Proteolysis in Carcinogenesis

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10 Proteolysis in Carcinogenesis THOMAS H. BUGGE Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research National Institute of Health Bethesda, Maryland 20892

I. Tumor-Associated Protease Systems 137 A. The Plasminogen Activation System 137 B. Matrix Metalloproteinases, ADAMs, and ADAMTS 138 C. Lysosomal Proteases: Cathepsins 139 D. The Coagulation Cascade 139 E. "Novel" Tumor-Associated Serine Proteases 139 II. Molecular Targets for Proteases in Tumor Progression 140 A. Zymogen Activation 140 B. Degradation of Tissue Barriers 141 C. Generation of a Provisional Matrix for Tumor Cell Survival, Adhesion, and Proliferation 142 D. Proteases as Regulators of Tumor Cell Growth, Survival, and Motility 142 III. Extracellular Proteolysis in Head and Neck Cancer Progression 143 References 144

1. T U M O R - A S S O C I A T E D PROTEASE SYSTEMS A. T h e P l a s m i n o g e n A c t i v a t i o n S y s t e m The association of the plasminogen activation (PA) system with tumor progression is particularly well documented and is the subject of long-standing investigation [1-3]. The PA system is a complex system of serine proteases, protease inhibitors, and protease receptors that governs the conversion of the abundant protease zymogen, plasminogen (Pig), to the active serine protease, plasmin. Pig is produced predominantly by the liver and is present in high concentration in plasma and most extravascular fluids [1]. Plasmin is formed by the proteolytic cleavage of Pig by either of two Pig activators, the urokinase Pig activator (uPA) and the tissue Pig activator (tPA), of which uPA, until today, has attracted the most attention in the context of tumor progression, uPA is a 52-kDa serine protease that is secreted as an inactive single chain proenzyme (prouPA) and is efficiently converted to active two-chain uPA by plasmin, when bound to its cellular receptor, the uPA receptor (uPAR) [1,4]. Two-chain uPA, in turn, is a potent activator of Pig. Both pro-uPA and Plg are catalytically inactive proenzymes, and the mechanism of initiation of uPA-mediated Pig activation is not fully understood (Section II,A). Pig activation by uPA is regulated by two physiological inhibitors, Pig activator inhibitor-1 and -2 (PAI-1 and PAI-2), each forming a 1:1 complex with uPA [5-7]. Plasmin generated by the cell surface PA system is relatively protected from its primary physiological inhibitor t~2-antiplasmin [4,8,9], leading to the suggestion that the

Proteases have attracted substantial attention as potential targets for cancer therapy, including the treatment of head and neck cancer. This chapter gives an overview of the variety of secreted and pericellular proteases that have been associated with the dissemination of human tumors and reviews data that link these proteases to tumor progression. It describes the work carried out to unravel the complex functions of proteases in malignancy, to identify their relevant molecular targets, and describes the broadening concepts regarding the roles of pericellular proteolysis in tumor biology.

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Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

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I!. Basic Molecular Mechanisms

plasmin-mediated degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) is strictly associated with the cell surface. Extensive direct and indirect evidence has accumulated over more than two decades for the involvement of the PA system in proteolysis associated with tumor invasion and metastasis [1,2,3,10]. Histological analysis of both human tumors and experimental mouse tumors have consistently demonstrated expression of the components of the PA system specifically at sites of active invasion [11-14]. uPAR and uPA are overexpressed with remarkable consistency in malignant human tumors, including cancers of the head and neck [15], colon [12], breast [14, 16], bladder [17], liver [18], lung [19], pancreas [20], and ovaries [21], as well as both monocytic and myelogenous leukemias [22,23]. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemical studies of various human tumors have also demonstrated that cancer cells typically express uPAR, whereas pro-uPA may be expressed by either cancer cells or adjacent stromal cells [12,24,25]. Furthermore, Plg activators, Plg activator receptor, and inhibitors are all excellent prognostic markers in human cancer [2,26]. Thus, extensive epidemiological studies have revealed that high expression of Plg activator, uPAR, or PAI-1 in human breast [27-29], colorectal [30], lung [31,32], prostate [33], and gastric cancer [34,35] is associated with a poor prognosis. A direct causal relationship between Plg activator expression and tumor progression has also been demonstrated in a number of studies using the chick chorioallantoic membrane metastasis model and the mouse spontaneous and experimental metastasis models. These studies have employed a variety of strategies to inhibit Plg activator function, including antisense RNA techniques [36,37], anticatalytic PA antibodies [38-42], natural and synthetic PA inhibitors or uPAR antagonists [43-47], and, lately, genetically engineered mice with targeted deficiencies in components of the PA system [48-50]. Collectively, these studies have firmly established the PA system as an important contributor to the dissemination of malignant tumors.

