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PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOCATIONS AND ACTIVITIES
Journal of Environmental Psychology (1999) 19, 287^294 # 1999 Academic Press Article No. jevp.1999.0132, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
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PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOCATIONS AND ACTIVITIES JOHN H. KERR1 AND PAUL TACON2 1
University of Tsukuba, Japan, 2 York University, Canada Abstract
According to reversal theory, entering places or buildings may induce particular psychological states. Study one tested this hypothesis by examining the metamotivational states of subjects (n = 400) just after they entered two `telic' and two `paratelic' locations. Results from the telic state measure indicated signi¢cant di¡erences between the four groups on the serious±playful and planning±spontaneous items, indicators of operative metamotivational state. In Studies 2 and 3, participants (n = 65; n = 76) completed the measure four times on two occasions in relation to `telic' and `paratelic' activity settings. The ¢rst completion took place after participants imagined their actual and ideal states for their respective activities and the second, 4 weeks later, immediately pre- and post-performing their respective activities. Results from both studies indicated signi¢cant di¡erences between the four presentations on serious±playful, planning±spontaneous, felt arousal, and e¡ort items, and in Study 3 only the preferred arousal item. These results suggest that individuals are sensitive to the psychological states required in particular settings. # 1999 Academic Press
Introduction That people are sensitive, in terms of emotional states, mood and cognition, to particular locations and the conditions pertaining in those settings, has been shown in some recent research ¢ndings. For example, Korpela and Hartig (1996) undertook a study of Finnish students' favourite places and places which they considered unpleasant. Their results indicated that subjects' emotional states differed between favourite places, a central city square (neutral) and unpleasant places, and these results were consistent with arguments about selfregulation of emotions (Korpela & Hartig, 1996). For example, subjects associated signi¢cantly higher positive a¡ect and signi¢cantly lower anger/aggression and fear arousal with their favourite place compared to the central square. Also, correlational analysis showed that the pattern of di¡erences in self-reported emotional states was found to parallel the pattern of di¡erences found for the restorative quality of the di¡erent places. Other research ¢ndings (e.g. Knez, 1995) have shown the e¡ects of speci¢c aspects of individual locations such as indoor lighting on mood and cognition.
Reversal theory (Apter, 1982, 1989) is one of the few general theories in psychology which makes speci¢c predictions about how a person's physical surroundings as de¢ned may a¡ect their mental state. Physical surroundings here would include actual structures or buildings as diverse as a circus tent or a church, and also smaller units, ranging from, for example, a billiard hall to a bank manager's of¢ce. Apter (1982, p. 59, 1989, p. 49) has claimed that entering di¡erent locations or settings tends to induce particular mental states or modes. In brief, reversal theory postulates the existence of four sets of mutually exclusive but paired metamotivational states, (phenomenological states characterized by a certain way of interpreting some aspect(s) of one's motivation) between which individuals are thought to switch or reverse depending on the circumstances pertaining at the time. The name `reversal theory' comes from this concept of metamotivational state reversals. It is in relation to two of these states, the so-called telic (from the Greek word telos meaning goal or end) and paratelic (alongside telic) pair, that Apter's (1982, p. 59, 1989, p. 49) claims were made. When the telic state is operative individuals are concerned with goal
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achievement and their behaviour is likely to be serious, planned and future oriented. In comparison, individuals with the paratelic state operative are concerned with their ongoing activity which is likely to be playful, spontaneous and very much related to the present. In addition, there are di¡erences in preference for felt arousal (the degree to which an individual feels him or herself to be worked up) between the two states. Low felt arousal is preferred and experienced as pleasant in the telic state and high felt arousal is preferred and experienced as pleasant in the paratelic state. One of the ways that reversals between these two states may be triggered is by the occurrence of some environmental event or situation. This is known as a contingent reversal, as the reversal between states is contingent upon an environmental event taking place (Apter, 1982, p. 70). Also, it is thought, that by deliberately bringing about changes in the immediate environment an individual could indirectly control his or her own reversals and prompt reversals between states. In this way, by entering certain places or situations, telic to paratelic or paratelic to telic reversals are likely to be induced. The purpose of Study 1 in this paper was to test Apter's arguments by examining whether the telic or paratelic state was operative as individuals entered four di¡erent locations. Of these four locations two were chosen as being likely to induce the telic state and two the paratelic state (see Study 1, Method). According to other mood researchers, such as Thayer (1989) and Morris and Reilly (1987), people are quite skilled at modulating their mental states (mood and arousal) and use a variety of strategies for doing so. For example, sugar snacks, ca¡eine, tobacco and other drugs are used, sometimes on a daily basis, by many people to dissipate unpleasant moods (e.g. Thayer et al., 1993). This suggests that individuals are able to sense their moods and levels of arousal and utilize techniques to enhance their mood which have worked for them in the past. Which techniques, and to what degree they are used, will vary from individual to individual. Thayer (1989, p. 157) also suggested that some of these techniques are `consciously employed, but probably there is only a low awareness about the process much of the time'. To date, in reversal theory, the degree to which people are aware of their operative metamotivational state and felt arousal levels has not received much attention. However, given what Apter (1989) has said about individuals being able to induce particular metamotivational states by, for example, en-
