Psychoanalysis in cosmology

Psychoanalysis in Cosmology By HAROLD

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S Y C H O A N A L Y S I S is theory, therapy, technique, a method of investigation and a b o d y of knowledge. It is peoph:, organizations, institutions, a movement, history; education, training and ~i profession. It is a literature, theoretical and practical, applied to and influencing a spectrum of disciplines. A ~sroduet of the Western world, it appeared in the late nineteenth centur T and is approaching its centenary. SCIENCE AND PSYCtIOANALYSIS

H o w come psychoanalysis became manifest when, where, how, why and through w h o m it did? What was its relation to the evolution of and revolutions in the sciences (XVisser~chaften)? How did tlae ascendancy of the natural sciences (Naturwissenscha/ten) over the humanities (Gei,vteswissenschaften) participate in this happening? W h a t does the sequence from creative reason, the Greek logos, through ecstatic reason, the Enlightenment, become abstract reason in the ninteenth centu W, bursting forth as technical reason in the twentieth, illuminate regarding the appearance of psychoanalysis? ~;¢hat effects did the change, begun centuries ago, in the structure of our social world, from a Gemeinschaft ( c o m m u n i t y ) to a Gesellscha[t ( c o m p a n y ) , have on these progressio, ns in reason, science and psychoanalysis? Glimpsing man's universal myths, of which science is one, their form and content, the mind structures in which the), are e m b e d d e d , the grammars in which they are perceived and communicated, m a y inform us regarding the emergence and movement of psychoanalysis over time and across the world. I l o w scientific is psychoanalysis? "What makes any subject scientific?" remarked Hook, is "a very thorny pro.blem on which no consensus has been reached by plailosoplaers of science. "'~ Yet the), informed the psychoanalysts participating in this conference that scientific they were not. But how scientific is science? Science is a myth in which we have a faith concludes yon ~Veizs:,ieker.-" It functions as a dominating religion, differing little in its mythical ("theoretical") components from past universal myths. Its central concepts are historical extensions of the Judeo-Christian single God who orders the universe and the Platonic notions of unity, mind and "'pure idea." The scientific method l l a n o L o KELMAN, M.D.. I).Mo.Sc.: Formerly Dr,an, Anwrican Institute fi~r Psychoqnalysis; President, American Academy o/ Psochoarlalysis, New York, N. )'. Under the title o[ "'Psychoanalysis: Some Philosophical and International Concert~,'" part o[ this paper appeared in M O D E R N P S Y C I I O A N A L Y S I S : N E W D I R E C T I O N S A N D PERSPECTI$~ES, Judd t~larmor, M.D., Editor., N e w York, Basic Books, 1968. Reprinted tcith the permission o] Basic Books. Cox~PnE11~:Xs~w~: l'svcH~A'r1~v, VOL. 9, Nc~ /3, (November), 19fJ8

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is e m p l o y e d w i t h as m u c h (or as little) rigor u n d e r the r u b r i c of other u n i v e r s a l m y t h s as u n d e r that of science. M a n u e l a finds all W e s t e r n theories of history, since p a g a n times, v a r i a t i o n s of two "'shapes,'" one cyclical t h e o t h e r progressive. I t e asserts t h e s e g r e a t arehet-ypes a r e 12ot logically a r g u a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y are rooted in m a n s n a t u r e e x p r e s s i v e of religious cravings, p s y c h o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s or m e t a p h y s i c a l beliefs, r e m d n i s c e n t of M a s s e r m a n s" " t Ur defenses, faiths or delusions. T h e cyclical m y t h d e r i v e d f r o m d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e , is m o r a l l y n e u t r a l , h e n c e d e p r e s s i v e a n d p e s s i m i s t i c to W e s t e r n e r s . T h e m y t h of progress i s a p r o d u c t of reflection, i n v o l v i n g a m o r a l order, o p t i m i s t i c a l l y offering, in the form of the C h r i s t k m a n d the s c i e n c e m y t h s , an e s c a p e f r o m e t e r n a l h u m a n suffering. H i s t o r y h a s m a d e t h e m y t h of progress look like a b l a s p h e m y . COS~IOLOGIES

All cosmologies, local a n d extensive, t r a n s i e n t a n d alive, are e x p r e s s i v e of t h r e e mind-structm-es, b e l i e v e s H a a s : g t h a t of the m a g i e world, totally cyclical; of the East, totally cyclical w i t h a n a p p a r e n t p r o g r e s s i v e aspect; a n d t h a t of the W e s t , a p p a r e n t l y totally p r o g r e s s i v e b u t still rooted in the cyclical. In all u n i v e r s a l m y t h s m a n ' s p e r e n n i a l c o n c e n l s m u s t b e d e a l t with; life, d e a t h , f r e e d o m , causality, time, space, p h e n o m e n a a n d reality. T h e c h a n g i n g f o r m u lated r e s p o n s e s to these issues is r e l e v a n t to a f o u r t h c o s m i c consciousness essential to our s u r v i v a l on this p l a n e t a n d the p l a c e ) s v c h o a n a l v s i s m a y h a v e in it, I n t h e m a g i c w o r l d of the so-ealled p r i m i t i v e , the g r a s p e d e m p i r i c a l differenees in things are o b l i t e r a t e d b v "'The d e e p c o n v i c t i o n of a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i n d e l i b l e solidarittj of life." N a t u r e , a n i m a t e a n d i n a n i m a t e , b e c o m e s "'the .s.ociettj of life" w h i c h p a r t i c i p a t e s in its religious feelings a n d m y t h s . C a s s i r e r adds, " T h e f e e l i n g of the i n d e s t r u e t i h l q unit), of life is so strong a n d u n s h a k e a b l e as to den)' a n d d e f y t h e fact of d e a t h . . . D e a t h is n e v e r r e g a r d e d a s a natural phenomenon It a l w a y s d e p e n d s on indi~qdual a n d f o r t u i t o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s . . . T h e life of m a n has no definite limits in s p a c e a n d time. It e x t e n d s over the w h o l e r e a l m o[ n a t u r e a n d over the w h o l e of m a n ' s histo~,."" Born into the collectivity of life, e a c h one's i d e n t i t y w i t h it is r e c u r r e n t l y r e v i t a l i z e d w i t h r e p e t i t i v e s a m e n e s s t h r o u g h its m y t h w h i c h "'is t h o u g h t to express the absolute lrtitk, b e c a u s e it n a r r a t e s .s.acrcd ]fistou] " E l i a d e s a y" s one " m a g i c a l l y r e e n t e r s the G r e a t T i m e . . . the h o l y time of the h e g i n n i n g s (in illo tempore), "'v unites w i t h a n d b e c o m e s the m y t h i c h e r o or G o d as exemplar. In the m a g i c w o r l d things are not i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e m s e l v e s , a p p e a r a n c e counts for n o t h i n g a n d o c u l a r p r o o f carries no conviction. S y m b o l i s m is pree m i n e n t , not as abstraction. T i m e a n d s p a c e as c o n c e p t s h a r d l y exist. K n o w i n g is n o n c o n c e p t u a l a w a r e n e s s -rod k n o w i n g is i n f l u e n c i n g . M y t h is reality. T h e p a r a n o r m a l is the n o r m a l a n d the d r e a d - f u l c o n s t a n t l y i m m i n e n t , m e d i a t e d w i t h t h r o u g h the p o w e r s of the m e d i c i n e m a n . "~ "If we look at the history of our own E u r o p e a n civilization we find that e v e n in the most a d v a n c e d stages, in the stages of a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d a n d vcr-," •

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refined intellectual culture, the be lie f in m a g i c was not seriously shaken. ''° By comparison w ith the vitality of the m a g i c a l t h i n k i n g of pre-literate groups, that of our patients is pallid and unsophisticated. F r e u d ' s unconscious reads like a description of the m a g i c world. "Instinctual i m p u l se s are co-ordinate w ith one another, exist side b y side, and are e x e m p t from m u t a l contradiction . . . T h e r e is in this system no negation, no dubiety, no v a r y i n g degree of certainty . . Intensity oR c athexis is m o b i l e in a far greater degree in this than other systems . . . Tile processes of tile system Ucs are timeless, i.e., they are not o r d e r e d temporally, are not altered b y the passage of time, in fact bear no relation'to time at a l l . . . T h e processes of the Ucs are just as little related to reality." T h e r e is "%lLbsCitutlon of psychic for

external reality. "'~ "'The most conspicuous gener a l characteristic of the m a g i c universe was its state of equipoise in w h i c h all things w e r e s u s p e n d e d ~ i n short, its balance. "5 T h e notion of b a l a n c e pervad e s Eastern thought as in C h i n e s e Yin-Yang. It is exemplified by C a n n o n ' s "homeostasis" in dae W e s t a nd again affirmed in "'A N e w View of Disease. "'u T h e notion is m a t h e m a t i z e d a nd a p p l i e d in a spectrum of disciplines b y M a r u y a m a . In "The Second C y b e r n e t i c s " he describes "'Deviation-Amplifying M u t u a l Causal Processes" ( m o r p h o g e n e s i s ) b a l a n c i n g the "First Cybenaeties" c o n c e r n e d w i t h 'deviation-counteracting m u t u a l causal processes" (3lorphosta sis) . ~° Platt asserts that in "a n e w k in d of life" toward whicla we are m o v i n g "steady-state forms" will p r e d o m i n a t e . ~1 This crescendo of concern with b a l a n c e m a y reflect a p r i m o r d i a l response d e m a n d i n g modern idioms to confront o u r dreads and reestablish the "equipoise" of the so-called primitive. In evolving from the m a g i c world tlle Ea st r e m a i n e d facing a nd open to the m a g i c world a n d its dread, with an attitude of a we w h i c h "unites m a n with the cause of his ax~'e." This fulfillfil~, experience exerts a restraining influence on "the intellectual and volitional components" of the m i n d from "'developing into i n d e p e n d e n t l y f u n c t i o n i n g activities.'" Thus the Eastern m i n d "'maintains a wholeness rarely found in the XVes~,"'5 an awareness possibly expressed iu the e m e r g e n c e of holistic philosophies (XVhitehcad, Smuts, XVertheimer, Coldstein, I I o r n e y ) . T he VVest moved a wa y ~md t u r n e d its b a c k on the m a g i c world, f a c ing the universe with the attitude of w o n d e r w h i c h is the b e g i n n i n g of philosophy. By .a b a l a n c e d ccntl-ipetal in-look and a centrifugal out-look, the East m a i n t a i n e d its equipoise but g r a d u a l l y veered toward a dis-torted inwardness a n d is now s w i n g i n g to an o v e r e m p h a s i s on science ~md is turn in g its b a c k on its ancient wisdom. T h e \Vest a t t e m p t e d to break out of the cyclical myths with progressive ones. It exaggerated the centrifugal, b e c a m e trapped in a s u b j e c t / o b j e c t oppositi0nal splitting "of na tur e a nd d i l u t e d its awe, m a k i n g unio mystica less possible. It was forcibly confronted by 0ae e m p t i n e ss and meaninglessness of a u n i v e r s e solely wonder-ful a n d is n o w b e i n g p l u m m e t e d into the dread-ful, pointed at in existentialism. In the E a s t all otheraless is h e l d near, the g r i m - a n d the f r i e n d l i e r , restraining exaltation or d e g r a d a t i o n of pain or pleasure, in m a n a nd nature. T h r o u g h the subjeetifying attitude all otherness is e xpe r ie nc e d as identical •

