanistan Solar home system Wind Biomass and Biogas Small Hydro

5000 (2003) 200 (2003) 70 (2003)

[105] [105] [105]

4.8 (2003)

[105]

Myanmar

Solar home system Wind Biomass and Biogas Small Hydro

88.7 (2000) 130 (2000) 78.6 (2000)

[106] [106] [106]

1.2 (2000)

[106]

Maldives

Solar home system Wind Biomass and Biogas Small Hydro

100 (2004) 85 (2004) 228 (2004)

[107] [107] [107]

324 (2004)

[107]

Singapore

Solar home system Wind Biomass and Biogas Small Hydro

8.3 (2002) 75 (2002) 44.7 (2002)

[108] [108] [108]

144 (2002)

[108]

Bhutan

Maldives, and Singapore).

5. Rural electrification policies in Bangladesh The provision of rural electrification, inter alia, to remove progressively the disparity in living standards between urban and the rural areas, is a constitutional obligation of the state as enshrined in Article 16 of the 1972 Constitution of Bangladesh. Compared with other governments, Bangladesh also adopted some governmental policies that contain the strategies through

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which the government resolves to address matters of concern to fulfill its legal and constitutional obligations. The same is true for the energy policy in which the government considers the energy development and the expansion of the energy industry for its sustainable growth, including production, distribution, and consumption. The policy may have relevant provisions relating to domestic legislation, international instruments and treaties, and granting incentives to encourage investment. It alleviates the impact of global warming and energy crisis [109,110]. In the past, the government of Bangladesh has concentrated on conventional energy sources [111], where a good number of policy analysts consider coal and, to a certain extent, nuclear energy as a suitable option to solve the regular energy crisis [112]. The environment policy framework of the government, which provides gradual improvement and acceptance of renewable sources, is manifested in the 1997 National Environment Conservation Rules. The Bangladesh National Environment Policy is not the only initiative for improving the electrification system in the country by using renewable sources; nonetheless, this policy outlines that renewable sources are specific, and natural reserves must be conserved and utilized to reduce the use of firewood and agricultural residues as fuel, as well as to increase the use of alternative sources of energy [113]. The policy provisions significantly affect the development and use of renewable energy in the country. These provisions also help control the practice of using firewood as fuel. The policy scenarios were seriously considered in the first National Energy Policy and then framed, published, and introduced in 1996 [114]. The National Energy Policy of 1996 emphasized the importance of energy for the socioeconomic prosperity of Bangladesh as well as the importance of bringing energy development and management within an integrated policy framework. Thus, the policy has set several objectives, which include the following: providing energy for sustainable economic prosperity to prevent the development activities of different sectors from becoming stagnant because of energy shortage and interruption; satisfying the energy needs of different areas of the country and of socioeconomic groups; ensuring the sustainable development of all traditional conventional energy sources; sustainable management of energy utilities; cogent use of all energy sources; improving environmentfriendly and effective sustainable energy development programs by causing minimum damage to the environment; and encouraging public and private sector participation in the introduction, operation, and development of the energy sector. The National Energy Policy of 1996 further emphasized the need to satisfy energy demand using conventional commercial fuels in case biomass fuels have crossed the sustainable limit [115]. Four policy scenarios, namely, base, emission reduction, renewable energy target production, and null coal import scenarios, were developed on the basis of the development strategies for the Bangladesh Energy Policy for power generation [116,117]. Power generation and distribution were made available to both local and foreign private investments in 1996 to develop the power sector of the country. The government of Bangladesh initiated the formulation of the Private Sector Power Generation Policy, in which independent power producers have been involved since October 1996. The first power plant in the country with an installed capacity of 110 MW in the private sector started to add power to the national grid in October 1998 [118]. The improvement of the energy sector was prioritized in the Five-Year Development Plans of Bangladesh. Renewable sources, as one of the three main energy sources, were considered for the first time in the Fifth Five-Year Development Plan (1997–2002) [119–121]. Relevant policy arrangements associated with the development of renewable sources in Bangladesh include fiscal arrangements and regulatory mechanisms, environmental policy requirements, and an institutional framework

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for policy implementation. Several approaches can be implemented to provide electricity to rural areas, one of which is known as area coverage. Under this approach, initiatives are taken

to provide electricity to the majority of the customers in any specified area irrespective of their closeness to the central grid. This approach was implemented in the United States of America

Fig. 8. Rural electrification and non-electrified area in Bangladesh, as of June 30, 2014 [126].