B. Matrix Metalloproteinases, ADAMs, a n d ADAMTS The matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family is a large group of secreted proteases that require zinc for catalytic activity [51]. This family is expanding rapidly but currently has approximately 26 members [52,53]. MMPs can be organized by their domain structure into five distinct classes. All MMPs contain an N-terminal signal peptide, a prodomain conferring latency to the enzyme, and a catalytic domain. The smallest members of the MMP family, the matrilysins (MMP-7 and MMP-26), contain only these domains. Collagenase-1 (MMP-1), collagenase-3 (MMP- 13), neutrophil collagenase (MMP-8), stromelysin- 1

(MMP-3), stromelysin-2 (MMP-10), and macrophage metalloelastase (MMP-12) contain an additional proline-rich hinge region and a hemopexin domain that is involved in substrate binding. Stromelysin-3 (MMP-11) contains, in addition to these domains, a short furin activation sequence immediately following the prodomain. The two gelatinases, gelatinase A (MMP-2) and gelatinase B (MMP-9), also contain an additional fibronectin-like domain required for the binding of the two enzymes to gelatin. Four members of the MMP family, membrane type (MT)1-MMP (MMP-14), MT2-MMP (MMP-15), MT3-MMP (MMP-16), and MT5MMP (MMP-24), are type I transmembrane proteins attached to the cell surface via a C-terminal membranespanning domain. Two MMPs, MT4-MMP (MMP-17) and MT6-MMP (MMP-25), are associated with the cell surface by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor, and one member (MMP-23) is a type II transmembrane protein attached to the cell via an N-terminal signal anchor [52,53]. All membrane-bound MMPs contain the furin activation sequence originally identified in stromelysin-3, suggesting that they are secreted in a catalytically active form. The principal inhibitors of MMPs are the widely expressed tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) that currently comprise four members (TIMP-1 through 4). These inhibitors form a noncovalent 1:1 complex with activated MMPs. Each TIMP is generally capable of inhibiting most MMPs, although some specificity of inhibition has been observed [52,54]. Closely related to MMPs are the more recently identified families of ADAMs and ADAMTS proteases. ADAMs proteases are all cell surface type I transmembrane multidomain proteins that have N-terminal pro- and metalloprotease domains similar to MMPs, followed by disintegrin, cysteine-rich, EGF-like, transmembrane, and cytoplasmic domains [55]. ADAMTS are secreted proteins containing pro- and metalloprotease domains followed by thrombospondin type I motifs [56]. The MMP family was first linked to tissue remodeling during tumor progression by their consistent upregulation in tumor tissue [review in 52,57]. The association of MMPs with cancer was further strengthened by the demonstration that the level of MMPs and TIMPs in tumors correlates with clinical outcome [58-63]. More recently, the causal relation between MMP expression and tumor progression was demonstrated directly by the use of highly specific MMP inhibitors and by the use of transgenic mice with specific MMP deficiencies or overexpression of MMPs [64-67]. Few studies have so far directly addressed the functions of ADAM and ADAMTS proteases in cancer progression. However, the limited insight gained so far into the biological functions of these protease families strongly suggests that members of both protease families will also be found to be important modulators of tumor progression. ADAM proteases are localized on the cell surface, and at

