ground relationships

The Arts in Psychotherapy, Vol. 18, pp. 97-104. 0 Pergamon

Press plc, 1991. Printed in the U.S.A.

0197-4556191

$3.00 + .OO

PERSPECTIVE PSYCHE AND IMAGE: FIGURE/GROUND M. CHRISTINE

RELATIONSHIPS

RACK, BS, MA*

with others. On the intrapsychic level, we can map the outline separating the conscious self from the vastness of the unconscious. We even sketch a fuzzy boundary between the personal and the collective unconscious. The boundary is felt to be sacred because it mediates the relationship of the part of the whole, the self to the nonself, the individual to All-That-Is. We imagine archetypal figures such as Hermes guiding us across such liminal terrain. Creative arts therapists work with the mystery of boundary and the figure/ ground metaphor on a daily basis. Image is the first language of the psyche. In fact, Jung wrote (1967) “image is psyche.” It is interesting to wonder if the structural aspects of image, particularly figure/ground relationships, are an expression of structural qualities in the psyche. This paper reflects a beginning exploration into that question.

It is comfortable in our contemporary minds to create dualisms even where none really exist. We make our compromise with this confusing reality by speaking of continuums, spirals, stages, and interpenetrations. These models themselves are an example of our attempts to grasp an idea, a part, out of the fundamental connectedness of life, the whole. The nature of the relationship of the part to the whole has been the basis of much philosophical and psychological inquiry. The dualism of Descartes, resolved into the dialectics of Hegel and Kant, governs the prevailing notion of interplay. An example of this model can be seen to structure Jung’s idea of the unconscious acting to compensate for the conscious ego (antithesis to thesis) in the process of individuation (synthesis). A new model arising from physics that affirms an essential isomorphism of part and whole is the holographic paradigm. Echoes of this model can be heard in the concepts of resonance, vibrations, and synchrony . A metaphor for the relationship of part to whole is given in the visual arts by the relationship of figure to ground. The artist is trained to see the negative space, the ground, and its unity with the figure, the two creating each other. The definition of the relationship is in the contour, the border, the boundary. In a psychological sense we see this metaphor in the development of individual identity against the background of the maternal matrix. We can understand the condition of ego boundaries to be a reflection of the contour. We can look at relationship patterns in the life of the individual as placed on continuum from total isolation of the figure to enmeshment/merger

Visual Conceiving Schaeffer-Simmem, an art educator writing at midcentury (1948), identified stages of “visual conceiving” based entirely on figure/ground relationships. From the initial emergence from the scribble of a figure, usually a circle, Schaeffer-Simmem saw a natural development into the second stage of “the greatest contrast of direction of line. ” This is seen in children’s drawings where the tree is composed entirely of horizontal and vertical lines. It is almost like a body stretching upon awakening-up-down-across, claiming space in two dimensions with maximum definition. In the third stage of “variability of

*Christine Rack is the Program Coordinator of a study of race and gender vanables in mediated disputes at the Institute of Public Law, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. Portions of this research were done in the Art Therapy Program, also at the University of New Mexico. 97

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direction of line” there is greater tolerance of ambiguity, diagonals neither clearly horizontal nor vertical. The ground is usurped by the figure with more subtlety and a greater range. Schaeffer-Simmem’s final stage approaches the mystery beyond this simple dualism of figure and ground-“the stage of borderless transition from parts with figural meaning to part with ground meaning.” Here, one figure can become the ground for another figure, functions overlap, rigid simplicity is sacrificed to a more realistic paradox. Although Schaeffer-Simmem did not attempt a direct correlation, he saw this developmental process as building the individuality of the artist. In several case study reports, he described the enhancement of personal identity through art experience in groups of juvenile delinquents, mentally retarded people and others, thus becoming an early spokesperson for art-as-therapy. As an educator, he brought together the visual, cognitive, and self-identity variables with reference to figure/ground relationships.