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and in the Philippines [122]. The future of the energy system of Bangladesh apparently depends on a centralized national grid approach, although it is large in scale, costly, and relatively untested (e.g., carbon capture and storage). Focus on establishing community-level energy distribution systems apparently exists. Rahmatullah et al. [123] favored this approach and suggested that the Bangladesh REB (BREB) should promote the policy. Biogas, SPV, and other household-level systems are considered intermediate solutions for areas far from national grids [124]. In relation to rural electrification, the Rural Electrification Directorate was established in 1972 under the Power Development Board immediately after the country gained independence in 1971. Subsequently, the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, International Ltd., USA, conducted a feasibility study in 1976 to supply electricity to every rural home and rural establishment. Consequently, an independent body, i.e., the REB, was established on October 29, 1977, by virtue of the REB Ordinance, 1977 (Ordinance No. LI of 1977), and its institutional development and operational activities started on January 1, 1978. The Ordinance of 1977 has been recently repealed and replaced with the REB Act of 2013, which has renamed the previous board with BREB. The BREB sets its vision to provide “Electricity for all by 2021″ and its mission to “provide quality electricity at the grass root level in a democratic manner.” The jurisdiction of the board includes all rural areas (i.e., areas other than municipal and city corporation areas). Official statistics, as projected in Fig. 8, show that the BREB runs its operation in 61 districts out of 64 districts and in 453 subdistricts (upazila) out of 493 subdistricts (upazila) in Bangladesh. A total of 54,831 villages are energized through its initiatives, and two 85,162 km distribution lines and 684 substations (with 33.1 KV) are constructed [125]. The Bangladesh Rural Electrification Program cannot be implemented unless the utilization of renewable sources is emphasized. In 2002, the government issued the draft of the renewable energy policy, which contained provisions relating to modalities and procedures, tariff regulations, fiscal and other incentives for the implementation of RETs, and guidelines for establishing a supervisory and regulatory authority, namely, the Renewable Energy Development Authority [127]. The draft policy was subsequently revised thoroughly and finalized by the Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources in December 2008 [115], with the following objectives: harnessing and distributing the potential of renewable energy resources in rural, semi-urban, and urban areas; encouraging public and private sector investment; developing sustainable energy supplies; and promoting effective and environmentfriendly use of renewable energy, among others. Under this policy, a target to develop renewable energy that would contribute 5% of the total power demand by 2015 and 10% by 2020 was set [110]. In addition to the National Energy Policy, the present “Renewable Energy Policy of Bangladesh, 2008″ has encapsulated a significant objective, that is, the promotion of clean energy for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) [128], although a comprehensive guideline is not considered. In this policy, rural residents are encouraged to go to small-scale CDM forests in the homestead areas to improve their attitudes toward the sustainable maintenance of forest biomass because CDM forests can significantly increase carbon credit [129]. This renewable energy policy further embodies the significance of biomass in producing electricity through biomass gasification. Therefore, this policy is related to CDM. Carbon sequestration and carbon substitution are considered significant approaches to mitigate global warming and are components of CDM activities [130]. Hence, the sustainable development and production of biomass, as well as its transformation into secondary clean energy such as electricity, are useful for the economic development of rural residents and for improving the environment. Nevertheless, even with the success of the rural electricity program under the Renewable Energy Policy, this program can

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only serve approximately 30% of the overall rural population because electricity demand will never cease but will only increase continuously. In FYs 1999 and 2000, electric sales increased by over 19% compared with those of the previous years. The expansion and sustainability of the program to satisfy future needs require further investment in generating plants, transmission lines, distribution system, and maintenance of existing constructed lines [131]. The overall management of this program is apparently complicated. However, once basic rules are defined (e.g., priority access, transportation cost allocations, storage, back-up duties, and smart grids with flexible rates), the system can work more robustly than the conventional system, which is known for its supply risks and environmental hazards. The policy has also suggested establishing one institution, namely, the Sustainable Energy Development Authority, which can serve as a focal point for sustainable energy development and promotion. The institution, comprising representatives of stakeholders (i.e., the business community, academics and representatives from the Bangladesh Solar Energy Society, NGOs, financial institutions, and implementing agencies), has also been given wide-ranging power to implement the policy. In general, from the interpretation point of view, policies are not judicially enforceable and do not have any binding effect unless the provisions are transformed into legislation, regardless of whether they are primary or secondary. Consequently, the government has enacted the Sustainable and Renewable Energy Development Authority (SREDA) Act of 2012 in December 2012, along with the move of the Climate Parliament Bangladesh Group, which consists of the members of parliaments from all major political parties. An authority (i.e., SREDA) was also formed as a coordinating body to monitor the development of RESs in Bangladesh under the Power Division of the Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources. The government has been taking pragmatic steps to promote RESs. However, the implementation of these steps and the realization of the benefits arising out of these steps depend on many other issues. A significant proportion of rural residents are not properly educated; hence, their knowledge on the benefits of renewable energy is lacking. The initial high price of plants and the cost of the subsequent periodic maintenance of these structures also contribute to villagers refraining to opt for RESs. Therefore, overcoming this issue will be a challenge for SREDA. Massive awareness programs on reliable information and best practices involving mass media may help overcome this situation. In addition, the initiatives taken to produce quality human resources in every level of a RES system, namely, completion of RES mapping, allocation of strong financial incentives for private sector participation, promotion of microgrids and minigrids in the country, cross-border cooperation for knowledge, and technology transfer, will help rural communities to obtain the benefits of governmentdriven initiatives immediately.