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least one member (ADAM-17) has "sheddase" activity and is required for the proteolytic liberation of growth factors from membrane-bound precursors and the inactivation of growth factor receptors by the shedding of their ectodomains from the cell surface (Section II,D,1) [68,69]. ADAMTS are deposited in the ECM and appear to be involved in the maturation, modification, and degradation of components of the ECM during development and homeostasis [70]. C. L y s o s o m a l P r o t e a s e s : C a t h e p s i n s Cathepsins are a group of lysosomal cysteine (cathepsins B, H, L, S, C, S, K, O, F, V, X, and W) or aspartic proteases (cathepsin D) that are involved predominantly in phagolysosomal protein degradation. Lysosomal cysteine proteinases are papain-like enzymes with a molecular mass of 20-35 kDa [71]. Cathepsins are synthesized as proenzymes that undergo proteolytic activation in the acidic environment of the late endosome or lysosome. Most of the cathepsins are expressed ubiquitously (cathepsins B, D, L, S, C, O, F, and X), but a few demonstrate strict tissue specificity, such as cathepsin K, which is expressed exclusively by osteoclasts, cathepsin V, which is expressed in testes and thymus, and cathepsin W, which is expressed in a subset of T lymphocytes [71,72]. The principal inhibitors of cysteine cathepsins are cystatins, including stefins, cystatins, and kininogens [71 ]. The altered expression of lysosomal proteases during malignant progression was first observed for cathepsin B in human breast cancer [73]. Since then, changes in the localization, level of expression, or activity of cathepsin B, H, and L and their inhibitors, cystatin C, stefin A, and stefin B, have been documented in a variety of other human tumors, including head and neck, lung, ovary, brain, colorectal, gastric, bladder, and melanoma. Furthermore, cathepsin and cathepsin inhibitors are prognostic factors, with high expression levels in tumors and biological fluids being associated with poor survival [71,72,74,75]. The association between tumor progression and altered expression of the lysosomal cathepsins and their inhibitors was established early. Nevertheless, the possibility of a direct involvement of cathepsins in tumor-mediated ECM degradation remained controversial due to the presumed exclusively intracellular location of these proteases and their requirement of acidic pH for function. The realization that phagolysosomal ECM degradation may represent a ratelimiting step in cell migration [76-78], that cathepsins can redistribute from the lysosome to the cell surface during malignant progression [74,79-81 ], and that cathepsin K is a highly efficient fibrillar collagenase during osteoclastmediated bone resorption [82,83] has strengthened the notion of cathepsins as critical contributors to tumor progression. Experiments using transgenic mice with an altered expression of cathepsins to unravel their specific functions in tumor progression are now in progress [84].

D. T h e C o a g u l a t i o n C a s c a d e Vascular patency is governed by the coagulation cascade, a sophisticated system of circulating serine proteases and cell-associated receptors. The central step in the coagulation pathway is generation of the serine protease thrombin from the inactive protease zymogen prothrombin by proteolytic cleavage by factor Xa. Under physiological conditions, thrombin formation is triggered by vascular injury, facilitating the contact of factor VII with a cellular receptor, tissue factor (TF), and the sequential proteolytic activation of coagulation factors VII to VIIa, X to Xa, and V to Va [85]. Thrombin has pleiotropic functions mediated through the cleavage and activation of other serine proteinases, transglutaminase, and thrombin activated, G-protein coupled receptors. Most tumor cells, as well as nonneoplastic stromal cells, possess strong procoagulant activities that promote the local formation of thrombin in the absence of vascular injury [86,87], and many tumor cells and tumor stromal cells are equipped with thrombin-activated receptors. The causal relation between the activation of the coagulation cascade and tumor progression is now well established. For example, pretreatment of tumor cells or systemic treatment of experimental animals with a variety of highly specific inhibitors of TF, factor Xa, or thrombin dramatically reduces pulmonary metastasis of a wide range of tumor types [88-93]. The specific mechanisms by which the coagulation cascade promotes tumor dissemination is currently being elucidated (Section II,C).