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a n d j u x t a p o s e d , h e n c e c o m p l e m e n t a r i e s a n d contraries can r e m a i n side 1)v side w i t h i n d i f f e r e n c e a n d u n c o n c e r n . O r d e r is no necessity, c a u s a l i t y no d i c t u m trod contraries n e e d b e no conflict. T h r o u g h the s u b j e c t i f y i n g attitude, c o n t i n u i n g c o n t a c t a n d i m m e d i a t e access to a l l otherness, w h i c h is tile Real, is m a i n t a i n e d . F r o m d m R e a l are c o n t i n u a l l y e m e r g i n g , to b e r e s o r b e d b a c k into t h e i r source, the forms, tile p h e n o m e n a , w h i c h a r e m e r e a p p e a r a n c e , ,maya. In ,some E a s t e r n p h i l o s o p h i e s the g r e a t e s t sin is a t t a c h m e n t to f o r m itself. L o o s e n i n g a t t a c h m e n t to all f o r m s a r i s i n g in consciousness, e m p t y i n g the m i n d of a l l forms, a n d beeomh~g a b s o l u t e n o n - a t t a c h m e n t is b e e o r n i n g p u r e subject, ~a b s o l u t e n e s s consciousness, total c o n t a e t a n d i d e n t i t y w i t h the Real, w h i c h is w i s d o m , w h i c h is f r e e d o m . In the r e v e r e d sage w h o is the Real, the p a r a n o r m a l is possible, i n c i d e n t a l a n d an a s p e c t of his n o r m a l i t y . P a i n a n d p l e a s u r e are e x p e r i e n c e d b u t do not d o m i n a t e consciousness. F i n i t e n e s s is a c c e p t e d w i t h e q u a n i m i t y . Snell d i s m a n t l i n g of the p h e n o m e n a of t h e i r contents a n d the m i n d of i t s forms is possible b e c a u s e "'Eastern cognition i,v interested in consciousne.~.s" itself" a n d p r o d u c e d m o s t of the w o r l d ' s religions. By contrast "%Vestern cognition i.s" interested in the objects of con.~ciou~ness, w h i c h m a d e s c i e n c e possible. 5 T i m e in the E a s t e n l m i n d h a s n o r e a l i t y i n d e p e n d e n t of e x p e r i e n c e d time a d h e r i n g to p h e n o m e n a c o n n e c t e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n a t u r e . F r o m the \Vest's v i e w I n d i a ' s a t t i t u d e is a-historical. Its h i s t o r i o g r a p h y is a c o m p o s i t e of allegories on the g r e a t h u m a n t h e m e s d r a m a t i z e d in the actions of m y t h i c a l figures. I n the I n d i m l c o s m o g o n y t h e r e are " b o u n d l e s s a n d n m n b e r l e s s w o r l d s w h i c h co-exist w i t h tile knoxx~l u n i v e r s e m~d s u c c e e d e a c h o t h e r in a n eternal a n d u n c h a n g e a b l e rhvthm, .'" T h i s c y c l i c u n f o l d i n g is c o m p l e t e d in 311 trillion ),ears, to b e "°absorbed in the Absolute," to start anew. "~ T h i s b r i l l i a n t i n t u i t i o n is b e i n g c o n f i r m e d b y.. a s t r o n o m e~r s 1,, - - '1"~ ,'m.d Bro~x3~'s " L i v i n g Clocks. 'q~ In a n c i e n t C h i n a , time w a s e x p e r i e n c e d as a n u n c o n n e c t e d succession in the ever present: f a m i l y into w h i c h ,-meestors are c o n t h m a l l y reborn. T h e c u r r e n t f a m i l y h a d no p e r s o n a l n a t u r e b u t w e r e trustees of a legaev. To the \Vest the G r e e k s g a v e the notions of arche-principle or o r g a n i z a t i o n : the p r e c i o u s n e s s of t h e p h e n o m e n a , the s e a r c h for the i r r e d u c i b l e s o m e t h i n g e x e m p l i f i e d b y D e m o c r i l u s ' atoms, c a u s a l i t y and its o b j e c t i f y i n g m i n d , w h i c h is the h a l l m a r k of tim West. All is t u r n e d into objects: the e x t e n l a l world. the h u m a n b o d y a n d its parts, the c o n t e n t s of consciousness a n d of "the tmeonscious." K n o w l e d g e is w h a t can b e g a i n e d b y concepts w h i c h a t t e m p t to organize into a u n i t y tim variety" of the p h e n o m e n a . T h e W e s t ' s ideal carried to its illogical imp~')ssibility is p u r e d i s e m b o d i e d m i n d c o n f r o n t i n g itself. "In the end, the m i n d faces itself" ( E d d i n g t o n ) . T h e p a r a n o r m a l is r e g a r d e d as a b n o r m a l . T h e response to it is often d r e a d a n d ignorance: w h i c h is called "'resistance." T h e Creeks, still d o s e to the s u b j e c t i f y i n g attitude, h a d two w o r d s for lime: kairo.% q u a l i t a t i v e , e x p e r i e n t i a l t i m e r e f e r r i n g to u n i q u e m o m e n t s ~ also to a n existential c o n c e p t ; ~5 a n d chronos: the q u a n t i t a t i v e , repetitive, ab•stract t i m e of the t e m p o r a l process. For the p r i m i t i v e there w a s only the re-

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p e t i t i v e sameness of illo lempore with empirical awareness of eyelicity in daily and seasonal h a p p e n i n g s a nd in the living t h r e e generations. The. problems of finiteness a n d i m m o r t a l i t y did not exist. The timelessness and a-tenaporality of the East is not the eternal of the VVest. The E a s t was also aware of time attached to e m p i r i c a l events and to abstractions to the extent they h a d developed them. In a t t e m p t i n ~ to escar)e t h e cyclical the \Vest trapped itself into defining m a n as a time-biaading a n i m a l (Korzybski) a n d into the terrorizing problems of f n i t e n e s s a nd mortalit-y w i t h his progressive m y t h of uni-direetional time. In the m a g i c world, one of transmutations united through d y n m n i c correspondences, similarity and difference in forms as well as the continuity a n d contiguity of them could not be issues n o r could there be of i n d i v i d u a l ib" or self, for it was identical with the collectivi~,. W i t h the East's g u i d i n g principle of identity and juxtaposition, and its attitudes toward similarity and difference, continuity and contiguity mad n o n - a t t a c h m e n t to forms, mad with its experience of the all in all, the colloetivit)', the p r o b l e m of indi~,qduality, of the self could not arise as the West conceptualized it. Only ~qth the separation, the gap a n d the opposition b e t w e e n subject a nd object, the preciousness of the p h e n o m e n a , their s i m i l a r i ~ versus their differences, their continuit3" versus their contiguit),, their manifestations in the group versus those in individuals. the u n i t y versus their variety, does the issue of self be c ome a fright-ful one. i n its attempt to escape the cyclical the \Vest created a nd t r a p p e d itself in the p r o b l e ms of free will versus d e t e r m i n i s m and b e c a m e obsessed with the deceptiveness of perception. For the past century, m e n of good will a nd wisdom, East a nd \Vest, hav~. been searching for a fourth unitive wor ld view (Sri Aurobindo, V i v e k a n a n d a , Schweitzer, de C hardin, Haas. Northrop). The}" h a v e been a t t e m p t i n g an integration of the cyclic a n d progressive m y t h s into a n e w creative realib" expressed in idioms a p p r o p r i a t e a n d a d e q u a t e to our time. Cosmologies, visions, the root m e a n i n g of theore (Greek), are frames of orientation giving coherence to the universe. This definition is generally" applical)le. T h e f r a m e m a y be ne a r or in infinity, finite or indefinite, e x p a n d i n g or contracting. T h e forms constituting the patterns witllin the f r a m e m a y have orderly, disorderly or both a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d be some how connected. Becoming oriented is cteriving a sense of where, when, what, h o w ,and w h y each i n d i v i d u a l is. in his relations to himself, others, nature, a nd to an impersonal or personalized universe. The feeling of m e a n i n g arises from increasing awareness of and faxniliarity with the connectedness a n d coherence of the frame's contents. "~Vhen aspects of frames of orientation b e c o m e frames of devotion the religious dimension is manifest; w h e n infused with thq aesthetic we h a v e art: and whe,i ordered u n d e r concepts we can ha ve science. T I l E USIVERSAt. I:?OR~IING PROCESS

All myths are experienced and c o m m u n i c a t e d in forms, p r o d u c e d through and resorbed back into their source variously n a m e d through time: chit (Hinduism); hsin~ (C hinese p h i l o s o p h y ) ; tathata ( Z e n ) ; God, pure [ac't, 16 Dasein

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(existentialisln). "l']ae emerging forms may be experienced as transmutable and interchangeable, the magic world; as evanescent maya, the East, as cherished phenomena or threatening noumena. The germinative idea of form has been evolved into a language of process by "0/hyte. 1T Klee, tragic ge~,,ius, trained artist, musician and mathematician, moved by the work of primitives, peasants and children, with his childlike doodles, filled with paradox, the absurd and the kinetic properties of lines evolved an art based on "forming" not on statie forms. ~s A universal forming process ~:' is postulated, applicable to all myths, eyclieal and progressive. Of this process the symbolizing process is an aspect, metaphorically a spiral or a sequence of interconnected levels, constituted of the products of abstracting to the highest order of logical thought and of concretizing, as sign, gasture, behavior, so]rod or word, and in the forms of blushing, dancing or dreaming. Movement along this spiral is from depth to surface and reversely. The first or lower levels of the spiral are pre-rationative which means, though essential to, they are prior to thinking in the hum~-n sense. Accordingly, change m a y happen through the therapy of life. Change can occur without becoming manifest in f o r m s and even if formulated not reach a~vareness. M a n y human processes cannot come into aveareness or if in awareness cannot be manifested in the dimension of thought. Communing, =° of whieh the communion of mother and infant is the prototype, is the basis of all communication in a human sense. Communing d)tains at the pre-rationative levds throughout life and in infancy is the only form of relating and communicating because the rationative is not possible before nine to twelve months. In this period, and up to thirty, months, during which the pre-rationative predominates, the mother's communing with her infant. and hence her communicating is via the emotive, empathic and the intuitive. in pro-verbal, subliminal, inchoate, and allusive forms, through the figurative and the demonstrable, the tactile and the 1)ehavioral. expressed bodily, facially and in sound. In her communing, she eommunieates her idioms and through them the world, hers and her infant's, as do all the communing ones, in their mothering, fathering, brothering, sistering, as do all others in the extended family of persons intluencing that child. Since maximal and most rapid learning can occur in early life, as there is sensitivity, respect and love for that being's unique "'Critical Periods of Behavior D e v e l o p m e n t , "':1 w h a t the communing ones communicated will be most deeply embedded and remembered in those early learned idioms. "The degree of emotiolJal arousal," in a spectrum from the most affeetionate to the most ave]sire, its speed of happening and duration, determine the intensity of lhe ties to the communing ones. The mutual bind of masochists and sadists becomes more understandable as do the difficulties in loosening it. To resolve perversions of communing and relati~ig, the idioms of the languages of the perverted ones must be learned by the helper to communicate to the patient ways of unlearning his familiar idioms and become open to new ways of learning and new idioms appropriate to his uniqueness as a healthier growing t)eing.

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Tile move from t h e totally pre-rationative at birth to the a c q u i s i t i o n - o f the ratJonative is i~eminiscent of t h e metaphorical s y m b o l i c spiral, s u g g e s t i v e of tile evolution from the identity of t h e subjectifying a n d t h e objectifying attiff~des in th~ magic world, t h r o u g h the emphasis on the former:in th'e E a s t and on tile latter in the West-. This appears to b e the historical sequence, philologically reflected ~ the nained aspects of the 14ac.,,~¢ng process in Sanskrit, through Greek, Latin, the Romance and G e r m a n i c laiaguages. T h e knowing process is essential to being h u m a n . Since h o m o s a p i e n s a p p e a r e d (while c o m m u n i n g a n d relating), dread, awe, and w o n d e r .participated in the knowing process. Its m a i n aspects are informing, explaining, instnaeting, teaching, educating, responding, experiencing, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , learning and r e m e m b e r i n g toward acquiring information, havin~ knowledge and becoming wise. Their root meanings i m p l y a human" process having immediacy, intensities of experiencing, involving dread, a w e , reverence, respect, faith, love. This philological evolu~on reveal~ a shift from the subjeetilying to the objectifying attitude, from fhe emotive to the conceptual, from showing to telling, from wisdom,, to knowledge, to information. All point to a movement, in tile course of a lifetime, from living one's organic idioms to a compulsive intellectualizing. E a c h generation must create new idioms, more possible through" contact with their own, and those of others across time, "'The poet's moraI_ity? says QuaMmodo, '-'e "is in finding the forms that will express anew for his generation the reality of h u m a n dignity.'~ Aware of the exhaustion of e!wrent forms, artists turned for inspiration to prehistoric and primitive art, This is evident in the destructioq of t]ae object, in abstract painting ,and in impressionism. A n d concomitantly, we have, following Klee s for,fling art~ C a l d e r s mobiles and Tinguely's mrotorized sculptures which p e r p e t u a t e or destroy themselves. E a c h person's idioms are e m b e d d e d in his m i n d Structtlre and e:~pressed through his language. Verb oriented Eski'mo a n d B u r m e s e c o m m u n i c a t e differciitlv than noun oriented Italian and Swedish. Painted Chinese idiograms, emotive and aesthetic, subjectively oriented, describe a different world than written phonetic, alphabetic, syllabic, conceptual, prose English in keeping with \Vhorf's "linguistic relatLdty principle.'" H e asserted that "users of markedly different g r a m m a r s are pointed . . . t o w a r d different t)qges of observations and different evaluations of externally similar acts of observation, and hence are not equivalent as observers b u t must arrive a t s o m e w h a t different views of the xs9orld. ~O_z %qlen Per D" arrived (1853), the Japanese h a d no w o r d for philosophy in the \Vestern sense or available conceptual access to its structure. Because the "Western term philosophy was not a p p l i c a b l e ' i n E a s t e r n thought and because of the Eastern "'desire for essence or lsness," H a a s coined the term "philousia'" from the Greek ousia m e a n i n g essence. ~ "'In Japanese, the term for objective is p r o n o u n c e d "kyakkmL" while the term for subjective is p r o n o u n c e d 'shukan. • " T h e c h a r a c t e r ( s h u ) has the basic meaning of host or master while the character ( k y a k n ) has the basic m e a n i n g of guest. T h e second character (kan) has the basic m e a n i n g of perception. Subjective 13henomc,na are p h e n o m e n a perceived in the objective mode, and

58¢~

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o b j e c t i v e p h e n o m e n a are p h e n o m e n a p e r c e i v e d in the. objective m o d e . E x p e r i e n c i n g is p o l a r i z e d into a s u b j e c t m o d e , s y m b o l i z e d b y the host, a n d an objecti r e m o d e , s y m b o l i z e d b y t h e guest. T h u s , f o r m e r l y , w h e n O r i e n t a l s s o u g h t to establish the c o n c e p t of o b j e c t i v e reality, t l m y still a p p r o a c h e d it not as s o m e t h i n g out t h e r e i n d e p e n d e n t of our p s y c h o l o g i c a l processes, trot r a t h e r as a m o d e o f e x p e r i e n c i n g . '''-q " ' E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s in g e n e r a l b e g i n w i t h a s u b j e c t - n o u n w h o s e action is e x p r e s s e d in a n a c t i v e verb. S o m e a p p a r e n t l y p e r m a n e n t e l e m e n t is s e p a r a t e d f r o m the g e n e r a l process, t r e a t e d as an entity, a n d e n d o w e d w i t h a c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for a given o c c u r r e n c e . This p r o c e d u r e is so p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t only l o n g a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h it conceals its al)surdity. ''~r E v e n betvceen two E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s as close as C e r m a n a n d Engli:da t h e r e c a n t)e c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o b l e m s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . FREUD'S C O N T E X T