tering certain settings, might it therefore be presumed that people are aware of their operative metamotivational state and level of arousal and are sensitive to which state is most appropriate for a particular setting? It is perhaps worthwhile here to note the results of pioneering work by Schachter and Singer (1962) that suggested an individual's arousal response to an event was related to his or her interpretation of that event. Reversal theory does emphasize the role that cognition plays in an individuals's interpretation of his or her own motivation, so presumptions about people's awareness of their operative metamotivational state and felt arousal level may not be unreasonable. Such propositions should, however, be testable. An examination (Apter, 1989, p. 48) and a recreational sports activity (Apter, 1982, p. 59) are two speci¢c examples of situations or settings which are considered to be telic and paratelic in orientation, respectively. By adopting a research methodology which asked subjects to project what their actual and ideal metamotivational state and felt arousal characteristics might be in either of these situations, one could compare these responses with those measured during the actual performance of the activities. Such a comparison should provide an indication of how aware individuals are of their operative metamotivational state and arousal level in locations where serious-minded, planned, goal oriented activities or playful, spontaneous activities are engaged in. The research design described in this paragraph was carried out in the second and third studies reported below. In sum, in accordance with reversal theory predictions it was hypothesized that entering places or buildings associated with telic activities or paratelic activities would induce the telic and paratelic metamotivational states, respectively. In addition, it was hypothesized that individuals would be sensitive to the psychological states required for performing telic and paratelic tasks in their respective activity settings in terms of projected actual and ideal and pre- and post-task self-ratings of metamotivational state, arousal and e¡ort. Study 1 Method Subjects. Subjects in this study were four equal groups of Dutch students (200 females and 200 males, aged 18±24 years, M = 199). There were no
Psychological Responses to Locations and Activities
signi¢cant age di¡erences between groups which were divided equally on the basis of gender. Measures. A Dutch version of the telic state measure (TSM) (Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985; Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993) was used in this study. The TSM consists of ¢ve response items including serious± playful, planning±spontaneous, felt arousal (low± high), preferred arousal (low±high) and investment of e¡ort in the task (low±high). Each item has a six point rating scale with de¢ning adjectives at each end. If desired, a sixth item, arousal discrepancy, is calculated by subtracting the score on the felt arousal item from the score on the preferred arousal item. Low scores (1±3) on TSM serious±playful and planning±spontaneous items are considered indicative of the telic state and high scores (4±6) are considered indicative of the paratelic state. The ¢fth (e¡ort) item was not included in Study 1 as participants were not asked to perform a task. The TSM has been used previously in several research studies (e.g. Svebak et al., 1982; Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985; Kerr & Cox, 1991; Kerr & Van den Wollenberg, 1997) and more complete details of the development and use of the measure can be found in Svebak and Murgatroyd (1985). Procedure. Individual participants entering four di¡erent locations were approached just after entry and asked to complete the TSM according to how they felt at that time. This procedure continued until data from 50 males and 50 females was collected at each location. Two of these locations were considered likely to induce the telic state and two the paratelic state in most participants (after Apter, 1988). The two telic locations were the university library (group 1), and a lecture theatre just prior to a lecture on statistics (group 2). The two paratelic locations were the university sports centre (group 3) and a party in the students' union building (group 4). Results and discussion Group mean di¡erences were examined using SPSS analysis of variance procedures. Signi¢cant di¡erences between group mean scores were found on the TSM serious±playful item [F(3,396) = 2519, p5 0001] and planning^spontaneous item [F(3,396) = 1689, p50001] but not on the TSM felt and preferred arousal items. Participants were signi¢cantly more serious and more planning oriented on entering a university library and a lecture theatre than a sports hall or a student party (see Figure 1). The lack of important di¡erences in felt arousal is some-
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what surprising as higher levels might have been expected at the sports hall and the student union party. Perhaps the activities taking place there have to be well under way before felt arousal increases markedly. Study 2 Method Participants. Participants were students from a class of Introductory Psychology students at York University who participated in this study (and in others) as part of their term work credits. This group, the examination setting (telic) group, comprised 65 participants (44 females and 21 males, aged 18±25 years, M = 202). Measures. The TSM (e.g. Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985) was used in Study 2. As this was a repeated measures design, data from those who, for whatever reason, did not complete all four TSM's was excluded from the analysis (see Procedure). Procedure. The TSM was presented twice, in pairs, with an interval of 4 weeks between these paired administrations. For the ¢rst test, given during the second or third week of class, all participants were asked to imagine that they were going to take part in an examination and were asked to complete the TSM in accordance with the following instructions: Imagine you are about to write the mid-term examination in this course. Please indicate on the scales on the following page how you think you would feel immediately before writing the examination.