E. " N o v e l " T u m o r - A s s o c i a t e d Serine Proteases In addition to the well-characterized protease families described in Sections II,A-II,D, a rapidly expanding group of recently identified secreted or cell surface-associated serine proteases, of mostly unknown physiological function, are gathering increasing attention in the context of tumor progression. As was the case with the discovery of several MMPs, some of these proteases were originally identified as a direct consequence of their overexpression by human tumors or tumor cell lines [94-96], and their specific association with tumor progression and their value as prognostic factors are currently under evaluation. This heteroge neous group of novel tumor-associated proteases currently includes the secreted proteases neuropsin (also known as ovasin, bspl, TAGD-14 and KLK-8) [97-100] and neurosin (also known as zyme, protease M, BSP, BSSP, and myelencephalon-specific protease) [101-106], the stratum corneum chymotryptic enzyme [ 107], the type II transmembrane proteases hepsin [108], TMPRSS2 [109], TMPRSS3 [96], MT-SP1 (also known as ST-14, matriptase, epithin, TAGD-15, and prostamin) [94,110-113], and the type I transmembrane proteases testisin (also known as eosinophil

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serine protease) [114,115] and fibroblast activation protein (FAP, also known as seprase) [116,117]. Neuropsin and neurosin, named after their preferential expression in the central nervous system, are overexpressed dramatically in ovarian cancer [94,95,99,118]. Indeed, neurosin has been reported to be a reliable new serum biomarker of ovarian carcinoma [118]. Neurosin is also expressed in cultured breast cancer lines [ 103] and neuropsin in squamous cell carcinoma (K. List and T. Bugge, unpublished data). Ovarian cancer cells express high levels of testisin and stratum corneum chymotryptic enzyme, a protease whose normal expression is restricted to the cornifying layer of the skin [119,120]. Hepsin has been shown to be overexpressed with remarkable consistency in human prostate cancer, and high levels of hepsin correlated with poor survival [121-124]. Hepsin is also overexpressed in renal carcinoma cells and in ovarian cancer, a tumor speculated to disseminate in the abdomen through activation of the coagulation cascade and deposition of an adhesive fibrin matrix on the peritoneal wall [125]. In this respect, it is interesting to note that hepsin is an activator of factor VII and can initiate the extrinsic pathway of blood coagulation on the cell surface, leading to the deposition of peritumoral fibrin [126]. TMPRSS3 is overexpressed in pancreatic cancer [96], and FAP is highly expressed by tumor cells or in the stromal fibroblasts of a wide variety of human tumors, including tumors of the bone, breast, colorectal, lung, melanoma, and soft tissue sarcomas [127-129]. Overexpression of the type II transmembrane serine proteases, hepsin, TMPRSS3, and MT-SPI by human tumors is particularly noteworthy. The prototypic member of this class of proteases, enteropeptidase, is the physiological activator of trypsin in the digestive tract, and in this capacity is the initiator of a proteolytic cascade reaction that leads to the activation of procarboxypeptidase, chymotrypsinogen, and proelastase [130,131]. The novel type II transmembrane serine proteases could be speculated to have similar functions in tumor progression. Thus, MT-SP1, which is expressed in a number of epithelial tumors [132], (T. Bugge and K. List, unpublished data), has been demonstrated to be a highly efficient activator of pro-uPA and, thus, to be a candidate initiator of the PA cascade (Section II,A) [133,134]. Future studies will undoubtedly rapidly expand our knowledge of the expression and function of these novel serine proteases in tumor progression.

II. M O L E C U L A R TARGETS FOR PROTEASES IN T U M O R P R O G R E S S I O N A. Z y m o g e n A c t i v a t i o n The majority of extracellular and membrane-associated proteases are synthesized as catalytically inactive proenzymes