Gestalt Perception

and Personality

Contemporaneous with Schaeffer-Simmem’s work was the “New Look” movement in perception psychology in which the intricacies of perception were seen in relation to the personality of the perceiver. Witkin, a psychoanalytically-trained gestalt psychologist , rose to leadership in that movement through his identification of the cognitive styles of Field Dependence/Independence (FDI). Witkin had been exploring the role of visual clues in the orientation of the body in space when he became fascinated with the individual differences he encountered (Witkin & Asch, 1948). In the Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT), his subjects were asked to adjust a luminous rod to true vertical when seen in the context of a tilted, luminous frame in an otherwise darkened room. The range of responses (measured in degrees off from true vertical) was unexpectedly large. Witkin began to accurately predict that people with more accommodating and compliant personalities would be more influenced by the orientation of the luminous frame (Lewis, 1986). Witkin rapidly correlated the tendency of some subjects to rely on the visual frame in the RFI with relatively greater difficulty in identifying simple geometrical figures when seen in the complex ground of the Embedded Figures Test (EFT). Those subjects relatively more confounded by the titled frame in the RFI and the obfuscating ground of the EFT, Witkin

RACK called Field Dependent (FD). Those subjects who more easily located the upright regardless of the field also tended to show greater competence at disembedding, these Witkin called Field Independent (FI). The continuous (rather than bell-curved) distribution of scores on these tests and their relative consistency over time led Witkin to propose individual differences in the extent to which an individual’s perception is influenced by the prevailing framework (Witkin, Dyk, Fakerson, Goodenough & Karp, 1962). Early correlations of FDI with psychological functioning in measures of autonomy, identity, and personal boundaries led Witkin to ascribe a stronger sense of self-identity (Lewis, a primary collaborator of Witkin’s would call it “egotism,” 1985) to FI individuals (Witkin et al., 1962; Witkin, Goodenough & Oltman, 1979). Along with a wide array of other research findings, these correlations led Witkin to hypothesize that FDI was a measure of the way in which a person characteristically approaches experience. To the relatively FI person, Witkin attributed an “articulated field approach” (i.e., cognitively analytical) and to the relatively FD individual, a “global field approach” (i.e., a tendency toward fusion). He framed these ideas in the context of the more inclusive Differentiation Theory (Witkin et al., 1962).

Boundary

and Autonomy

Witkin defined differentiation

as a

major formal property of an organismic system . system that is more differentiated shows a greater self-nonself segregation, signifying definite boundaries between an inner core of attributes, feelings and needs identified as the self, and the outer world, particularly other people. In a less differentiated system, in contrast, there is greater connectedness between self and others. (Witkin et al., 1979) A

The FDI construct, seen in terms of Differentiation Theory, refers to the degree of reliance on internal versus external referents. More highly differentiated (FI) persons will develop a tendency to restructure the field with reference to themselves whereas less differentiated (FD) persons will tend to accept the field as is and, especially in ambiguous situations, take their clues from others (Witkin et al., 1979). Plagued from the start by an intransigent dualism. Witkin’s FDI continuum has nevertheless permitted a

FIGURE/GROUND perceptual measure of figure/ground discrimination to be correlated with an astounding array of psychosocial and intrapsychic variables that can be grouped around the theme of boundaries. Because subjects at the extremes of the FDI continuum have often been studied, the portrait that emerges is something of a caricature: Field dependent people appear enmeshed with others, using primitive defenses like denial, repression, and somatization, suffering with depression when mentally ill and with frank hallucinations when psychotic. Field independent people emerge from the research as cold, distant loners using the specialized defenses of intellectualization, splitting, and projecting, suffering obsessive compulsive disorders, and tending toward delusions and paranoia when psychotic (Witkin, 1962, 1965, 1979, 1981, and Lewis, 1985, 1986). The portraits basically read as boundary problems and, indeed, there is some suggestion that the extremes of FDI may be seen more often in psychiatric hospital populations (Lewis, 1985). In addition to the psychological data on defenses and controls, neuropsychological research has supported Witkin’s notion (1979) that “cognitive style” (FDI) penetrates into the structure of the psyche itself by the degree of “segregation of psychological functions . ’ ’ Various studies have demonstrated greater neuropsychological specialization (called lateralization) in relatively more FI individuals (i.e., the preference for using the left hemisphere for verbal processing and the right for visual stimuli-Pizzamiglio & Zoccolotti, 1986). In studies of dreaming and hypnagogic thought (reverie), Bertini (1986) came to the conclusion that (extremely) FD subjects showed a greater fusion between waking and sleeping subsystems than (extremely) FI subjects. Linear correspondences of field dependence and independence with intuition, handedness, and hemispheric dominance were not found in an interesting study expecting to find greater intuitive capacity in FD subjects. Instead, the investigators found the most significantly higher intuitive scores at the mid-range of FDI as determined by the EFI (Fallick & Eliot, 1985). Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to assess subjects on Jung’s topology of functions, field independence (by EFT) was correlated with thinking, not introversion as had been suggested (Thomas, 1983). Similarly, FI has been correlated only with a scientific, problem-solving form of creativity (Gundlach & Gesell, 1979) and better performance on the analytical subtests of standard IQ forms (Witkin et al., 1962). Although Shaeffer-Simmem’s stages of visual