C o m n a u n i t y fails as Gumeinscha[t a n d company: is a p o o r t r a n s l a t i o n of C;csellschajt. T h e transition f r o m Gemei:~schaft to Gesellsclmft, b e g u n c e n t u r i e s ago, w a s a c c e l e r a t e d d u r i n g the R e n a i s s a n c e a n d t h e I n d u s t r i a l Revolution. "'Gemeinscha[t is a social unit w h i c h does not p r i m a r i l y c o m e into b e i n g t h r o u g h conscious design: one fiqds oneself b e l o n g i n g to it as one b e l o n g s to one+s h o m e . . . T h e p u r e s t f o r m of Gemeinschaft is w i t h i n the family, p a r t i c u larly t)etwecm m o t h e r a n d child w h e r e u n i t y is t h e first s t a g e in d e v e l o p m e l , t ami s e p a r a t e n e s s is a l a t e r p h a s e . . . GesellschaJt is a r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n t r a e t u r a l in its n a t u r e , delit)eratelv c s t a h l i s h e d by i n d i v i d u a l s w h o realize t h a t t h e y cannot p u r s u e their p r o p e r interests effectively in isolation a n d t h e r e f o r e b a n d t o g e t h e r . . . I n d i v i d u a l s w h o enter a Gesellschaft do so w i t h only a fraction of their b e i n g , that is, w i t h t h a t p a r t of their existence w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to the specific p u q g o s e of the o r g a n i z a t i o n . . . In the Gemeinscha/t, u n i t y prevails, in spite of o c c a s i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n ; in the Gesellschalt s e p a r a t i o n prevails, in spite of occasional unit.s'. "':~' In tim later p h a s e s of the transition f r o m (;emeinscha/t to Cesell.sz.hafl a p p e a r e d the "~Vissenachaltet~. Sciences does not c o n v e y its e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e of rigor, ,,'igor. scholarshil), w i s d o m a n d r e s p e c t of s t u d e n t for t e a c h e r w h o is a w a r e of w h a t his position r e q u i r e s of him. IVisselzseha/ten i n c l u d e s the Nctlttru;issenscha[tel~ a n d the Geisteswissenschaften i n a d e q u a t e l y t r a n s l a t e d as natural sciences for the f o r m e r w i t h the h u m a n i t i e s , social sciences, or o u r n e w t e r m l)ehavioral sciences l)eing r e m o t e a p l ) r o x i m a t i o n s of the latter. O u r u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a , u p to the e n d of tim n h m t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c o n t a i n e d courses on " n a t u r a l a n d m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y " w h i c h c o m m u n i c a t e d s o m e of the root n w a n i n g s of *,Visse~.lscha[ten. Geisteswissensclta[ten art.,' c o n c e r n e d w i t h the m i n d in the b r o a d e s t sense a n d w i t h the spirit of m a n . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s in tratlititms art, .sharply f o c u s e d l)y the A m e r i c a n c o n c e p t of a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d t h a t of p h e n o m c n o h ) g i s t s a n d existentialists. F'or t h e m it is the n e w science td m a n , as a p a r t i c u l a r a n d in genc-ral, anthropos ( G r e e k ) , d e r M e n s c h , a n d Iris destil D" w h i c h t h e t e r m s m a n a n d m a n k i n d do not c o n v e y b e i n g too a b s t r a c t . itnp~,rs<~tml alt(t pro>sail,.

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F r e u d w a s b o r n a n d lived in t h i s tradition. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s b e a r s its imprint. O u r n a s a l - s o u n d i n g a n x i e t y does n o t d e n o t e t h r o a t a n d chest e c h o i n g a n g s t w i t h its qualities of d r e a d , b e i n g closed in a n d b e c o m i n g p o w e r l e s s . T r a n s l a t i n g the w o r k s of p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s a n d existentialists becomes, a l m o s t i n s u r m o u n t a b l e p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h H e i d e g g e r w h o w r o t e in an e a r l i e r G e r m a n idiom,. c o i n e d his o w n t e r m s a n d g a v e t h e m his u n i q u e fl~eanings. S o m e A m e r i c a n s h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e n e e d for c o m m u n i c a t i n g , n o [ as literal t r a n s l a t i o n s n o r even as poetic: ones, these p r o d u c t s of a E u r o p e a n tradition in o u r u n i q u e idioms. K n o w l e d g e of the evolution of \Vestern t h o u g h t a n d science p r i o r to a n d s m c c F r e u d is b a c k g r o u n d for this E u r o p e a n tradition a n d its u n i q u e w a y s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e x p l a i n i n g the k n o w i n g process. Tim c i r c u l a r i t y it a t t e m p t e d to e s c a p e r e m a i n e d in its philosophies. "'Systematic a r g u m e n t is necessarily c i r c u l a r a n d t h a t f a r f r o m b e i n g a failing, c i r c u l a r i t y is e n t a i l e d b y the v e r y project of s y s t e m a n d e x p l a n a t i o n . T h e criterion of a d e q u a c y h i n g e s . . . on the s c o p e a n d size of the circle.'"-"; F r o m a n i n e t e e n t h c e n t r e T focus on isolated s y s t e m s t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y science m o v e d to a concena w i t h a mliversc, infinite, e x p a n d i n g , eurved, w i t h its b o n n d n e s s questioned.'~Vestern t h o u g h t d i d n o t e s c a p e c i r c u l a r i t y a n d a c q u i r e d o p p o s i t i o n a l polartiles. Xlodern science a n d t e c h n o l o g y w e r e inspired b y "'optimistic ei~istemologles'" ( F r a n c i s B a c o n 1 5 6 1 - 1 6 2 6 ) ( l / e n e D e s c a r t e s 1596--1650). " T h e y t a u g h t t h a t there was no n e e d for a n y m a n to a p p e a l to a u t h o r i t y in m a t t e r s of t r u t h b e c a u s e e a c h m a n c a r r i e d the sources of k n o w l e d g e in h i m s e l f . . . . 31an can k n o w : t h u s hc ca~ h e free."'-'; B u t not so free t h a t he d i d n ' t r e q u i r e pessimistic cpistemologies to deal w i t h "'the d o c t r i n e of h u m a n d e p r a v i t y . It is a d i s t u r b i n g fact that even an a b s t r a c t s t u d y like p u r e e p i s t e m o l o g y is not as p u r e as one m i g h t think" says, P o p p e r "'lint t h a t its ideas m a y , to a l a r g e extent. he m o t i v a t e d a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y inspired by' political h o p e s a n d U t o p i a n d r e a m s . ''=r S e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y science t h a t soon w o u l d k n o w eyeD, thing a h o u t everything, led to a t w e n t i e t h century, science exlmriencingo pessimism, despair and humility. E x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h c r e a t i v e . r e a s o n . the G r e e k s n e e d e d their p r e c i o u s p h e n o m e n a orde.red a n d p e r m a n e n t h e n c e b u r i e d that o r a c u l a r r i d d l e r l leraclitus (540--175 B.C.) w i t h his strife a n d tlux. O n l y w i t h Goethe. (1749-183"9). E u r o p e ' s first u n i t a r y process thinker, t w e n t y - t h r e e c e n t u r i e s latter, do notions of i m p e r m a n e n c e r e c e i v e a h e a r i n g . "'The idea of the O r d e r of N a t u r e ~ a n d the g r a s p of its importance- a n d the obser~,ation of its exemplification in a v a r i e t y of occasions" \ V h i t e h e a d r e m i n d s us "'are l)y no m e a n s the n e e e s s a D- cons e q u e n c e hf the t r u t h of the idea in queslion. "'2s P o p p e r insists w e d e v e l o p "'an objective t h e o r y of probal~ility . . . w h i c h allows us actually, to construc~ ideal types of d i s o r d e r s ( a n d of course also ideal types of order, a n d of all d e g r e e s in l m t w e e n these extretnes).'"-'" T h e P o s t - M o d e r n M i n d "in science. philosophy, t h e o l o g y a n d the arts," says Smith, is e h a r a e l e r i z e d b y "'its a c c e p t ;ttmt- of m,alitv as m m r d e r e d in a n y ol)jeetive w a y that m a n ' s m i n d c;n~ (]lSeel'n..,0

¢}rder: orth'r~,d, tlisorderod, m~d l m o r d e r e d has b e e n ~lUesliolu'd. ( ] a u s a l i l v

590

IIAHOLD KEL~IAN

c o n t a i n s i n d e t e r m i n a c y ( H e i s e n b e r g ) . Q u a n t i f i a b l e eertai~lty h a s b e c o m e p r o b ability c u r v e s ( S c h r o e d i n g e r ) . Bohr's c o n a p l e m e n t a r i t y , a c c o r d i n g to H e i s e n b e r g , "'~tarts f r o m a p a r a d o x f r o m w h i c h w e c a n n o t escape.'" T h e f o r m s b e c o m e a n e v a n e s c e n t p i c t u r e a n d the i r r e d u c i b l e s o r n e t h i n g m o r e elusive. " W h e n y o u c o m e to t h e u l t i m a t e p a r t i c l e s c o n s t i t u t i n g m a t t e r , t h e r e s e e m s to b e no p o i n t in t h i n k i n g of t h e m a g a i n as c o n s i s t i n g of s o m e m a t e r i a l . T h e y a r e , as it w e r e , p u r e s h a p e , n o t h i n g b u t shape.'" S c h r o e d i n g e r a d d s "\,Ve do n o t c l a i m t h a t this "something" is the obserw~d or o b s e r v a b l e facts: ,and still less do w e c l a i m w e thus d e s c r i b e w h a t n a t u r e ( m a t t e r , r a d i a t i o n , e t c , ) really is. In f a c t w e use this p i c t u r e ( t h e so-called w a v e p i c t u r e ) in fldl k n o w l e d g e t h a t it is n e i t h e r . "'a~ B o g o l i u b o v a n d Shirkov's "'Theory of Q u a n t i z e d F i e l d s " suggests "a real f o u r r d i m e n s i o n a l r e a l m of m a t t e r . . . w i t h o u t r e s t - m a s s . . a w a v e - s t r u c t u r e d , q u i t e s u p e r s e n s o I T, y e t o b j e c t i v e l y r e a l w o r l d and a m a t r b : w i t h o u t a n y o b s t a c l e s to u n i v e r s a l i n t e r c o m m u n l .c a. h .o n. . 3.- Is t h e W e s t r e c o n t a c t i n g its E a s t e r n intuitions r e g a r d i n g forna, order, causality, m a t t e r , reality, its total i n t e r c o n n e e t e d n e s s a n d t h e p a r a n o r m a l ? PHENO~[ENOLOGY

I n experilnentLng w i t h c r e a t i v e reason,, wl!ile maintaia~ing c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s u b j e e t i f y i n g a t t i t u d e , t h e G r e e k s b e c a m e • t h e f o r e r u n n e r s o f existentialism a n d p h e n o m e n o l o g y . "'Arcesilaus ( 3 1 6 - 2 4 0 7 ) the f o u n d e r of t h e M i d d l e A c a d e m y " is c i t e d b y Riese "as the i n v e n t o r of t h e "epoche" ( w h i c h w a s to b e c o m e the crucial c o n c e p t of p u r e p h e n o m e n o l o g y ) or "suspension of j u d g m e n t ; " Arcesilaus r e c o m m e n d e d e x t e n d i n g this s u s p e n s i o n to all s e n s u a l objects. ''3~ G u i d e d b y the o b j e c t i f y i n g a t t i t u d e , t h e G r e e k s e v o l v e d the basis of seientific t h o u g h t c u l m i n a t i n g in D e s e a r t e s . t l i s e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h a n d t h r o u g h his m i n d w a s in the c o n t e x t of e c s t a t i c a n d a b s t r a c t r e a s o n as t h e o b j e c t i f y i n g attittlde w a s b e c o m i n g d o m i n a n t , m a k i n g p o s s i b l e his b i f u r c a t i o n of n a t u r e . "9 K a n t (1t,,4--1804) a t t e m p t e d a c o r r e c t i v e to D e s c a r t e s " b i f u r e a t i o n b y his " ' C o p e r n i c a n R e v o l u t i o n " in " T h e C r i t i q u e of P u r e R e a s o n " ( 1 7 8 1 ) . His w a s b o t h a n i n n e r a n d o u t e r d i r e c t e d e x p e r i m e n t i n g on, in, w i t h a n d t h r o u g h his m i n d . " B e f o r e K a n t it w a s t h o u g h t t h a t o u r k n o w l e d g e h a d to c o n f o r m to its objects; K a n t i n t r o d u c e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e objects c o n f o r m e d to o u r w a y s of k n o w i n g . T h e m i n d . . . is c o n s t i t u t i v e of its objects. I t e r e a t e s t h e m in k n o w i n g t h e m . " K a n t c l a i m e d " t h a t t h e m i n d is not u t t e r l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m n a t u r e ; a n d . . . t h a t t h e k i n d of e o n t a c t ' i t h a s w i t h n a t u r e is n o t l i m i t e d exclusively to a p a s s i v e s u b j e c t i o n to t h e influences of n a t u r e . "'ze" In this sense t h e objects m i g h t h a v e b e e n "'known e v e n p r i o r to experienet,," n a m e l y , a p r i o r i . B u t K a n t w a s q u i t e e m p h a t i c t h a t w e could n e v e r " a e h i e v e positive k n o w l e d g e of reality as it is in itself, i n d e p e n d e n t of o u r k n o w l e d g e of it. • . . VCe can k n o w p h e n o m e n a , b u t w e a r e f o r e v e r b a r r e d f r o m h a v i n g k n o w l e d g e of n o u m e n a ( t h i n g s in t h e m s e l v e s ) . T h u s , t h o u g h the m i n d is distinct f r o m n a t u r e as it is "in itself," it is i n t i m a t e l y a n d essentially r e l a t e d to n a t u r e as hrtmanly