(zymogens) that are activated by the endoproteolytic cleavage of one ore more peptide bonds. In vivo, these protease zymogens are organized into complex hierarchies that undergo sequential proteolytic activation. These cascade reactions eventually lead to the activation of the "effector" proteases that modify the extracellular environment to promote tumor progression (Sections II,B-II,D). Thus, the specific molecular targets for many, if not most, proteases relevant for tumor dissemination are likely to be other protease zymogens. Elucidation of the complex pathways of activation of functionally important proteolytic cascades, such as the PA system, MMPs, and the coagulation cascade during tumor progression, is an area of long-standing investigation that is seminal to the understanding of proteases in tumor biology, and the design of therapeutic strategies aimed at protease inhibition. Nevertheless, many aspects of protease activation are still poorly understood. The principal causes are the considerable technical difficulties associated with studying protease activation in vivo, the uncertainty as to the interpretation of data obtained with purified components in vitro, and the apparent existence of multiple context and cell typespecific pathways of zymogen activation. However, several lines of evidence have converged to suggest that the initiation of proteolytic cascades in both neoplastic and nonneoplastic processes is predominantly a cell surface-associated event and involves the binding of one or more protease zymogens to specific high-affinity cell surface receptors [10,85,135]. On the cell surface, protease zymogens are in a spatially favorable orientation for activation and are often protected against specific soluble inhibitors. In the PA system, one cascade-initiating pathway is believed to involve the concomitant binding of pro-uPA to its high-affinity cell surface receptor, uPAR, and of Plg to as yet uncharacterized cell surface receptors. The concomitant binding of pro-uPA and Plg to the cell surface strongly potentiates uPA-mediated Plg activation and plasmin-mediated activation of pro-uPA, leading to a powerful feedback loop that results in productive plasmin formation [4,10]. How this feedback loop is initiated is unclear, but may include the activation of pro-uPA by other proteases besides plasmin or the activation of Plg by a very low intrinsic activity of pro-uPA. The transmembrane serine protease MT-SP1, true tissue kallikrein, hepatocyte growth factor activator, and cathepsin B are all candidate initiators of the pro-uPA cascade [133,134,136-138]. Activation of the MMP family is also increasingly believed to be cell surface dependent. MMP-2, a collagenase that is associated intimately with tumor angiogenesis, is activated on the cell surface by the membrane-anchored MMP-14 in a process that requires juxtaposition of the two proteases by TIMP-2 [139]. MMP-14 has also been proposed to be involved in the activation of several other members of the MMP family on the cell surface [ 140]. Potential interactions that lead to the localization of MMPs to the cell surface include MMP-1

10. Proteolysis in Carcinogenesis

binding to integrin O~2~1' MMP-13 binding to urokinase Plg activator receptor-associated protein/Endo 180, and MMP-9 binding to CD44 [141-142a]. Generation of the metastasispromoting protease thrombin is also tightly linked to the surface of tumor (or tumor stromal) cells and is initiated by the binding of coagulation factor VII to its high-affinity cell surface receptor, TF, leading to the sequential proteolytic activation of coagulation factors VII to VIIa, X to Xa, and V to Va, and prothrombin to thrombin (Section I,D). Tumor cells may also utilize alternative cell surface-associated pathways for thrombin generation, including the direct cleavage and activation of factor X by cancer procoagulant, a membrane-associated, vitamin K-dependent cysteine protease [86,143,144], or activation of factor VII by hepsin, a novel transmembrane serine protease (Section I,E) [ 126]. MMPs, cathepsins, Plg activators, and related serine proteases can mutually activate each others zymogens in vitro. The extent to which such "cross talk" is taking place in vivo is still not entirely understood. Many studies have focused on the role of plasmin in the activation of MMPs, and numerous experiments have demonstrated the participation of plasmin in the activation of proMMP-1,-2,-3,-9,-10,-12, and-13 in vitro [ 145]. A less clear picture has emerged from cell-based assays. Plasmin has been reported to be both a poor activator and a very efficient activator of MMP-9 [146-148]. The genetic deficiency of uPA abrogates plasmin-mediated MMP-13 activation by cultured macrophages [149]. MMP-13 can also be activated by plasmin in fibroblast cultures, but MMP-13 activated this way is degraded rapidly [150]. In contrast, keratinocytes appear to be completely dependent of plasmin for the activation of MMP-13 and subsequent degradation of fibrillar collagen, strongly implicating the PA system in MMP activation (S. Netzel-Arnett, D. Mitola, H. Birkedal Hansen, and T. Bugge, unpublished data). Other serine proteases may also participate in MMP activation. Genetic studies have shown that MMP-2 is activated by the mast cell-specific serine protease, chymase, during human papillomavirus-16 E6/E7-induced squamous carcinoma, providing direct evidence for a pivotal role of serine proteinases in MMP activation during tumor progression [ 151 ].