RELATIONS

99

conceiving rest on increasing ability to handle figure/ ground complexity, the tests for FDI, like the culture in which they are used, elicit and reward the kind of analytical, separative thinking associated with field independence. Witkin attempted to overcome this bias and the confining dualism of his own creation in the final revision of Differentiation Theory before his death in 1979. Having mused about the possibilities of the median FDI continuum, Witkin argued for integration as the relevant principle for mental health, flexibility of style as the probable personality value, and suggested training as a way to expand one’s options (1979). Both psychoanalysis (Spero, 1984) and art training (Wiley, 1984) have shown positive resultsat least in improving EFT scores toward field independence, the cognitive mode requested (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). And, of course, art psychotherapy, being both perceptual and psychological training for the client, might be expected to have an even greater impact. However, as Witkin noted, increased competence at disembedding does not necessarily imply greater autonomy. Also problematical is the lack of adequate measures for the “interpersonal competencies” (what Lewis, 1986, calls empathy) that he understands to be the developmental investment of (relatively) field dependent individuals (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). Boundary

and Creativity

In an article exploring the parallels between ego development in the context of object relations theory and symbolic expression in the visual arts, Weir (1987) grapples with the deeper paradox suggested by FDI in the context of art therapy. Through a discussion of the ambiguity in Cezanne’s painting between foreground (figure) and background (which she related to Winnicott’s theory of potential space) Weir comes to the conclusion that “there must be such a time during the creation of a work of art in which there is experienced a feeling of being at one between the artist and his work.” Weir goes on to share the opinion that an individual’s potential for creativity lies in the area between fusion and separation . . , the more an individual can willingly fluctuate between the two areas of fusion and separation (and at times contain both these elements simultaneously, the more creative he can become. (p. 118-emphasis mine)

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Fisher, a psychoanalyst credited with seminal contributions to research on subliminal mental activities, traced this paradox through the psyche itself. Originally written three decades ago, Fisher’s article (1958/ 1988) applied the notion of the Poetzle phenomena to a gestalt-free dimension of the psyche. In this realm, figure and ground are reversed and fused and here images and perceptions undergo subliminal transformations. These transformations were seen by Fisher as the bridge between primary and secondary process thinking, thus becoming the source of a repression deeper than the superego. Paralleling Weir, Fisher has written of the figure/ground ambiguity of Picasso’s art as revealing “the availability to him of the dream-like mechanisms of gestalt-free perception and imagery. ” ’ Additional research suggesting that fluid figure/ ground perception is involved in creativity can be seen in a study undertaken by Rothenberg (1986). In a more conscious version of what appears to be Fisher’s gestalt-free dimension of the psyche, Rothenberg postulates “homospatial thinking” - defined as “actively conceiving two or more discrete entities occupying the same space (where) discrete elements conflict and overlap (in a way) both transitory and hazy” - as “a way station in the formulation of new and more effective forms and structures.” In this well-designed and controlled study, superimposed images, a sort of ultimate expression of SchaefferSimmem’s fourth stage of visual conceiving (borderless transition from parts with figural meaning to parts with ground meaning) were used as a stimulus for creative expression. Visual artwork produced in response to the superimposed images were rated significantly higher in creative potential than artwork produced in response to composite/combination images composed of the same structural elements, but not superimposed. Rothenberg refers to earlier studies in which, by extensively interviewing creative artists and scientists, he identified the key element of the “homospatial process” to be the production of metaphorical structures. This is not surprising to psychotherapists; the work with metaphor has been suggested as the fundamental bridge between arts and other psychotherapies (Gorelick, 1989). And as a psychological theory, Hillman has written of metaphor as the basic experience of an interpenetrating, inherently creative, psyche (1972). What is noteworthy is that, experimentally, simple perception of ambiguous figure/ ground visual stimuli seems to enhance the process of bringing these metaphors to birth.