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a n t t e x p e r ~ "e n c e a . ""'"'; a priori c h a r a c t e r of spatial

"To p r o v e the intuition, K a n t t e m p o r a r i l y s u s p e n d e d in his m i n d all spatial objects a n d still r e t a i n e d p u n , s p a c e as a

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lasting c o n d i t i o n or f o r m of s e n s u a l r e c e p t i v i t y . "aa T h i s was a l o n g s t e p t o w a r d absolute subjectivity. Kant's c o n s i d e r a b l e u n d e r c u t t i n g of Descartes" b i f u r c a t i o n w a s n o t r a d i c a l e n o u g h for H u s s e r l ( 1 8 5 9 - 1 9 3 8 ) . l-le i n s i s t e d w e c o u l d have" eontaet w i t h a n d k n o w l e d g e of r e a l i t y as it is, n a m e l y , as " t r a n s e e n d e n t a l s u b j e c t i v i t y " a n d "absolute consciousness.'" T h i s h e a r r i v e d at b y t h e m o s t ' r a d i c a l e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h the m i n d a t t e m p t e d ~n the W e s t e r n world. H i s Logische Untersuchungen at a p p e m ' e d tile s a m e y e a r as " T h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D r e a m s " (1900). F r e u d , like Husserl, w i s h e d to "establish s e l f - g o v e r n i n g reason as the sole a u t h o r i t y in s c h o l a r s h i"p , " 3 "t T h e r e i n lie the p a r a d o x e s in the wishes a n d w o r k s of both. P u r e p h ' e n o m e n o l o g y c a n n o t b e p u r e ,'rod free association c a n n o t b e free. aa i' L l l e n b e r g e r states t h a t "Husserl's p h c n o m e n o l o g y is b a s i c a l l y a ,netkodological principle; i n t e n d e d to p r o v i d e a firm basis for the f o u n d a t i o n of ,'t n e w psyeholog), a n d of a u n i v e r s a l p h i l o s o p h y . In t h e p r e s e n c e of a p h e n o m e n o n ( w h e t h e r it b e an external o b j e c t or a state of m i n d ) , the p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t uses a n a b s o l u t e l y u n b i a s e d a p p r o a c h ; h e observes p h e n o m e n a as t h e y m a n i fest t h e m s e l v e s a n d only as t h e y m a n i f e s t themselves. T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y m e a n s of a n o p e r a t i o n of the m i n d w h i c h H u s s e r l called the epoche or " p s y e h o l o g i c a l - p h e n o m e r i o l o g i e a l reduction." T h e o b s e r v e r "puts 4he w o r l d b e t w e e n brackets," i.e., h e e x c l u d e s f r o m his m i n d not only a n y j u d g m e n t of w d u e a b o u t the p h e n o m e n a b u t also a n y affirmation w h a t e v e r c o n c e r n i n g their c a u s e a n d b a c k g r o u n d ; h e even stl~ves to e x c l u d e the distinction of subjeet a n d object a n d a n y affirmation a b o u t t h e existenee of the object a n d of the o b s e r v i n g subject. W i t h this m e t h o d , o b s e r v a t i o n is g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d ; the less a p p a r e n t e l e m e n t s of p h e n o m e n a m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g richness a n d variety, w i t h finer g r a d a t i o n s of clarity a n d obseurib,, a n d e v e n t u a l l y p r e v i o u s l y u n n o t i c e d structures of p h e n o m e n a m a y b e c o m e apparent.":"; T h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i e a l a p p r o a c h is e v i d e n t in the "'lundamental rule.'" "'lie m u s t tell us not o n l y w h a t he can s a y hatentionally a n d w i l l i n g l y . . b u t e v e r y t h i n g else b e s i d e s that his s e l f - o b s e r v a t i o n p r e s e n t s h i m w i t h . . If h e can s u c c e e d after this i n j u n c t i o n in p u t t i n g his self-criticism out of action, h e will p r o v i d e us w i t h a mass of m a t e r i a lI. ~ *-: t 7 It is reflected in F r e u d ' s attitude to r e s e a r c h .and therapy, "'It is i n d e e d earn of t h e distinctions of p s y c h o analysis that r e s e a r d a a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e e d h a n d in h a n d , b u t still t h e t e c h n i q u e r e q u i r e d for the one b e g i n s at a certain p o i n t io d i v e r g e from that of the other . . . T h e most successful cases are those in whichP'one p r o c e e d s as it were, aimlessly, a n d allows oneself to b e o v e r t a k e n b y a n y surprises, a l w a y s p r e s e n t i n g to t h e m a n open m i n d , 'free from e x p e e"t a t m " n s . " "*~ T i e l m u t asserted t h a t "at various points F r e u d was forced to t r a n s c e n d " his "inech; anistie a n d anti-existential.ist f r a m e i v o r k " in tim direction of at p h e n o m e n a l i s l i e a p p r o a c h " a n d the " F r e u d ' s a n a l y s i s of arlxiety, rlareissism a n d the p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e apl)roximates the existcrltial analysis of finih, dc, anxielT, a n d nonbeing.":m -

The enlergenee of phenomcnology arid existelttialism were fost~red l,y the ii(;oeleraled transition

froln life as (,tTlllc,llisdlafl Ill Olie iif (~C£'ClLl'ehl'-Jl? ,

59.~

IIAIIOLD KELNIAN

" . Iountmg numbers of children of faroincreasing ~¥esten~ man's alienation. X, ilies which are fatherless and motherless, irrespective of the presence or absence of one o1" both parents, is a manifestation of this alienation and the anachronistic inadequacy of the super-eg[~." concept in their tt!erapy. 4° The split in philosophy, formerly queen of thd sciences (IVissenschaften), with t h e dominance of the Naturwissenschafteli~. made synonymous with the experimental sciences and technology, exaggerated man's dissociation from his organicity mad life rhyttuns. From the East's experimenting on oneself as subject ,and object, so that "'There can be awareness without anything of which awareness is aware ....,hence a state of pure lucidity, "5 to experimenting with the mind until it faces itself artcl/or~ with models and methodologies created by the mind which turn all of nature into objects for controlled experimentation, presents an infinite spectrum of memaings for experimenting, a Crucial aspect of the knowing process. Phenomenology asserted it could r e s t o r e to "the term "scientific" its traditional broader meaning," provide a methodological basis whit~la would satisfy the criteria of precision and verifiability, define the limits of the Naturwi.~senschaflen, reinstate the scientific status of the Geistesuriss'en.~chaften, oiler "'a new dimension of human lifx:~, Existence, and a new non-physicalistie con1 " * "'34 ception of the worm. A n o t h e r s t i m u l u s to phenomenology camt~ t:rom Dilthey (18:t3-191i), historian-of culture, and one of Europe's most seminal thinkers. ~ t-Ie questioned (1894) the natural science approach in psychology and a s s e r t e d t h e object of its study, should be "'living man" who is always an "'entirettl."r-" Jaspers (1883) appliecl his ideas to the whole of psychopathology (1913, Allge-

racine Psychopathologic). 4:~ The phenomenological psychiatry of Dilt!~ey-Jaspers represent s the first phase, the second, Husserl's influence on Binswanger (1881) anti the third, Binswanger's second, Heidegger's (l&Sg) impact on. him. ttusserl m a y have been Influenced by Dilthey whom he visited in 1905. He definitely was by his teacher Brentano (1838-1917) to w h o m he expressed his debt as he did to William James. Linsetmten wrote of it in Towards a Phenomenology:

The Psychology oj William JamesJ 4 The Varieties of Beligious Experience brought from Dilthey the highest praise. F o r American varieties of phenomenology and existentialism we have indigenous forbears and maybe some blood relations with the E u r o p e a n ones. PIIENO.XlEN-OLOtJY AND EXIS'IqSNT1ALISNI

It took the Enlightenment to free patients from the dogma of demtmiacal possession (MaIlens Malleficarum, 1490) and the French Revolution (1789) to free them from chains (PineI, 1798). T h e next liberations, still being resisted, must be from the notions that "all menfid diseases are nothing but brain ,hseases (VCernicke, 1894) and tha't patients are nothing but" a bunch of mechanisms. Kierkegaard's (1813-1855) writings, which remained relatively t,nknown for many years, opposed these views as did Nietzsehe's (183.3--190D) which received a mue}) wider readership. The works of others througlmut

I)S'YCt:IOANALYSIS

IX

593

COSSIOLOGY

E u r o p e s w e l l e d the t i d e of interest in p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d existentialism; U n a m u n o (1864-1936), B e r d y a e v ( 1 8 7 4 - 1 9 4 8 ) , S c h e l e r (1874-1.928) a n d Buh e r ( 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 6 5 ) in the e a r l i e r phases, yon G e b s a t t e l ( 1 8 8 . 3 - - - ) , Minkoveski ( 1885), NIareeI ( 1 8 8 9 ), Strauss ( 1891) a n d Boss ( 1902-), in the l a t e r ones. H e i d e g g e r ' s w o r k f o r c i b l y o b t r u d e d phenomenolog2t,' a n d e x i s t e n t i a l i s m on E u r o p e ' s consciousness. F r e u d took five courses (187"9~76) w i t h B r e n t a n o a n d w o r k e d for h i m as a t r a n s l a t o r (1880). 4a F r e u d m u s t h a v e h e a r d m u c h p h e n o m e n o l o g ) " a n d exist e n t i a l i s m d u r i n g his i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p ( F e b n m r y " 1 9 0 7 - J u l y 1938) w i t h L u d w i g B i n s w a n g e r a b o u t w h i c h they' " m a d e little fuss'" w h i l e b e i n g "loyal to e a c h other. "'*~ F r e u d (1936) m e n t i o n e d "'The largo, extent to w h i c h psychoanalysis c o i n c i d e s w i t h the phitosoplay of S e h o p e n h a u e r a n d N m t z s c h e , another p h i l o s o p h e r w h o s e g'uesses a n d - i n t u i t i o n s often a g r e e in t h e most a s t o n i s h i n g w a y w i t h the l a b o r i o u s f i n d i n g s of psycho-analysis.'" S c h o p e n h a u e r , F r e u d "'read late in life.'" N i e t z s e h e h e "avoided7 to k e e p " m y m i n d u n e m b a r r a s s e d " a n d b e c a u s e of a "'constitutional incapacity' for p h i l o s o p h y proper. "'.7 \Vhile d e s c r i p t i v e p h e n o m e n o l o g y c o u l d give d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of patients" i n n e r states, it w a s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t m o r e c o u l d b e d o n e w i t h this information. M i n k o w s k i s u g g e s t e d "'The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the s t r u c t u r e of states of consciousness u s i n g the m e t h o d s of ".structuraI analysas a n d of "categorical analysis." "':~'; T h e r e b y the c o n n e c t i o n a n d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s of t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d could b e r e c o g n i z e d . T h r o u g h s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s M i n k o w s k i a n d yon G e b s a t t e l c o n c l u d e d that the b a s i c s y m p t o m in m e h t n c h o l i a is that "trine is no l o n g e r e x p e r i e n c e d as a p r o p u l s i v e energ~.'" I n s c h i z o p h r e n i a X~Iinkowski felt that the "'loss of ~-ital c o n t a c t w i t h reality'" w a s t h e central p r o b l e m . In c o m p u l s i o n s . ,,on G e b s a t t e i mad Strauss s a w that t h e " p a t i e n t is f i g h t i n g not so m u c h a g a i n s t d i s g u s t i n g "things" ae; a g a i n s t a g e n e r a l b a c k g r o u n d of disgust. u; In categorical analysis, w h a t c a n b e g a t h e r e d f r o m a n analysis of the categories of feeling, thinking, w i l l i n g a n d a c t i n g as w e l l as f r o m the categ o r i e s ~ i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c sense of this w o r d - - t i m e , space, cause a n d s u b s t a n c e is also m a d e use of. T h e m a n n e r in w h i c h these categories are e x p e r i e n c e d in a s p e c t r u m of c o n d i t i o n s a n d situations is d e s c r i b e d in a v a l u a b l e literature. T h e existential analvst's.~ task is to m a k e use of this p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l m a t e rial. To u n d e r s t a n d h o w h e functions_ existential p h i l o s o p h y , exSstential psychot h e r a p y , B i n s w a n g e r ' s a n d Boss" e.xistential a n a l y s e s m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d . Exlstentmh.-m s concena is w i t h m a n ' s i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e , v a r i o u s l y d e a l t w i t h since t i m e i m m e m o r i a l . K i e r k e g a a r d ' s beginnh~gs a n d other c o n t r i b u t i o n s xv ~.re - ~ e v o l v e d b v H e i d e g g e r into "a p h e n o m e n o l o ~ : of h u m a n Dasein.'" H i s " p h i l o s o p h y is b a s e d on t h e contrast b e t w e e n existence as Vorhandenseil~ ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i n g s ) a n d as D a s e i n (for h u m a n b e i n g s ) . . . .X~lan is not a r e a d y - m a d e being"" b u t b e c o m e s w h a t h e m a k e s h i m s e l f t h r o u g h c h o o s i n g b e t ~ een an i n a u t h e n t i c a n d an a u t h e n t i c rnodality of e x i s t f ~ n e t : , ....-~'"' Existential ps.vchothe, r a p y is an a p p l i c a t i o n of existential c o n c e p t s to psychot h e r a p y . A m o n g ~hem are the notions of a n existential nc'uros'is w h i c h m e a n s to b e living in an i n a u t h e n t i c modalit'¢; of e n c o u n t e r ( B e g e g n u n g ) w h i c h t