B. D e g r a d a t i o n of T i s s u e Barriers In order for a solid tumor to metastasize successfully to distant organs, it must be able to degrade, or trigger, the degradation of two basement membranes during the steps of extravasation and intravasation. The tumor must also be able to transverse a complex meshwork of interstitial matrix that is rich in cross-linked glycoproteins. In addition to having the capacity to negotiate the typical array of basement membrane and interstitial matrix glycoproteins (e.g., laminin, fibronectin, entactin, and collagen), tumors must also be able to degrade a matrix highly abundant in

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cross-linked fibrin, which is generated by the strong procoagulant activity inherent to tumor cells and by the vascular damage caused by tissue invasion (Section II,C). As has been recognized for more than half a century, it is largely inconceivable that these tasks can be accomplished successfully in the absence of appropriate matrix degrading proteases [1, 152, and references therein]. Intense efforts have been made to identify the critical matrix-degrading proteases in this process due to the obvious clinical importance of confining tumors to their site of origin. As described in Section I, solid tumors overexpress a wide variety of secreted or cell-associated proteases, most of which are endowed with the capacity to degrade at least some components of the basement membrane and interstitial matrix in vitro. The development of efficient, specific, and bioavailable synthetic inhibitors of matrix-degrading proteases, as well as several transgenic mouse lines deficient in matrix-degrading proteases, has provided novel powerful tools to directly assess the contribution of individual matrix-degrading proteases to cancer invasion and metastasis in vivo. Preliminary studies with transgenic mice and synthetic protease inhibitors have largely confirmed the involvement of matrix-degrading proteases in tumor dissemination [48-50,64,67]. Surprisingly, however, demonstration of an absolute requirement of a specific tumor-associated protease, or even a protease family, for basement membrane and interstitial matrix degradation during tumor invasion in vivo has proven to be remarkably difficult. Negating protease activity to transplanted or genetically induced tumors by gene targeting or through pharmacological inhibition retards, but does not prevent, invasion and metastasis of the tumor to distant sites and, by inference, does not completely abolish basement membrane and interstitial matrix degradation [49,50,64,67]. For example, polyomavirus middle T-induced mammary adenocarcinoma expresses high amounts of Plg activator at the invasive edge, but retains some of its metastatic capacity even in mice with a complete deficiency in Plg. Likewise, a transplanted Lewis lung carcinoma expresses high levels of several MMPs and Plg activator, but is very metastatic both in Pig-deficient mice and in mice treated with a broad- spectrum MMP inhibitor [49,64]. Furthermore, MMP-9-deficient mice have a reduced incidence of papillomavirus-induced squamous carcinoma, but the few tumors ensuing in MMP-9-deficient mice are, if anything, more, rather than less, invasive than MMP-9 sufficient tumors [67]. There may be several possible explanations for these somewhat surprising findings, all of which are not mutually exclusive. (a) Tumor cells, or tumor-associated stromal cells, may be endowed with several parallel proteolytic pathways, each being independently capable of efficiently dissolving basement membrane and interstitial matrix. Inhibition of just one, or a few, of these pathways will be insufficient to prevent tumor-associated matrix dissolution

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!I. Basic Molecular Mechanisms

and metastatic dissemination [153]. (b) Cancer invasion and metastasis involve multiple, discrete steps, such as intravasation, arrest, extravasation, growth, and development of a supporting neovasculature. The dissolution of basement membrane and interstitial matrix degradation, although essential to the metastatic process, may simply not be a particularly rate-limiting step in the complex cascade of events that precedes final metastatic dissemination. Thus, even a profound reduction in the rate of dissolution of a basement membrane achieved by gene knockouts or by pharmacological protease inhibition may not manifest itself in a dramatic reduction in distant metastasis. (c) Given the complex, multistep nature of metastatic process, it is also conceivable that nonspecific, or even specific, protease inhibition may impair some of the steps of the metastatic pathway, while accelerating others, with a modest reduction in distant metastasis representing the net result of systemic protease inhibition, masking even a profound effect of protease ablation on matrix degradation.