RACK A Borderless

Paradigm

If creative work, dependent on the formation of metaphor, arises from a gestalt-free zone, the holographic process may be the best model of the psyche for creative arts therapists. Although occupying only two dimensions in space, the holograph is a three dimensional image that reveals the ground around the figure by a simple shift of perspective. With the development of the laser as a coherent light source, the creation of the first holographic image was announced in 1965. The necessary mathematics, however, based largely on correlations, had won Dennis Gabor a Nobel Prize in 1947. Gabor’s work, in turn, reached back to Leibniz’ calculus in the seventeenth century, fully one hundred years before Kant (Wilbur, 1978/1985a). The hologram (a kind of photographic plate) is often analogized to the frozen surface of a pond into which pebbles have been dropped. The interference pattern created by the ripples (frequencies) extends throughout the pond (plate). Crucial to our investigation of the figure/ground metaphor for part-to-whole relationships is the fact that, if the hologram is broken, any piece of it will reconstruct the entire image (in this case, the pattern of the pebbles) though the plate itself appears as a meaningless swirl until reflected and referenced with coherent light. Pribram, a Stanford neuroscientist, has proposed the hologram as a model for understanding the enigma of distributed memory in the brain (i.e., the fact that memory cannot be specifically located in brain tissue). After encountering the thought of physicist David Bohm, Pribram expanded the insight gained from the holographic model (the primacy of the “the frequency domain”) to the nature of reality itself, particularly image formation and subject/object relationships. Resting on empirical neurological research supporting his theoretical construct, Pribram (1985, pp. 33-34) wrote: .the process of image construction involves a reciprocal stage, a transformation into the frequency (holographic) domain. This domain is characteristic not only of brain processing, as we have seen, but of physical reality as well. Bohm refers to it as the implicate order in which points become enfolded and distributed throughout the brain. In the implicate, holographic domain, the distinction between points becomes blurred; information becomes distributed as in the example of the surface of the pond. What is organism (with its component

FIGURE/GROUND organs) is no longer sharply distinguished from what lies outside the boundaries of the skin. In the holographic domain, each organism represents in some manner the universe, and each portion of the universe represents in some manner the organisms within it. We can see this “transformation into the frequency domain” as a neuroscientist’s version of the homospatial process giving rise to metaphorical structure. Applied to creative arts therapy and depth psychology, Bohm’s (Weber, 1985) “implicate order” might be paralleled with the patterning of the archetypal psyche. Here we find that a metaphorical image is not experienced as a fragment but as a whole made resonant with universal dimensional@. The clinical importance of such resonance is discussed by psychoanalyst Levenson in proposing the hologram as a model for understanding the phenomena of insight and change in psychotherapy. Levenson (1976) sees the therapeutic process, regardless of theoretical orientation, as the elaborating and “matching” of “appropriate configurations of experience” in “a search for an underlying common pattern of meaning, best expressed in the holographic mode. ” We can recognize the centrality of metaphor in this idea of matching but Levenson goes further. Inspired by the work of Pribram and Bohm, he sees the holographic principle of isomorphism to also structure the phenomena of therapist engagement in the client system and the uncanny but observable fact that any small piece of the clinical material contains the total configuration enfolded within it. Thus Levenson (p. 9) suggests that . . .the model of neuropsychological functioning, the model of therapeutic engagement, the model of intervention and the model of insight and change are all truly homologous; that is they are connected not by analogy or metaphor but real similarity and isomotphism in structure.