6. Effect of rural electrification in Bangladesh In 2013, data show that approximately 493 million people do not have access to electricity in South Asia, and Bangladesh is second in rank with regard to the number of population that lives without electricity [132,133]. An essential element to develop the social and economic aspects of underprivileged rural areas is electricity. Any major development project, such as rural electrification, aims to improve the livelihood of the poor. Some developing countries have succeeded in providing electricity to their rural areas, and thus, economic and social developments have been improved. In the context of countries such as Bangladesh, a successful

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rural electrification program will have considerable contributions in different aspects. A total of 100 randomly selected households in Panchua Village, Kapasia Upazila, Gazipur District were surveyed, where 60 of the households owned SHSs [134]. The average household size of 4.76 people and the literacy rate of 37.24% are slightly lower than the rural national averages of 4.9% and 54%, respectively. Many villagers found an increase in their income by 1,000 Tk/month and a growth in their business since the installation of the system because they can continue operating and keeping their stores open during the evening. This change has improved rural residents morally; in particular, their work habits and sense of discipline and social security have improved. Electricity can initiate productive activities in rural areas, given that household members can be engaged in different activities at night (e.g., studying even after sunset, access to mass media such as TV and radio). According to the United States Agency for International Development, an increase of 92% is recorded in amusement as well as in standard of living because rural communities are exposed to mass media and entertainment given the availability of electricity [135]. The majority of the sections of rural electrification projects throughout Bangladesh are being handled by the local electric cooperative distribution companies [7]. These projects create many jobs locally and help underprivileged residents find work, thereby upgrading the quality of life of their family. In particular, these projects have successfully helped poor families escape from poverty, malnutrition, and hunger. They also offer opportunities to local graduates by opening new jobs; in particular, a survey in 2002 have reported that 5,800 local professionals have been employed in different construction firms and consulting offices working for the projects. The electrification of rural areas has increased agricultural productivity; therefore, the availability of rice and other food items in villages has also increased and helped rural people maintain proper nutrition. In terms of safety, the use of renewable energy instead of firing kerosene oil has reduced the risks of fire dramatically over the years. This effect can also be linked with the reduction of casualties and poverty caused by fires. Mass education program has increased the literacy rate significantly. Night schools become available for poor illiterate workers. They can attend these schools after their day work. Parents can supervise the homework and education of their children. A report in 2012 showed that 71% of electrified households could read well, whereas only 54% of unelectrified households could read as well as the former [135]. Electricity plays an instrumental role in empowering women. Rural women are important beneficiaries of rural electrification because it enables them to work even after a busy daily schedule. It enables them to become self-dependent through different activities, such as poultry, farming, weaving, and sewing. Electrification has also given them a special advantage to form microirrigation groups in rural areas as well as to develop entrepreneurial skills and leadership qualities. A study by the World Bank has determined that rural electrification has different effects in terms of per capita expenditure and farm income in rich and poor households. Rich households (12.4%) have four times more per capita expenditure than that of poor households (3.1%) because of electrification, and this rate has improved to nearly 50% of the farm income of rich households [136]. Electricity has also improved the schooling years and the study hours of children for both boys and girls. The schooling years of boys from rich and poor households increased by 0.16 and 0.13 grade, respectively. The study hours of children from rich households increased by 16.3 and 20.5 min per day for boys and girls, respectively. Thus, the rural electrification program significantly affects economic and educational activities [136].