C. G e n e r a t i o n of a Provisional M a t r i x for T u m o r Cell Survival, A d h e s i o n , a n d Proliferation The interaction of tumor cells with ECM is essential for adhesion, migration, invasion, and survival. Most, if not all, solid tumors directly induce the formation of a provisional extracellular fibrin-rich matrix at the site of active invasion. This is accomplished through activation of the coagulation cascade, which ultimately leads to the conversion of fibrinogen to cross-linked fibrin by the action of thrombin and factor XIII (Section I,D). The TF/factor VII pathway appears to be principally responsible for the activation of coagulation, but other tumor cell surface proteases, such as hepsin and cancer procoagulant, may also trigger coagulation by the direct cleavage of coagulation factors VII and X, respectively (Section II,A). Fibrin and its various proteolytic derivatives have been shown to display an extraordinary range of biological activities, strongly implying a pivotal role of provisional fibrin matrices in tumor biology. Fibrin matrices promote the migration of both tumor cells and tumor stromal cells, such as endothelial cells, macrophages, and fibroblasts [87,154-156]. Tumor and stromal cells interact directly with fibrinogen and fibrin via o~v~3 and o~m~2 integrin receptors, as well as nonintegrin receptors of the ICAM family [154,157-159]. Furthermore, highly purified fibrin gels can induce neovascularization directly when implanted into experimental animals [ 160,161 ], and fibrin degradation products, released during fibrin turnover, have been shown to display powerful chemotactic, immunemodulatory, as well as angiogenic, properties [161a-164]. The ability of tumor cells to induce the rapid formation of a provisional fibrin matrix also appears to play a critical role

during hematogenous metastasis. The bloodstream is a particularly inhospitable environment for tumor cells, where they are subject to destruction by shear stress, anoikis, and immune-mediated killing. However, tumor cells form fibrinrich platelet-tumor cell aggregates almost immediately after their initial adhesion to the microvascular endothelium of their target organs through the local activation of the coagulation cascade [165-167]. Multiple studies have converged to demonstrate that tumor cell survival and subsequent metastasis formation are critically dependent on this process and that specific inhibitors of TF, factor Xa, or thrombin are among the most powerful antimetastatic agents known

[88-931.

D. P r o t e a s e s as R e g u l a t o r s of T u m o r Cell G r o w t h , Survival, a n d Motility Traditionally, tumor-associated proteolysis has been studied almost exclusively in the context of degradation of extracellular matrix barriers due to the obvious necessity of such events taking place during invasion and metastasis. During the last decades, however, it has been gradually realized that pericellular proteolysis has multiple other indispensable roles in virtually all aspects of the normal life of a cell, regulating such key processes as growth, differentiation, adhesion, migration, and programmed cell death by the modification of the extracellular environment [168]. It is, therefore, not surprising that genetic studies of neoplastic progression have demonstrated conclusively that extracellular proteases have profound roles even in early stage tumorigenesis. For example, transgenic overexpression of MMPs in the mammary gland can directly drive malignant progression, whereas loss of MMP expression reduces the formation of premalignant lesions in mice prone to multiple intestinal neoplasia [65,66]. These revelations have led to a gradual shift in the paradigm of tumor-associated proteases as mere obliterators of matrix in the destructive path of invading cancer cells. Today, a more holistic view is favored in which pericellular proteases can act as tumor progression factors in all stages of malignant progression by creating a local environment that is conducive to the growth, survival, and progression of a tumor through the modulation of growth factor pathways, cell-cell adhesions, and cell-matrix adhesions. This paradigm shift has also led to intensified studies of the function of matrix-associated proteases in the early stages of malignant progression prior to the establishment of the invasive phenotype. These studies are clearly in their infancy, and the exact protease targets remain to be firmly established. However, a range of possible candidate substrates is now emerging from biochemical, cell biological, and genetic studies of both physiological and neoplastic tissue remodeling [ 169].