Holo-Therapy The insights gained from the holographic paradigm bring a rich fermentation to the practice of creative arts psychotherapy. The microcosm of the image itself, which may be understood to include any self-expressive work, including behavior, becomes a figure/ground window into a deeper reality of mind. In the sacred process of bringing an image to birth, through the therapeutic work with metaphor and the

RELATIONS creative process, and in the often awkward realities of transference/countertransference, the subtleties of the holographic paradigm can both authenticate and guide our work. In Bohm’s vision, the explicate/manifest order is unfolded from the implicate/unmanifest as a mere ripple on the surface of the sea. In an interview with Weber (1985), he likens what he calls “the holomovement” to the relationship of clouds and air. The emergence of images from the sea of the unconscious and the revelation of the figure in the ground of a piece of artwork earn a sense of respect and a kind of awe when viewed in such a context. We are reminded of the ephemeral nature of what is manifest and, perhaps more important because neglected, the underlying significance of all that is not. Pribram’s theory of the primacy of the frequency domain in brain physiology has important implications for the use of music and sound, particularly in the evocation of the frequency patterns of memory. If Rothenberg’s work with visual stimulation by superimposed images can be assumed to excite this dimension, the experimental data suggest that enhancement of creativity could be expected from sound as well. The therapeutic possibilities inherent in the movement of memory with metaphor should spur increased dedication to the integration of music and art therapies. The collection of articles in the book, The Holographic Paradigm (Wilber, 1985b), includes farreaching applications to ESP, synchronicity, and traditional Eastern philosophies of enlightenment. The use of the paradigm as a model for transpersonah metaphysical reality, however, is severely criticized by the book’s editor, Ken Wilber, arguing that it is a fallacious extrapolation from lower to higher orders. Wilber does find in Pribram’s work a model for part-to-whole relationships and a potential validation for the “direct experience of actual interpersonal empathy” (Wilber, 1979/1985b). Confining ourselves to just this realm, we are still confronted with a physical challenge to our illusion of separateness, even if only on a psychological level. Framed in this way, the oddly guilt-laden experience of transference/ countertransference becomes more than Jung’s already detoxified view of projection as being the natural pathway for the emergence of an unconscious element into consciousness; it becomes a real and inescapable dimension of true relationship. The connection between empathy and creativity has been noted in Western philosophy since the time

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of the Romantics (Engell, 1981). The two become firmly linked to the development and healing of the self in the theoretical framework of Kohut’s selfpsychology (1978, 1985). In Kohut’s work, developed over a lifetime of clinical and intellectual inquiry through psychoanalysis (which he calls “the science of empathy”), the interpenetration of psyche through empathic relationship is critical to both the therapeutic process and the psychic ecology of the individual; its lack is seen as cause and symptom of, its use as curative to, and its emergence-along with creativity-as the transformation of, injuries to the narcissistic (self-loving) sector of the self. In this view, the permeability of boundaries becomes crucial to a reliable sense of self and self-esteem. (And, in Kohut’s metapsychology, to social transformation as well.) Self-psychology linked to the holographic paradigm constitutes a serious challenge to our dualistic notions of the individuation process. Rather than a dialectical interplay between merger/autonomy or unconscious/conscious ego, with the emphasized value usually placed on the latter, we see a far more dynamic holomovement of learning to unfold and manifest, to enfold and release from manifestation, some of the myriad possibilities that we all share. What is unique in our expression depends on our subliminal choice of metaphor. Creative work therapeutically focused toward this process, Cane’s (1951/ 1983) seminal work with the scribble being the most fundamental example, addresses the paradox directly. The individuation process is no longer aimed at a finished, static figure, but rather at a skillful dancing at the empathic boundary between the manifest self and the unmanifest, including the archetypal psyche and other beings. This idea serves as a deepening basis for the clinical experience, felt belief, and repeated claim of many art therapists and educators that “he who forms artistically in turn forms himself” (Shaeffer-Simmem, 1948). The holographic perspective has particular relevance to working with women (originally found to be more field dependent than men-Witkin et al., 1962) as well as the feminine dimension of males and society. It has been noted that the individuation process for women is complicated by their inability to make a separation from the mother on the basis of gender difference. From the perspective of object relations theory, this has been seen as a developmental deficiency (Levenson, 1984). But there is good reason for a different conclusion to be drawn. Perhaps