o

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594

HAROLD

K E L 5 ItM\"

refers to a decisive i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e h a p p e n i n g in a n d following from the m e e t i n g of two people, in one or both; a n d of kairos 1~ w h i c h refers to a critical or decisive m o m e n t w h e n a p a t i e n t could b e open a n d a va ila ble t o a psychothe.rapeutic intervention w h i c h eould crucially a n d even d r a m a t i c a l l y turn the course of his life in a constructive direction. Binswanger's E x i s t e n t i a l Psychoma,-dysis ( D a s e i n s a n a l y s e ) is his "synthesis o f p s y e h o a n a l y s i s , p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d existential concepts modif ie d b y original insights. H e investigates his patients states of conseiousness as well as the entire structure of their existence, defines h o w "'one indiviclual m a y live in ~vo or m o r e conflicting "worlds" ,,at; a nd strives to reconstruct their d e v e l o p m e n t an d transformation u t i l i z i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c methods. Boss m ore rigorously follows He ide gge r . In his d a s e i n s a n a l y t i c r e e va hm tio n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e r a p y and theory, h e shows their intrinsic h a r m o n y and the i m p a c t of daseinsanalysis on traditional p s y c h o a n a l y t i c techniques. H e coneludes d m t daseinsmmlysis is not "a n e w a n d qmstile" school of p s y c h o t h e r a p y . . . b u t t h a t no other p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i e pr oc e dur e b u t . . , p s y c h o a n a l y t i c practice is c a p a b l e of h e l p i n g m a n to br e a k through to a nd to c a t t y out, his a u t h e n t i c arid w t m l e s o m e being-wh011y-l{imself." However, for this to h a p p e n "a f e w ~ t h o u g h decisive-~correcfions . . . in t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m a n discovered b y the analysis of D a s e i n "'4s are essential. P h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d existentialism h a d b e e n i n t i m a t e l y studied b y A m e r i c a n philosophers and theologians since the turn of the centu~-'. Thottgh living in the United States since 1938, Strauss" works on p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a nd existential psychiatry, ~9 m a n y n o w a v a i l a b l e in English, ha ve become.knoxxm only since a b o u t 1950. "'Existence "'a~ interested A m e r i c a n psychiatrists in p h e n o m e nolog3' a n d existentialism. Shortly there were journals, organizations, conferenees ,and t e a c h i n g institutes c o n c e r n e d with the relation of p h e n o m e n o l o gT a n d existentialism to psyehiatr T. They, reflect a s p e c t r u m of viewpoints, from an insistance that there is no existential p s y c h o t h e r a p y b u t p s y c h o t h e r a p y ~qth n e w d/mensions, to an i m p l i c a t i o n that it is unique, r e q u i r i n g spe e ia I curricula of instruction, Existential analysis influences the therapist's attitudes, interests a n d ways of using f a m i l i a r teetmiques. T h e patient's experiences a n d worlds are entered into with other forms of participation a nd objectives. N e w dimensions are a d d e d to the t h e r a p y evoking feelings of g e n u i n e interest a nd of b e i n g lmderstood. Between e ~ s t e n t i a l analysis a n d the classical p s y c h o a n a l y t i c model, as defined, there are considerable differences. In the one, the h a l l m a r k of investigation a nd e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n is objectixdty, in the other, sub~eeti~qty. E a c h instance is to reflect or h e l p create a generalization, in the search for essence, while in existentialism, eMstence pr e ce d e s essence a n d eacli event is e x p e r i e n c e d as u n i q u e a n d origSJml. Predictable, repeatable, controllable and q u a n t i f i a b l e p h e n o m e n a are sought in the one, in the other, w h a t is unpredicta ble , uncontrollahle, the qualitative, in short, what is spontaneous. T h e h m t u a l l y va lue d p h e n o m e n a concern the one, w h ile (,xistentialism, with equal rigor and vigor, describes and utilizes all p h e n o m e n a in terms of their factual, moral, aesthetic a n d spiritual vahmtions. P u b l i c

t~SYCHOANALYSIS

IN

COS3:IOLOGY

595

verifiabili~, o f aspects of external r e a l i t y t h r o u g h concepts c h a r a c t e r i z e s the one, v a l i d a t i o n t h r o u g h c o n s e n s u a l e x p e r i e n t i a l referents, h a p p e n s in t h e other. T h e l i t e r a t u r e of one is w r i t t e n in a literal prose style, t h e other, in a p o e t i c one r e p l e t e w i t h t h e f i g u r a t i v e a n d the m e t a p h o r i c a l i n c l u d i n g p a r a d o x e s . t.. In e x i s t e n t i a l i s m a n e w c o n c e p t of disease e m e r g e s "'as a r e s t r i c t e d w a y of life . . . a g r e a t e r rigidi~:'" in a h u m a n b e i n g ' s "potept:,al d e s i g n s of existence, '':m E t i o l o g y ~° is n o t an i s o l a b l e c a u s e or causes b u t dt~e ~ o b a d faith, a c c o r d i n g t o Sartre. D i a ~ o s i s h o l d s a less s i g n i f i c a n t place, a l t h o u g h t h e n e w c a t e g o D ' o f existential n e u r o s i s e m e r g e d . Prognosis d e p e n d s o n the p a t i e n t ' s o n t o g e n e t i c g'uilt, his c a p a c i t y for c o n t a i n i n g s u f f e r i n g , his a b i l i t y to a s s u m e the fullest possible r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for his life, to m a k e free deeisigns, ,-rod to e x p e r i e n c e all these in his e n c o u n t e r w i t h his p h y s i c i a n , healer, priest, f r i e n d or n a t u r e . Crisis m e ~ a s Ka~ros ~...... of w h i c h t h e r e m a y b e man),, s m a l l a n d large, before, d u r i n g a n d a f t e r the t h e r a p y . T h e r a p y i n v o l v e s t h e p a t i e n t ' s c h a n g e d a t t i t u d e s to suffering, g u i l t a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in e n c o u n t e r (Begegnung) w i t h his h e l p e r . "'The p a t i e n t r e m a i n s the soie a n d c o m p e t e n t u -"ltness "" a n d m u s t give "an t m p r e j u d i c e d a n d fMttffuI p i c t u r e of his i m v a r d n e s s . " H e m u s t " m a k e the g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n s . . , his o~m f r e e decisions. "':'a W i t h all t h e s e differences, w h e n w e c o n s i d e r the e x t e n s i v e t h e o D , re~qsion in psyehoa_nalysis a n d the m a n y n e w m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n t e c h n i q u e , b e i n g u t i l i z e d b y t h e r a p i s t s of c o m p e t e n c e w i t h a m e a s u r e of h e a l t h , maturfi~g mad l e a r n i n g f r o m their e x p e r i e n c e , the d i v e r s i ~ , in p r a c t i c e b e c o m e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y less. M u c h o.f w h a t h;~ b e e n d e s c r i b e d in p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d "existentialism has b e e n i n c l u d e d ha other theories a n d t e c h n i q u e s u n d e r different n a m e s or h a s b e e n u t i I ~ e d in t h e r a p y w i t h o u t a w a r e n e s s . T h e r e is m u c h i n the A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n in spirit a n d in fact w h i c h is c o n g r u e n t w i t h it. N o n e t h e l e s s p h e n o m e nology a n d existentialism h a v e trod c a n c o n t r i b u t e m u d a to A m e r i c a n p s y c h o therapy. W e are b e i n g i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e n e e d for r e e x a m i n i n g our p r e m i s e s a n d u n d e r c u t t i n g our a n t i - p h i l o s o p h i c bias, b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d w i t h correctives to our m e c h a n i z i n g of t h e r a p y a n d i n h u m a n a t t e m p t s to d e a l w i t h h u m a n p r o b l e m s on a m a s s scale. M o r e l i m i t e d , s t i m u l a t e d b y the ~nritings of Suzuki 51 a n d W a t t s , ~'-" h a s b e e n AmeIqean psychiatrists" i n t e r e s t in O r i e n t a l p h i l o s o p h i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in Z e n B u d d h i s m . I r e g a r d the e m e r g e n c e of a n d interest in e x i s t e n t i a l i s m a n d EasterTi p h i l o s o p h i e s as an e'~Sdenee t h a t '%Vestern m a n is a w a r e his p h i l o s o p h i c roots are i n a d e q u a t e , " that the), are "a c u r r e n t p h e n o m e n o n of the W e s t a n d a p h a s e on the w a y t o w a r d s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t w h i c h will unif3~ the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of E a s t a n d \Vest in w a y s h e r e t o f o r e not existent nor e n v i s a g e d . "'z:* I h a v e asserted that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w h i l e W e s t e r n in its t h e o r i z i n g is m o r e E a s t e r n in its t e c h n i q u e s . :'~ I w o u l d n o w s a y that: as w e p a r t i c i p a t e in the k n o w i n g process m o r e in t h e root m e a n i n g s of its aspects, n a m e l y , w i t h our organieit.v a n d idioms, x~Sth the emotive, t h e intuitive, the aesthetic, t h e p r e - r a t i o n a t i v e ; as the attitudes of awe. r e v e r e n c e , e v e n d r e a d prevail a n d t h e r e is less of w o n d e r : as w e arfe g u i d e d m o r e b y w i s d o m , less b y k n o w l e d g e a n d least b y i n f o r m a tion; an t t ' a s there is m o r e of c o m m m ~ i n g a n d less of relating, w e will be experieneinK the u n i t y of investigating, t h e o r i z i n g a n d t h e r a p y . ''r- W e m a y also

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d i s c o v e r t h a t "the m o s t successful eases are those in w h i c h one p r o c e e d s , as it w e r e , aimlessly. '':~s ~'REUD: TECAL~ZIQUE, TIIERAI~Y, TIIA1NINf:

It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t F r e u d ,,,,,rote little oil t e c h n i q u e a f t e r his e a r l y p a p e r s a n d t h a t a l m o s t all existential analysts, w h i l e a s s e r t i n g the l i m i t a t i o n s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, a g r e e on the v a l u e s of p s y e h o a n a l y t l e t e c h n i q u e s , t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t l y a p p l i e d . F r o m p r i m i t i v e m a n ';~ t h r o u g h the E a s t to the present, as l o n g as h u m a n b e i n g s r e m a i n e d in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r o r g a n i e i t y , t h e i r c o m m o n a l i t y a n d c o m m u n a l i t y in t h e i r k n o w i n g , h e l p i n g a n d h e a l i n g , the t e c h n i q u e s used; t h e position, kneeling, p r o n e , or supine; free association, d r e a m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d others; c o n t i n u e d u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e , w h i l e the w h y , t h e r e a s o n s for w h o did w h a t a n d h o w , w h e r e a n d w h e n k e p t c h a n g i n g . w h i c h confirms the necessity for o u r r e c u r r e n t l y re-<'minding "'~" ourselves that ~ve a r e o u r o w n mytla m a k e r s a n d t h a t " T h e i m a g e of lnal/ is no e t e r n a l thing. %Ve m u s t r e m a k e it g e n e r a t i o n t)y g e n e r a t i o n . "'2'-' F r e u d w a s of his time, m o v e d b y a n d i n t l u e n e i n g it a c c o r d i n g to his n a t u r e a n d gifts. His weltanschattttng was of the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h centnD, E u r o p e a l l . \ V e s t e r n w o r l d ; its g e o c e n t r i c u n i v e r s e r e p l a c e d l)v a h e l i o c e n t r i c one; its f a v o r e d position in tile eyes of G o d b y D a r w i n ' s e v o l u t i o n ; a n d its scientific o p t i m i s m s h a r p l y w a n i n g . Tile E n l i g h t e n m e n t w a s several c e n t u r i e s old a n d the d i g n i t y o f - t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e e m i n g l y assured. T h e e m p h a s i s on conscioushess a n d r e a s o n h a d o v e r v a n l t e d itself )reoarin¢* the w a y for a corrective, the unconscious. T h e r a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h i e s w e r e b e i n g q u e s t i o n e d , Descartes" t)ifureation u n d e r e u t , p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d existentialism w e r e g a t h e r i n g mom e n t u m . Gemeinscliaft w a s b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y C;escllschaft a n d the Natm'wLs'senscha[ten b e c o m i n g even m o r e d o m i n a n t . F r e u d c o u h l c'reate so m u c h f r o m his era's possibilities b e c a u s e of his g e n i u s a n d position, as o u t s i d e r a n d exception. In o r d e r to eritieize o n e system, a l i o t h e r m u s t be p o s i t e d t h a t c a n or p u r p o r t s to b e a b l e to a n s w e r u n a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s a n d f o r m u l a t e n e w p r o d u c t i v e ones. This r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e f o r m u l a t o r ~ i n d i v i d u a l , g r o u p or e i v i l i z a t i o n ~ h a v e g r o u n d o u t s i d e t h e e x a m i n e d s y s t e m to s t a n d on, b e i n g t h e r e b y choice a n d / o r c i r c u m s t a n c e . F r e u d w a s an outsider, b o r n in M o r a v i a , l)ronght u p in a d e c a d e n t , f r a g m e n t i n g A u s t r o l l u n g a D , , in an a n t i - S e m i t i c C a t h o l i c V i e n n a w h i c h w i t h h e l d p r o f e s s o r i a l gtaitis, o s t r a c i z e d him a n d , in 1965, still r e f u s e s h i m r e c o g n i t i o n a n d s e e m s i)ont on d e n y i n g his existence, a'~ A m a l e , the first horaa of a closely knit J e w i s h fmnily, t h e fnvorito of a d o m i n a t i n g m o t h e r , he w a s m a d e the e x c e p t i o n . '~r I Its c o n f i d e n c e in himself, as uni(lue, w a s s u p p o r t e d a n d g a v e h i m the c o u r a g e to l)iom~er in w a y s that l)rought on his exclusion a n d isolation (1894--1904). It movo(i h i m o u t w a r d to V r a n c e a n d to t h e w o r l d ' s l i t e r a t u r e t h r o u g h his laI)g~mge facility a n d i n w a r d to his self-analysis a n d to his c r e a t i v e responses. "l'sycllommlvsis is m y c r e a t i o n ; I w a s for ten y e a r s the only person w h o eon(-(.rn(.d h i m s e l f w i t h it. "''~'s T h a t "'q'he U n c o n s c i o u s B e f o r e F r e u d "'r'' e x t e n d s b a c k for c e n t u r i e s with a vr~,s¢'t'lido of itlhisions t o it in the past t w o and