10. Proteolysis in Carcinogenesis 1. Growth Factor Availability

Many growth factors need proteolytic processing for activation and biological activity. Latency is maintained by membrane anchorage, association with the extracellular matrix, or the tight binding to specific latency-maintaining proteins. Members of the transforming growth factor-J3, fibroblast growth factor, and epidermal growth factor ligand families all require proteolytic release for biological function [170]. It is more than likely that tumor-associated proteases play an important role in regulating the activity of these growth factors during tumor progression, as illuminated by several studies [52,169,170]. For example, degradation of proteoglycans by a variety of proteases that are overexpressed in tumors releases fibroblast growth factor and transforming growth factor-J3 from the extracellular matrix [ 171 ]. The insulin-like growth factor-binding protein, which confers latency to the insulin-like growth factor, is a direct target of MMPs during transgene-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. Thus, overexpression of TIMP-1 impairs the release of active insulin-like growth factor by preventing the degradation of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 by MMPs and suppresses hyperplasia and tumorgenesis induced by SV40 T antigen expression by hepatocytes [172]. Likewise, in a transgenic model of pancreatic cancer, systemic MMP inhibitor treatment or genetic ablation of MMP-9 suppresses the proteolytic release of the vascular endothelial growth factor, thereby strongly impairing tumor vascularization [ 173].

2. Matrix Modification

Proteases can modify the extracellular matrix to facilitate cell migration. Indeed, proteolytic cleavage of collagen is a prerequisite for keratinocyte migration on this substrate. Although the mechanism is not entirely elucidated, it appears that limited proteolysis exposes hidden binding sites for integrins and integrin ligand engagement induces signal transduction that promotes cell migration [174,175]. Likewise, limited cleavage of laminin 5 by secreted or membrane-bound MMPs stimulates keratinocyte migration, possibly through the exposure of cryptic promigratory sites [176,177]. The exposure of novel cell-matrix interaction sites through limited proteolysis of the ECM may also promote tumor cell survival directly. For example, collagen cleavage by MMP-2 has been reported to expose cryptic av133 integrin-binding sites, thereby suppressing the apoptosis of melanoma cells through integrin signaling [178].

3. Cell-Cell and Cell-Matrix Adhesion Receptors

Dissolution of cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesions is essential for tumor cell invasion and appears to be at least

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partially achieved through the proteolytic degradation of adhesion receptors. Several classes of cell adhesion molecules are susceptible to cleavage by proteases in vitro and in cell culture systems, and studies of nontransformed cells have revealed that the proteolysis of adhesion receptors can have dramatic effects on cell behavior. Overexpression of MMP-3 in normal mammary epithelial cells results in the cleavage of E-cadherin, triggering a progressive phenotypic conversion that includes cytoskeletal reorganization, growth factor and protease expression, and the acquisition of an invasive phenotype [179]. Similar findings have been reported for immortalized fibroblasts [180]. Downregulation of MMP activity by TIMPs or synthetic MMP inhibitors stabilizes cadherin-mediated cell-cell contacts and promotes contact inhibition, whereas diminution of TIMP activity reduces cell-cell contacts and impairs contact inhibition [ 180].

II!. EXTRACELLULAR PROTEOLYSIS IN HEAD AND NECK CANCER P R O G R E S S I O N The contribution of extracellular proteolysis to the progression of squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck has been studied less extensively than carcinomas of the lung, breast, and colon. However, the expression, prognostic significance, and causal involvement of proteases in the progression of carcinomas of the head and neck appear to be similar to other types of human cancer. Pig activators, and members of the MMP and cathepsin families, have all been documented to be consistently overexpressed in the stromal or tumor compartment of squamous cell carcinomas, as analyzed by in situ hybridization, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry, quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA), or laser capture microdissection of surgically resected tumors. This includes uPA, tPA, MMP-2, -3, -7, -9, - 10, - 11, - 13, and -14 and cathepsins B, D, H, and L [15,181-196] (A. Curino, V. Patel, S. Gutkind, and T. Bugge, unpublished data). A direct correlation between the high expression of uPA, MMP-2, and cathepsins B and L and poor prognosis has been established for head and neck cancer, suggesting a causal involvement of these proteases in tumor progression [191,197,198]. Furthermore, the direct association between Pig activator and MMP expression and squamous cell carcinoma progression has been established directly in carcinogen or oncogene-induced tumor models using mice with targeted deletions in protease genes [48,67]. Surprisingly, in both cases, the incidence of squamous cell carcinoma was reduced dramatically by deletion of the protease, suggesting a role of the MMP and PA systems already in early stage carcinogenesis.

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