RACK the pattern of female individuation within a relational matrix, with its felt need to maintain connectedness and consequent inhibition of conflict (Kaplan & Yasinski, 1984), is the true developmental process for all humans (as well as for ecosystems), not just females and infants. Aggressive autonomy and clearlyboundaried self-agency can be seen as a societallyreinforced distortion of the natural, biophysical reality and human psychological challenge. Such a view provides an important ballast to the currently popular antipathy for so-called codependency. Furthermore, it suggests the encouragement of a leadership role for the feminine, within which the real process has been engaged more deeply, rather than a therapeutic goal of compensation.’ Because our social hologram tends to unfold exploitation right along with permeability, we might honor more deeply the dynamic complexities of the boundary issues distressing so many women today. It seems that creative therapies may be a treatment of choice in their working through. Discussion

Various parallels of image and psyche have been explored. Figure/ground relationships in conception, perception, and expression have been related to the self/nonself work of autonomy and ego development. Creative expression seems to arise from a gestalt-free zone that facilitates the change-bearing power of metaphor (meta=change, phor= to bear). The holographic model transcends the harsh dualism of the part and the whole, of figure and ground, by providing an example of the part being a potentially perfect reflection of the whole. With the brain as lens, the image becomes three dimensional. The boundary then becomes a kind of selective reflection through metaphor, a carrying over, through a frequency domain where figure/ground and self/other relationships become blurred, reversed, and fluid-and therein are transformed. Viewed from this perspective, a measure of truth and aesthetic value may be the extent to which one expression, unfolded from the unmanifest as a self or work of art, remains in holographic resonance with the whole. Although the FDI construct and its broader framework of Differentiation Theory has been criticized as a non-essential distinction seriously flawed by its lack of direct measures for field dependence (see Missler, 1986), it has made tremendous contributions to the bridging of neurophysiology, social psychology, and individuality through visual perception of the gestalt.

FIGURE/GROUND As Witkin proposed, competence at disembedding on the EFT seems to reflect an ability to break up a gestalt and reorganize a field (i.e., cognitive restructuring). This same cognitive capacity can be used to create a boundary between the self and nonself, to manipulate impressions from both outside and the inner psyche, to achieve a sense of control that may be wholly illusory, but is perhaps the stuff of ego identity and artistic skill. It may be akin to the coherent light required to project and reference an image from the figureless ground of a holographic plate. As creative arts psychotherapists. it is important to realize that this is one aspect of a deeper paradox. The richness of love, the inspiration of art, and the empathy of psychotherapy seem to require the ability to dance into that gestalt-free zone, a con-fusion of figure with ground and one with another, a holographic domain in which metaphor is born. If FDI “catches the self as it organizes to respond to its surround,” as Lewis puts it, then the relevant wisdom for this construct may have been written five thousand years ago by Chinese sages. In the commentary of the I Ching on hexagram #3, Chun, Difficulty in the Beginning, Richard Wilhelm (1950, pp. 16-17) translated: Times of growth are beset with difficulties. They resemble a first birth. But these difficulties arise from the very profusion of all that is struggling to attain form . . . . in the chaos of difficulty in the beginning, order is already implicit. So too the superior man has to arrange

and

organize

the inchoate

profusion

of

such times of beginning, just as one sorts out silk threads from a knotted tangle and binds them into skeins. In order to find one’s place in the infinity of being, one must be able both to separate and unite.

Notes ‘It is interesting to note that in a current addendum to the original research, Fisher discussed the overlap between subliminal research and the “New Look” movement in cognitive/perception psychology (theoretical home of the FDI research). Fisher sees in cognitive psychology a host of theoretical constructs couched in euphemisms derived from the computer metaphor that replicate basic Freudian concepts concerning the Unconscious. Fisher notes the fertile possibilities of an interdisciplinary convergence between the two fields that have, thus far, studiously ignored one another. *For a thought provoking and scholarly explication of the historical and cultural signifiance of this thought, the reader is encouraged to review Raine Eisler’s The Chalice and The Blade (New York: Harper & Row, 1987).

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Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cane, F. (1983). The artist in each of us. Craftsbury Common, VT: Art Therapy Publications. (Original work 1951) Engell, J. (1981). The creative imagination. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Fallik, B., & Eliot, Jr. (1985). Intuition, cogmtive style and hemisphere processing. Perceptual and Motor Skills 6, 683697.

Fisher, C. (1988). Further observations Psychoanalysis

and

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