Stoves run on biogas are the cleanest stoves tested with 10% GHG emissions compared with the GHGs emitted by liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stoves, and the global warming commitment of biomass stoves is 100 times less than that of firewood [137]. The use of biogas decreases GHG emissions because the methane fraction escapes into the atmosphere when animal dung is decomposed in open air, combusted, and then converted into carbon dioxide [138]. Furthermore, the installation produces ideal fertilizers as by-products [139,140]. In one socioeconomic impact evaluation in Bangladesh, a villager linked electricity to “freedom” [141,142]. Solar energy is undoubtedly the most environment friendly compared with any other energy source. It is also a prerequisite for any significant sustainable development program. Solar energy does not reduce any kind of natural resources, does not emit carbon dioxide or other gases in the air (e.g., GHGs), and does not generate liquid or solid waste materials. Some important advantages of solar energy from the sustainable development perspective are as follows: providing clean air, avoiding land degradation, reducing transmission costs, and improving regional/ national energy independence [143–147]. Minimal construction of distribution lines that can destroy natural greens in Bangladesh is necessary. The mobility of SHS makes this system easy to set up in each household without requiring heavy construction. Shifting to kerosene and LPG from solid conventional fuel also produces several benefits, the most important of which is the positive effect on health [148,149]. The average carbon dioxide emission from traditional lamps used by rural residents in Bangladesh is 2.41 kg carbon dioxide/L. Therefore, the total carbon dioxide emission reduction is 11,604 kg in 20 years by replacing it with renewable energy [150]. Before the introduction of SHS, nearly all villagers used candles and kerosene for lighting. Given the smokes emitted by kerosene-based lighting, many people suffered from health problems, such as bouts of bronchitis because of poor indoor air quality, and kerosene suppliers would sometimes adulterate kerosene with petrol. After changing to SHS, these problems were eliminated. Substituting electric lighting for kerosene lamps has a quantifiable health benefit of US$2.50 per household [151]. This shift relieves women and children from the burden of collecting firewood; helps mitigate GHG effects; and improves the environment by ceasing deforestation, forest degradation, and biodiversity loss. The contribution of rural electrification to the development of rural and distant areas was questioned for over eight decades. The majority of the objectives were not achieved structurally because of the substandard production of many rural power systems in other developing countries. Under the majority of rural electrification projects, the expansion of a central grid was the main issue, and the demand forecast was mainly based on overoptimistic expectations concerning regional development and the financial ability of consumers. Although the equitable and institutionally and financially viable expansion of electricity coverage in rural Bangladesh can bring significant benefits, rural electrification can be more challenging than urban electrification because of the lack of policies, funding, facilities, and overall supporting infrastructure. Rural areas consume minimal electricity, lack proper line connections, and have a low industrial load demand, which result in marginal investment in electrification projects.

7. Conclusion Bangladesh is both an agricultural country and a country of villages where electricity can be used as a vehicle for development. The country has had numerous achievements in recent years,

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including the successful accomplishment of the United Nations Millennium Development Goal. European Union has also listed Bangladesh as one of the 20 information technology outsourcing destinations. The country has also been recently upgraded from a least developed country to a lower-middle income country. Energy has definitely played an instrumental role. These achievements are merely the beginning of the desired development target of the government, and considerable effort should still be exerted to provide the basic human rights to citizens. Pragmatic initiatives that target the rural community must be taken. Hence, the importance of rural electrification should not be overstated. This study has reviewed for the first time the advantages and prospects of rural electrification in Bangladesh context. Bangladesh has considerable potential because of its favorable geographic location and agricultural nature, and unlocking this potential should be considered seriously by policy makers. Given the lack of uninterrupted electricity in rural areas, the majority of earning initiatives, including offices, educational institutions, and business organizations, are city centric, thereby exerting extra pressure on the entire management of city affairs. The government and administrations of the country have also been struggling to provide the minimum basic needs required for right to life of city dwellers. RESs, such as solar energy, biomass, biogas, and wind power, particularly in coastal areas, offer considerable prospect for the country to provide additional required energy, and these RESs should be utilized immediately. The initial expenses may discourage people to initiate ventures in setting up renewable energy plants, but doing so will benefit the country in the long run. Private sector investors are encouraged to join the race toward the development of the country. The government of Bangladesh has already finalized the Renewable Energy Policy and has recently established SREDA as the main authority under the SREDA Act 2010. It has just started its operation with numerous challenges, and the future will evaluate how successful it is in handling these challenges.

Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the High Impact Research Grant (HIRG) scheme (Project No: UM. C/ HIR/MOHE/H-16001–00-D000032) to carry out this research.

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