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d i s c o v e r y is s e l d o m a unit e v e n t attributable to a F~rtieular time, p l a c e or l~erson, d o n o t d e t r a c t f r o m l;'reud. ~,'Vhvte asserts t h a t "total obsession u'ith partial ideas" is o n e of t h e d l m g e r s o~" o u r a g e a n d q u o t e s D i l t h e y . "'All

td~ilosophical a n d scientific doctrines haue to be r e g a r d e d as partial visions o[ the truth, tt:]ticlt ice m u s t e x p e c t to b e replaced one day b y m o r e c o m p r e : "'" P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is a g r a n d x'isim~ l i n t a p a r t i a l one, n o t to hen,s'it;o ones. "-" become obsessed with. Ps~,ehoanalysis is a p r o d u c t of a tceltan.s'chauung e x p r e s s e d in t h e "Wi.s..s.en.vchaften. It c o n t a i n e d many' p a r a d o x e s a n d e o n t r n d i e t i o n s w h i c h . b e c a m e evid e n t as s c h i s m s . P s v e h o a n a l y s i s as i n v e s t i g a t i v e tool a n d as t h e r a p y p o i n t s u p s o m e of t h e s e issues, l r r e u d w a s a n e x e m p l a r of his t r a d i t i o n , t i t s i n t e r e s t w a s in k n o w i n g as i n v e s t i g a t i n g , l le w a s a w a r e t h a t t h e r a p e u t i c r e s u l t s a r e a s e e o n d a r y c o n s e q u e n c e of selfless d e v o t i o n to i n v e s t i g a t i n g . F o r h i m , the m o r a l i t y w a s i~1 t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r , in t h e f a i t h o f t h e o n e b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d , in t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e g u i d i u g b o t h b u t not in t h e t h e o r y of tllt," m i n d . A h o u t t h e l a t t e r he w a s u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a n d h a d to be in k e e p i n g w i t h flit, n a t u r a l s c i e n c e viewpoiz~t. But forces p u s h e d F r e u d n n d psy'choa~mlysis in the d i r e c t i o n of theralLV. 1I¢~ said 1~¢, h a d to m a k e n l i v i n g a n d n m l r o t i e p a t i e n t s , w h o c o u l d b e investig;tle(l, c a m e to d o c t o r s . The" p r e s t i g e of m e d i c i n e a n d its o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s b e c a m e (,ss(,ntial to t h e m o v e m e n t . O t h e r c u r r e n t s c o n t r i l m t c d : t h e s u c c e s s e s of m a t e rial m e d i c i n e , the i n a c l e q u a e y of e l n s s i f i e a t i o n a n d h m n n n e p s y c h i a t r y . A ther;q~y for the i n c r e a s i n g n e u r o s e s of '~Vestern m a n h e e n m e n n e e e s s i t y . I"r~,tM's s t a n d for llt',' u~mh'sis c o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e powerfully" m o t i v a t e d I~x- his i n v c s t i g a t i v e ht,nt a n d his a t t e m p t to k e e p l ~ s y c h o a n a l v s i s in t h e b r o a d e r c't~rre~ts of the U'i.s'.sen.s.chaften t h a n b y Ntis htek of i n t e r e s t in t h e r a p y anti low e s t i m a t e of d o c t o r s . "'The d i v i s i o n l i n e lies l ) e t w e e n s c i e n t i f i c p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s ~ltcl its v a r i m l s al)l~lic.ations to meclic'nl anti n o n - m e d i c n l s p h e r e s , " a n d not 'l~tqwee+n m e d i c a l a n d a p p l i e d ana~%"sis. "-,.1 ' His visit to C l a r k U n i v e r s i t y ( 1 9 0 9 ) m a y l;ave l~een m o v e d p a r t l y 1)v tile t r a d i t i o n of t h e IVi.s.s'enseha[ten. A l a r g e a d m i x t u r e of A m e r i c a n notiotas of s c i e n c e anti m e c l i e i n e a n d t h e n e e d s of the m o v e m e n t c o u l d h a v e e o n t r i l m t e d to t h e a e c e l ) t a n e e of t h e i n v i t a t i o n f r o m S t a n l e y l l a l l , fotmcler of A m e r i c a n ex~)erimt, n t a l p s y c h o l o g y , and J. j. l)tltnmn, p r o f e s s o r o f n e u r o l o g y at 1 l a r v a r d , w h o s e s u p p o r t w a s s o u g h t . T h e s e a r c h for it n e w t h e r a p y w a s t h e l'~rt,dominant m o t i v a t i o n of A m e r i c a n d o e t o r s going to l'Surope for analvs~s in t h e 20s. T h e p r o b l e m s of t h e l a t e ,30s mid ,-lOs in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m a y h a v e been p a r t l y i~rtmght on by. t h e suclclen ¢,xpansion of l ~ s y e h o a n a l y s i s a n d irlllux of .so m a n y l~uroi~,ean analysts b u t was s i g n i f i e n n t l v c o n t r i b u t e d to b y d i l l e r e n e e s in t r a d i t i o n . It was i n e v i t a b h ' float the . t r o n g t s t o p p o s i t i ( m to lay a n n l v s i s w o u l d c o m e f r o m t h e U~6t(-(l State.,; w i t h its e m p h a s i s ()n t h e exac-L e x p e r i m e n t a l , tvehvloh)gical a n d t h e a p p l i e d il~ s c i e n c e , w i t h its m e d i e a l t r a d i t i o n s , a n d its a n t i p h i h ) s ~ l ) h i e ' d , anti-()hl worl(l a n d a n t i - a u t h o r i t y b i a s e s . C u r r e n t t r e n d s s e e m in the' d i r e c t i o n i r r e u d lumped for. "The' a n a l y s t ' s c'~n'r i e u l u m . . . m u s t c o m p r i s e m a t t e r r e l a t i n g to the m e n t a l s e i e n e e s ~ t o l ~ s y e h o f o g y , to the h i s t o r y of <:ivilization. to so<:iology--t~o h,ss than rt'latitL~¢ t,, ;tll;tt"

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omy, b i o l o g y a n d e v o l u t i o n . . . a n y t h i n g . . . whirl] can eontril)ute . . , to tim discipline of the intellect a n d the t r a i n i n g of o b s e r v a t i o n b y m e a n s of the senses. ''';I M o v i n g a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g into institutes of 1)ehavioral science a n d u n d e r set-t~I)S u s i n g m e d i c a l a n d o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t s looks like w h a t F r e u d s u g g e s t e d . B u t today, p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , m e d i c i n e , w e l f a r e a n d e d u c a t i o n h a v e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s has b e c o m e a m i d d l e class p h e n o m e non, a t t r a c t i n g for t r a i n i n g p e o p l e from the m i d d l e classes, as the V~Zestem~ w o r l d a p p r o a c h e s b e c o m i n g one b i g m i d d l e class. W i t h fullest a w a r e n e s s of our c h a n g i n g c u r r e n t c o n t e x t our a t t e m p t s c o u l d ,u)t b e fruitful w i t h o u t idioms a p p r o p r i a t e to o u r time r e v i t a l i z i n g the spirit of t h e IVi.s'sen.vch}t[ten p r a c t i c e d in a c l i m a t e of Gcmeinscha[t. Psyeh,-,analysis h a s b e c o m e too m u c h a p p l i e d 1Vatt~rwissenschalten p r a c t i c e d 1)y m e m b e r s of a Gesellscha[t, a g l o b a l t r e n d in all the d e d i c a t e d professions. Tiit.: PSYCIIOAN,XI.YTtC ~lovv.xtv:x't'--l~ul~opl.:

]]orn a n d r e a r e d in the E u r o p e a n tradition artalvsts t~rought it to their n e w honaes w h i c h in turn influenced t h e m : S a c h s ( S o u t h A f r i c a ) , ( ; e r o e ( A u s tralia), I I o r n e y ( U n i t e d S t a t e s ) . U n d e r the i m p a c t of their studies in E u r o p e a n d / o r its tradition, t h r o u g h the s t u d y of its l i t e r a t u r e a n d c o n t a c t with their c o u n t r y m e n w h o h a d b e e n there, s o m e s a w p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a s ( , ( ) l l g r l l e l l t with their c u l t u r e : Yal)e, Xlarui ( J a p a n ) ; m a n y from the U n i t e d States: still others. scholars in their c o u n t r i e s w h i c h t h e y h a d n e v e r ],fit, also s a w l)S.vchoanal)'sis as locally a p p l i c a b l e : ]~ose ( I n d i a ) . A g a i n s t a f o s t e r i n g E u r o p e a n tradition, local history a n d c u l t u r e h a v e slowed a n d s t o p p e d p s y e h o a n a l y t i c d e v e l o p m e n t . 41.:>,'m In Spain, m e d i c i n e is m a t e r i a l isticall)' oriented, p a t i e n t s so~natieize a n d t'~mcls are limited. N o t the c h u r c h ' s resistance b u t m u c h m o r e the S p a n i s h m e n t a l i t y h a s r e t a r d e d t~sychoanalysis. ':~ "Stoicism, sobriety, the d i a l o g u e |mt-ween S a n c h o a n d D o n Qt,ijote. the mystic. a n d the roguish soul, the religious sense of lift,, as well its the f r e e - t h i n k i n ~ h u m a n i s m , all t o g e t h e r w i t h a n u m b e r of cultural a t t i t u d e s c o n s t i t u t e w h a t w e w o u l d call h i s p a n i c values, s u s e e p t i b l e of s e r v i n g as f o u n d a t i o n for a 'sui generis" a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p s y c h o t h e r a p y . "''::* A l t h o u g h F r e u d ' s w o r k s w e r e translated into S p a n i s h in the 20s a n d , in the 30s, s o m e h a d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s training. t h e r e w a s little response. T h e Revohxtion a n d its a f t e r m a t h c o n t r i b u t e d to ps.vc h o a n a l v s i s almost d i s a p p e a r i n g . T h e r e is n o w a small L n s o - S p a n i s h Psyc h o a n a l y t i c a l Society ( S p a i n a n d P o r t u g a l ) f o u n d e d in the 50s. In 1908. t h e first a n a l y t i c t r e a t m e n t w a s r e p o r t e d in St. l ' e t e r s l m r g a n d . in 191 I. the l/ussian P s y c h o - a n a l y t i c a l S o c i e t y f o u n d e d . W o r l d \'Car I. the Flevolution a n d a m a t e r i a l i s t i c p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c theo~" f o l l o w e d w i t h the f e r v o r of a f o r m e r l y 13vzantine C a t h o l i c Russia e n d e d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s b y the e a r l y 20s. O u t g r o w i n g the P a v l o v i a n nosology, n Russian l)sychotheralLv is emerlzing.';-" ¢:art'd for in tltero, during, p a r t u r i t i o n , u n t o d e a t h , as an a s p e c t of at "collcetivit3"," the n e w icliom or a b s t r a c t i o n it, tltlllC'rican ps.vchiatr.v, w i t h dilfer('nt roots a n d m e a n i n g s than in Russia but recalling all of us to o u r l)rimordial organit'it)', the lhlssim~ t h e r a p i s t m u s t reflect the m o r e s of the "collectivity" ilJ Iris teehni~lut•s a n d olqectives. A hit of trilmlism is stiggested in the Soviet •

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w o m a n ' s a n g u i s h at feeling ost~'aeized if she c a n n o t d e l i v e r h e r b a b y p u b l i c l y in r h y t h m with h e r sisters oJ, if she is p u t in a p r i v a t e r o o m for l e g i t i m a t e m e d i c a l reasons. T h e s t r u c t u r e s of id, e g O a n d super-ego, w h a t e v e r reIe'va_nee these c o n c e p t s m a y h a v e to t h e Iqussian personaliD,, w o u l d b e . r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t than ,,','hat o b t a i n s in a capitalistic, i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c A m e r i c a n . A l t h o u g h F r e u d m e n t i o n s a C h i l e a n physician, in )910, s u p p o r t i n g "'infantile sexuali~, a n d . . . p s y e h o a n a l y t i c t h e r a p y ,,s a n d ~ i o n e e r s , t h r o u g h o u t Sr~uth America, m a d e efforts to i n t r o d u c e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , n o t until 1942 w a s t h e r e an a c c r e d i t e d society in A r g e n t i n a . ';7 T h e S p a n i s h a n d P o r t u g u e s e influence, feudalisnL the c h u r c h , economies, d i s t a n e e f r o m t r a i n i n g centers, plus lo.eal factors slowed the process. In Mexico, the cult of machisTno d e m a n d s c o n s t a n t p r o o f of manliness. To ask for h e l p is not madho. The f e m a l e d o m i n a t e d f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e w i t h the ador;~tion .of a n d resenk, n e n t t o w a r d t h e m o t h e r w i t h all t h a t goes into "'Mexieanness "';s p r o d u c e s u n i q u e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p a t t e r n s a n d prol~lems. Since a b o u t 1950 thero h a v e b e e n two g r o u p s of psycho,-mMyst s in Mexico. one a c c r e d i t e d b y the I n t e r n a t i o n a l ,-rod the o t h e r led 15v Erie]~ t:romm. SOLTT1t AI-'];ICA

Sachs. b o n ; in l~us:m," s" w i t h Russian, G e r m a n , Eng~lish. a n d South A f r i c a n m e d i c a l d¢.,ree., f r o m 1914, a journalist in P e t r o g r a d , l a t e r in S o u t h Afrie~{, a u t h o r e d a m l m b e r of technical a n d l i t e r a r y books. W h e n h e w r o t e Black AuEcr. h e w a s p r e s i d e n t of the South African. m e m b e r of the E n g l i s h a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l P s v c h o a n a h ' t i c Societies. I t e exemplifies t h e E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n of the Vt:ixsensct;a[ten a n d of t h e l e a r n e d physiei:m w i t h a diversity of interests a n d gifts. M a n y c~f the physicians originally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h F r e u d mad al=t r a c t e d to psycl{oanal3"sis across t h e w o r l d h a d such qualities. \Vith an investigative a p p r o a c h , using t h e couch, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of free associations a n d d r e a m s , Sachs, p r a c t i c i n g ph)-sieimn in J o h a n n e s b u r g , m a d e a psx'choanatytic s t u d y of John C h a v a f a m b r i a , M a n v i k a nganga (medicine m a n ) . l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g of the sociology of b l a c k Africa in transition, of t h e tribal w o r l d a n d w h e r e I)syel-oanalytic t h e o r y d i d not fit. "'The tribal A f r i c a n leads a J e k y | l - a n d - I t y d e existence . . . in his kraal dignified p a t r i a r c h . . . in {ox~a~ be~-r, arl-- laborer. T h e n t h e r e is t h e n e i t h e r - n o r "African." the one w h o is n e i t h e r w h o l l y A f r i c a n n o r fully E u r o p e a n i z e d . . . . T h e n t h e r e is the n e w African "'~'' the a p p a r e n t l y fully \ V e s t e r n i z e d . John w a s h e l p e d d u r i n g their intensive association ( 1 9 3 7 - i 9 4 0 ) w i t h the last c o n t a c t in 1945. "'Tl~e h o w a n d w h y of c u r e r e m a i n intangible. "''~'*' Sachs d o t a i l e d s o m e of the h o w a n d w h y "'The a n a l y t i c situation as a wholo'" c o n t r i b u t e d . M o r e can be s u g g e s t e d . T h e r e ,,,,-as also Sachs" Europeal~ tradition, a n a l y t i c e x p e r i e n c e , feeling for t h e poetic'; also his o p e n n e s s to exp.crieneing his e n f o r c e d i11ternationalism a n d tribal Africa. J o h n w a s still rootod in his k r a a l a n d c a u g h t in w h a t p r o d u c e d a n e i t h e r - n o r African a n d a E u r o p e a n i z e d one. Sachs a n d John h a d m a n y n m t u a l l y c o m m e n s u r a b l ( - exp('ric~ltial r e f e r e n t s t r a n s l a t e a b l e into idioms w h i c h each c a m e to leanl thrrnlgl~ tl~o circ'urnstances o~' thoir m e e t i n g a n d relationship.

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Sachs h a d l~een rcfi.'rred by ;t w o m a n : m t h r o p o l o g i s t w o r k i n g for lnontlls in S w a r t v a r d w h e r e J o h u lived, l te h a d tidied to help hi.s sick wife w i t h llis m e d i c i n e s a n d p l e a d e d w i t h the "'famous d o c t o r " to relieve h e r s u f f e r i n g w h i c h he soon did. ltis medici~le w a s m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n John's a n d Sachs offered to t e a c h J o h n "'the w h i t e m a n ' s m e t h o d s . " T h e t r a i n i n g p a t t e r n for it u~anga hud l)een estat)lished. J o h n ' s s e l f - r e s p e c t w a s e n l l a n c e d l)v b e i n g MIo~ved to "'follow his profession of m e d i c i n e man'" for w h i c h S a c h s w a s eriticizt,d by V~:estern w h i t e men. I.;tmbo. t r a i n e d for t w e l v e y e a r s in E n g l a n d . p r o f e s s o r of l)sycl~iatr.v at Iliad;re. N~gerut. therapeutically" oritentcd, h a d to h e e o m e investigative, l lc a d d e d fifteen "'medicine m e n " to his stall. "'k:nless I can leurn to see w h a t tt~e lmalers see. m~-t find out vchv p e o p l e a r e so adtlic.tcd to tlmir m e t h o d s , l m i g h t fail ~'tterlv in b u i l d i n g the h e a l t h progra~r~ w e need.'" " A d d i c t e d ' " t..vp r e s s e s l~is E u r o p e a n i z a t i o n b u t not the c o n t e m p t . (.xpressix'e of a "'neithcr~mr" ph'ase in \ V e s t e r n i z a t i o n I lmvc, o b s e r v e d across tl~c w<~rld, l l c a e k n o x v l e d g e s his d e b t to the viIIage healers. "'For c e n t u r i e s t h e v h a r t , lwe~ d o i n g p s y c h o t h e r : q ) y a n d . . . g r o u p t h e r a p y . . . for evil spirits a n d for c u r i n g a-~ s e h i z o i ) h r e n i c chikl. "':'~ E v e n seemingly" s o p h i s t i c a t e d Nigt.rian,~ w h o hart" s p e n t long p~.'riods aw;tv f r o m their x-illa~es.. "'ret~rt'ss t,~ tl~.ir trit~M b:wkg r o u n d s in cu.',c ,)f p.,,ychotic t>rt'ukdown'" anal rcspo~Kl to tl~c m<-dici~c re:u*'> therapy:. T r i b a l Africa in tr;u,sition d e m i m d s tuimilitx" ;uM d e d i c a t i , m t r , ~ the .lt'ts.s.cnschqften a n d the spirit of a (;emCbl.SChaft in its practitioners. ASL, k

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lZrom Perry's arrival ( 1 8 5 3 ) , J a p a n b e g a n t,~ face th," \V~..,,t. It.,, v,'av, xv:,-; m o r e cougt'nial to Pru.,,skmism. a f t e r | w e , r o d o n t , h a l f ( . . e n t u r i c ' s ~)f t l l c Toku~u w a Era. one ,)f isolation. ;rod an ;mcient. i<,udal, rigid, stratific(l. I)'I)(' (fl setter(" a n d f a m i l y ~ystem, apparently" e n d i n g with the .'xleiji htstorati~J** (1868") 1)ut still d e e p a n d stro,lg. T h e m a m m o t h t r a d i n g /irons. the :.aibatst~. a J a p a n e s e vai-ietv, of monopolistic, familv, oli~arc.hv~. ...,re b a c k to tile six/c(.nth c'enturv.. T h o u g h d i s b a n d e d , like K n q ) p ' s a n d o t h e r cartels, ttu.v lmvc rt'f, m n e d a n d are m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n t-ver. J a p a n e s e scic1~ce, m e d i c i n e a n d psychiatry" w e r e d o m i n a t e d b y G e m m n t h i n k i n g ~li~ to 1945. with A m e r i c a n dvlmnaie psychiatry.' g a i n i n g until 1969.. w h e n socialized m e d i c i n e w a s introd u c e d . T h e o r g a n i c o r i e n t a t i o n , e m p h a s i z i n g n e u r o p h y s i o l o g y has g a i n e d ~l<,x,~ i m p e t u s , r" l~svehoanuly-tic l i t e r a t u r e u p p e a r e d in Japanes,- a l m u t 191:2. Dr. Sakaki's Sttlrly o/ Sexuality al~¢i P.sychoatlal!lxi.s'. in ID1.9. w a s tht" first l~ook bv it J a p a n e s e . Tmmslations of t : r e u d a p p e a r e d in 1.99.9..Yackichi Yabe, J a p a n ' s first t r a i n e d p s y c h o a n a l y s t . ;t psychologist, t r a i n e d in the Lrzlite
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professor of p s y c h i a t r y at T o h o k u . for 30 y e a r s at S e n d a l a n d finally, p r e s i d e n t of IIirosaki University. In 1_93.3, lie h a d one m o n t h ' s a n a l y s i s with F e d e r n , in Vienlla. H i s disciple, Dr. H e i s a k u Kosawa, h a d a b o u t t h r e e m o n t h s of analysis with I l i e h a r d Sterba. K o s a w a a n a l y z e d most of J a p a n ' s p r e s e n t p s y c h o a n a l y s t s . I n 1934, M a r u i f o u n d e d the a c c r e d i t e d S e n d a i P s y c h o - a n a l y t i c a l Society. I3~ 1955 the J a p a n e s e P s y c h o a n a l y t i c Society. was foma~ed w i t h a n o ~ c i a ] organ. tlm J a p a n e s e J o u r n a l of Psvc]mana]vsis. It: is veery, large, over two h u n d r e d . w i t h m a n y lay m e m b e r s . T h e a c c r e d i t e d group, w h o also are m e m b e r s , is r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l (25 m e m b e r s a n d e i g h t associate m e m b e r s / . ~,lnle several do t r a i n i n g analysis there are no f o r m a l p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g b o d i e s or f o r m a l t r a i n i n g analysts. Nlost of tlie m e m b e r s of the larger society' are selftra/med. T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e n s i v e psychoana~y~m ~ *" e d u c a t i o n , s t u d y ~uld k e e p i n g abreast- of \Vestern d e v e l o p m e n t s . J a p a n e s e psyehiat:r3:, p s y c h o t h e r a p y a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t m a n y p a r a doxes a n d contradictions. \Vhile J a p a n e s e h a v e .a p r o f o u n d t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f ~hat_ "illness is a state of mind." )'areal t~'a K i lcara, t h e y reject p.~vehotheral.~v a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s in favor of s o m a t i c therapy: bec.ause w h a t tImv seek f r o m the W e s t is science, technology, r a t i o n a l i s m a n d m a t e r i a l i s m . C o ~ s e q u e n t l y the rich wilI ~,et_ s o m a t i c t h e r a p y a n d the p o o r e r psychotherapy.. , 1t" a wea!thv.. person comes to a p h y s i c i a n w h o is an a n a l y s t h e often d e m a n d s rimdieation and only. via this or o t h e r c o n c r e t e rneans can h e b e g u i d e d into anaIysis. Besides psyeboanat3"sis ('aei-,~l~in-lmn-.seki') connotes s o m e t h i n g esoteric or religious like "spiritu:.d analysis." For such h e l p p a t i e n t s f r o m lower e d u c a t i o n a l ;t~:.,cl s o c i o - o c o n o m i c ~roups seek the m a n y varieties of i n d i C e n o u s i n d i v i d u a l ; ; a n d g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s rooted in their t r a d i t i o n a l religious a n d esoteric" practices. In J a p a n . F r e u d w o u l d not h a v e h a d to b e c o m e a p h y s i c i a n to steady ,}~t" m i n d a n d t h e I { e d h e a - t l o l ] m g s n e a d findings in the U n i t e d States a r e a

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A g a i n p a r a d o x i c a l l y the a p p r o a c h to spiritual h e a l i n g is in terms o{ p h y s i c a l h-~tervention, as in Zen practices, w i t h the n e e d to i n d u c e a s o m a t i c state of r e c e p t i v i t y to the a c h i e v e m e n t of Satori. T h e p r o b l e m s are c o m p o u n d e d b y tl~e c o m m o n t v h e l d belief, fla all soc'io-eeononaie groups, though not b a s e d
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of d i t h ' r e n e e s , are a w a r e t h a t w h i l e tlmre is a p p a r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w o r d s a n d o ) n c e p t s , vast a r e a s of the u n d e r p i n n i n g a n d s u p e r s t r u c t u r e are b e i n g missed. O f t h e a b o v e I h a v e b e c o m e a w a r e in c o n t a c t s w i t h nmm" Jal)ancse ps.vehiatrists in J a p a n ~md in the U n i t e d States. =~ P s y c h o a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s a p p l i e d in t h e i r u n i q u e w a y s a n d t h r o u g h t h e i r i d i o m s w o u l d lye a p p l i c a t ) l e in J a p a n b u t F r e u d i a n c o n c e p t s of m i n d a n d mot i v a t i o n are still q u i t e alien to tim J a p ; m e s e m i n d , w i t h all its \ \ : e s t e n l i z a t i o n . e x c e p t to m i n u t e g r o u p s a n d in a l i m i t e d xvav. T h e p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e of p s y c h o therapy- anti ps.vehoa,mlvsis is b e c o m i n g a l m o s t impossil)le. U n d e r . t h e social w e l f a r e p r o g r a m , time a n d l)ersonnel s h o r t a g e s i m p o s e l i m i t a t i o n s . "Wh;tt is f i n d i n g i n c r e a s i n g a c e e p t a n e e is I n t e g r a t i o n a l S o e i o - P e r s o n a l i s m (I.S.P.'), a Socio-Per~onal Ficld-Ct'~aered Therapetitic Approacl; e v o l v e d l)v Burg, ::~ linguist, sociologist a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t r e s i d e n t ill J a p a n since t94"5. It is lmsed on an i n t i m a t e experienc'e w i t h a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the Jal)ml,.'se l a n g u a g e . culture, h i s t o r y a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l societal a n d f a m i l y system, i n t e g r a t i n g tnanx" c o n c e p t s from t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l a p p r o a c h of S u l l i v a n a n d 1l o r n e v a n d of n e w e r d e v e l o p m e n t s in f a m i l y u n d c o m m u n i t y psychiatry'. I N Dl.k

In 1911. Dr. S u t h e r h u l d ( I n d i a ) "'informed m e that an E n g l i s h nelnoh)Rist'" ( O w e n BerkeI('v-llill of R a n c h i , ml early' p u p i l of Jones a n d a f o u n d i n g member of the I n d i a n I)sveho-analx'tic.al S o c i e t y in l.t)~2) f o u n d "'the a n a l y s e s of .X.lohammedml I n d i a n s . . . s h o w e d the s a m e e t i o l o g y of n e u r o s e s . . . as we find in o u r E u r o p e a n patients."--" T h e m a i n i m p e t u s to psychoanal.vsis in Ilidia c a m e from Dr. G i r i n d r a s e k h a r Bose. a g i f t e d a n d m a n y talente(1 Bengali from C a l c u t t a w h o c a m e to F r e u d ' s writings, abot,t 1915, via his interest in h y p n o t i s m . In t h e i r e x t e n s i v e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , from 1921 u n t i l Frm~d's d e a t h , t h e r e w e r e s h a r p differences, e x p r e s s i v e of Bose's rigor, r o o t e d n e s s in a n d g r e a t k n o w l e d g e of I n d i a a n d I n d i a n philosol)hy. "'[ d o n o t e x p e c t t h a t y o u w o u l d a c c e p t o f f h a n d my. r e a d i n g of the O e d i p u s siluation a r g u m e n t is t h a t the t h r e a t o w e s its eftqeienev to its c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the wish to be f e m a l e . . . c a s t r a t i o n t h r e a t is yen" c o m m o n in I n d i a n society b u t my" I n d i a n p a t i e n t s d o not e x h i b i t c a s t r a t i o n s y m p t o m s to such a m a r k e d d e g r e e as m v E u r o p e i m eases. T h e desire to he f e m a l e is m o r e easily u n e a r t h e d in I n d i a n m a l e p a t i e n t s t h a n in E u r o p e a n . . . T h e O e d i p u s m o t h e r is very. o f t e n a c'om;)ined p a r e n t a l i m a g e a n d . . . I h a v e reasons to b e l i e v e t h a t m u c h of the m o t i v a t i o n of the "maternal dietv" is traeeal)Ic to this source. "m-' Bose's a s s e r t i o n s a n d m o r e has t~een c o n f i r m e d 1)v l loel:, ;a Swiss p s y c h i a t r i s t r e s i d e n t in I n d i a for t h i r t e e n veqrs, I n d i a n p s y c h i a t r i s t a n d ;malvsts a n d from m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e in I n d i a a n d w i t h I n d i a n s in the U n i t e d Stales. V~'esternization. w i t h the b r e a k - u p of the e x t e n d e d family, s,vstem, a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d of the I n d i a n v a r i e t y of the E a s t e r n m i n d - s t m m t u r e , has c r e a t e d q u i t e n e w e g o - s t r u c t u r e p r o b l e m s in I n d i a n p a t i e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in males, n e c e s s i t a t i n g v a r i a t i o n s in p s y c h o a n a l y t i c as well as t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n practices. Rajah, ":~ i n f l u e n c e d bv Boss" l)a.,r'iu.sanahl.~-i.s'. ~" felt that e x i s t e n t i a l .

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I~SYCHOANALYSIS IN fAOSNIOLOGY

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analysis m i g h t b e p a r t i c u l a r l y suited to such a c o m p l e x situation in transition. B h m , d a r i m e n t i o n e d patients" g r e a t "oral anxieties" a n d the i n o r d i n a t e dem a n d s on the analyst. "The t e c h n i q u e of classical p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m a y p r e s e n t rich potentialities as an i n s t r u m e n t of research b u t seems to h a v e veQ, l i m i t e d t h e r a p e u t i c possibilities in llndia. "':n In earlier centuries, w h i l e still rooted in t h o r mncient traditions a n d in contact with "the All in the All," I n d i a n p a t i e n t s ~h a d t h e resources to accept a n d g r o w t h r o u g h t h e rigorous disciplines :imposed b y a g u r u in a one to one r e l a t i o n s h i p or w h e n g a t h e r e d arom~d a sage in his a s h r a m , a k i n d of spiritual, e d u c a t i o n a l , t h e r a p e u t i c c o m m u n i ~ , . Xlore r e c e n t l y , many. b r e a k d o w n u n d e r its rigors a n d /ind a p r e l i m i n a r y period of psvehomaalvsis necess a r v to w i t h s t a n d the hardshlI~S." A c c o r d i n g to the old traditions, w h i c h are stil'l p r e v a l e n t , the oldest son was m u c h favored. But today, b y the t i m e h e r e a c h e s chronological m a t u r i t y , h e h a s to face a m a t e r i a l i s l i c , W e s t e r n i z e d , f r a g m e n t i n g l n d i a , u n p r e p a r e d for a d u l t resp(mslbilities in such a world. Sehizo-affeetive states, e x t r e m e passivity a n d disorganizing anxieties a r e c~mmoI~ responses. P s y c h o a n a l y s t s h a v e £ound that short p e r i o d s of t h e r a p y w i t h longer i n t e r r u p t i o n s a necessity, a n d a m o r e effective w a y of p r o c e e d i n g . T h e aim is to lessen anxiety, h e l p d e v e l o p s o m e ego strength, live w i t h it for a p e r i o d a n d tlaen return f o r m o r e therapy. T h o u g h psycho~malysis b e g a n in Calcutta. u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , its d e v e l o p m e n t has b e e n g r e a t e r iI~ B o m b a y , I n d i a ' s most \ ~ s t e r n i z e d a n d w e a l t h y city. Accredited sit,ee 192g, the I l l d i a n P s y c h o - a n a l y t i c Soeie~: hms seven t r a i n i n g ar, a l v s t s , i-wo journals. Smniksa ( E n g l i s h ) a n d C h i t t a ( B e n g a l i ) , 41 associate nlemke,~ ~ ,,-s of w h i c h ei~ht~ a n d six. respectively, m'e p h y s i c i a n s , a n d 46 c a n d i dates in training. N o n e of the m e m b e r s has b e e n t r a i n e d a b r o a d . 7'~ \Vith m e d i c a l resources m i n i s c u l e , c o m p a r e d to the n e e d s , p s y c h i a t r i c u n d e r a n d p o s t g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g in its infm}c~,, p.~.,chiatrie sen,ices h o p e l e s s l y izla d e q u a t e a n d w i t h India's e n o r m o u s economic, social a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o b i e m s , !--syehoanalysis can d e v e l o p only v e t 5, slowly, b e l i m i t e d to the b i g cities a n d to the \ V e s t e r n i z e d p o p u l a t i o n w i t h sufficient f u n d s . P s ) ' c h o a n a l y s i s can only b e c o m e m o r e w i d e l y a p p l i c a b l e as I n d i a n s b e c o m e m o r e \Vesten~ in t h e i r m i n d s a n d motivations. "

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In 1909, F r e u d h e a r d of a S y d n e y m i n i s t e r l e c t u r i n g on p q , c h o a n a l y s i s . F r e u d . Jung a n d H a v e l o c k Ellis w e r e asked to give p a p e r s b e f o r e t h e Australasian M e d i c a l C o n g r e s s iN 1 9 i l . T h e r e a f t e r little h a p p e n e d until D r . ttoy XVinn:~ of S y d n e y r e c e i v e d his a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g in L o n d o n in t h e e a r l y :20s, b e c a m e the first f u l l - t i m e trainiaag p s y c h o a n a I y s t in A u s t r a l i a in I931 a n d Dr. Mar,'. Barkas in N e w Z e a l a n d not l o n g after. Dr. C l a r a L a z a r - G e r o e , i n v i t e d from B u d a p e s t , b e c a m e the first trainh~g an~Ovst in Australia. w h e n the Melb o u r n e Institute for Psycho-ana]ysis was f o u n d e d , in O c t o b e r 1940. T h e S y d n e y Institute was f o t m d e d in 19~9. w i t h Dr. A n d r e w Peto of B u d a p e s ~ a s t r a i n i n g analyst, but d i s b a n d e d w h e n he d e p a r t e d for N e w York in 1955. At present there are thirteen qualified analysts in Australia anct two in N e w Z e a l a n d .

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..kustralim~ l)sychiatr.x"s g r e a t c s t devc, lop~nent tins b e e n s i n c e \Vt)rld \'Car II. gcneratl o r i e n t a t i o n . . is a s y n t h e s i s of p s y c h o d y n a m i c a n d social ;tl>l ) r o a c h c s . `.r~" VUith t h e y o u t h of I+sy'chiatry, l i m i t c d pers<>nncl. /hi" :\~)Stratlia~ p e r s o n a l i t y a l i d t h e s p r e a d of w e l f a r e p r o g r a m s , p s y c h o a a a l y s i s as su¢-ll h a s a n d cam p l a y tnil ;l l i m i t e d role in : \ t i s t r a l i a i i l ) s y c h i a t r y ". "'The

C<)N c:Lc:s~o,,," T h c t'ttttn'c of l)sychoan-:tlysis w i l l |>c sigt~ificantly d e t e r m i n e d l>v w h a t h a p l~Cns in t h c U n i t c : l S t a t e s . \ V c c a n ef th(, soei()h)gy of i(:h:,as a n d th(" w i d e r t)m, of o u r c()smo]ogics. (mr myths.. S u c h b r e a d t h a n d d e p t h of v i s i o n m a v ~ix-(, us c s s t ' n l i a l c o r r e c t i v e s ;u~d w i s d o m in c v o h i n g its n e w idi()ms as th(.orv. r('sc'~rc't), t c c h n i t l t , c , t r a i ) ) i n g a n d a p p l i c a t i o n . It w i l l t h e n 1)(, e x p r t , s s i v c +')f a n d find its p l a c e it) th(' i d i o m s a n d m y t h s of a n e w t m i t i v e w o r l d v i e w . . \ s this )mlH)C-))s. it will a p p r ( ) a c h t h e i>ainftdh" g a i n e d w i s d o m o | tt)i.,, t r o u l ) l c d N e w Z t ' : d a n d a d o h , s c c n t . " ' \ V h c n y o u ttip . \ o u r s e l f u p ()n to ;t w:tx(. :m~l r i d e t h a t l)uckit~g xxatcr . . . t h e thit~g is to h a v e nt) t h o t ~ l ~ t at all. T h c third,.:" in t() ~ix'c \ o u r s e l f to tl~t" w a v e . s() t h a t x(>~Fre notl~in,,4 at all. not (,x-,,)~ :t f e a t h e r , st) tlmt y o u ' r e j u s t p a r t of th(: w a v e , p a r t of th<, sea. p a r t ()f (,\(.rxthin,,-..,. . . . ;t))d t h e n y o u ' r e ttvin~.. , jt~st tlv;n~,. , till .x'())¢rt" ¢ t r o p p e d lightly. . t<) ll~c s,tDd. If v(m h a v e n ' t g i v e n \'ottrsclf. g i v e n \'()~rsclf cnlirctx', v(m't(. (h~ml~t'd. +Fh;tt's th(" Seat'S r c : ' t ' ) ) ( . £ c . . . . If \'otFr(, st,lfish, tlmt is. :t))d (';t))'t att-()r(I t<) ~iw. v ( ) ~ H ' s ( ' l ) . ( ) r if vo~Frc : t f r ; t i ( l . : \ ~ ) ( i if x'()~ att, like that. tl~('n x ( ) t F v ( . ~ ( ) l t)() I~,)p(. ()f makit~g f r i e n d s w i t h t h e sea: ()r \ v i t l t ;uLvthin<,Z* for tt~at ~)utttcr." Antl n()l ltm,Z ;tftt,r. in his first s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e , l~t, c(nd¢l feel "'The w h o l e t)usin(..',+- ct,rt:ti))lv h::
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