Once this was completed, participants were asked to again complete the TSM but according to the following instructions: Imagine you are about to write the mid-term examination in this course. Please indicate on the scales on the following page what you think would be the optimal feelings to have immediately before writing the examination.
After a 4 week interval the actual examination (telic event) that the participants were asked to respond to took place. Immediately prior to the midterm examination all participants were given the TSM with the instructions to rate their feelings at this moment. Once completed they were given the mid-term examination. The fourth administration of the TSM came immediately after completion of the exam. However, as individuals complete their examinations at di¡erent times, participants were
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FIGURE 1. Mean TSM item scores for the four locations (a) serious±playful ( p50001) (b) planning±spontaneous ( p 5 0001) (c) felt arousal ( p = N.S.) (d) preferred arousal ( p = N.S.). telic; para telic.
requested to notify the examiner when they had ¢nished. At that time the student was then given the post-examination TSM to complete. Once again, instructions were to rate their feelings at this moment. Performance scores in the form of examination results (for both essay-type and multiple-choice questions) were also available for comparative analysis. Results and discussion The results were analysed using the Multiple Comparisons and Geisser Greenhouse tests (Tukey, 1954) and Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coe¤cients (see, for example, Cook & Campbell, 1979). Serious±playful. A signi¢cant di¡erence across the four sessions for the examination setting group [F(3,192) = 2825, p = 00001] was obtained. Also, comparisons between TSM presentations 1 and 4, 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 were all signi¢cant at a 005
level of con¢dence or better. These results are consistent across the ¢rst three measurements with a clear telic to paratelic reversal occurring immediately after the examination was over (see Figure 2a). This reversal is what reversal theory would predict as a likely occurrence in this setting. Planning±spontaneous. Statistical analysis (Multiple Comparisons test) shows that scores for the telic examination setting group di¡ered signi¢cantly over the four TSM presentations [F(3,192) = 2073, p = 0001]. Comparisons (Geisser Greenhouse test) between 1 and 3, 1 and 4, 2 and 3, and 2 and 4 were all signi¢cant at or beyond the 005 level (see Figure 2b). Here the projected ideal score is signi¢cantly more telic than for the projected actual score. Both pre-task and post-task scores are signi¢cantly more paratelic. It may be that by the time one enters into an examination there is not a great need (or opportunity) to plan ahead. As well there may be a sense of `well its too late now, either I know my stu¡ or
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FIGURE 2. Mean TSM item scores for the examination activity and recreational sport activity settings; (a) serious±playful (exam p 5 00001; sport p = 0001) (b) planning±spontaneous (exam p = 0001; sport p = N.S.); (c) felt arousal (exam p = 0024; sport p = 00037) (d) preferred arousal (exam p = N.S.; sport p = 00001) (e) e¡ort invested in the task (exam p = 00001; sport p = 00034). ^&^ exam; - -*- - badminton.
I don't and I had better just get on with it'. On the other hand, on a more speci¢c level, there remains a need to plan throughout the examination answers and allotted time. Again, the post-task score indicates a reversal from the telic to the paratelic state.
Felt arousal. For the telic examination setting group signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparisons Test) between TSM presentations were found [F(3,192) = 365, p = 0024]. Also, signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 2 and 4,
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and 3 and 4 (see Figure 2c). For felt arousal, the projected actual, projected ideal and pre-task scores are all similar which possibly shows that the participants were accurate in estimating what arousal levels they will experience at examinations. These felt arousal scores were in the moderate range which suggests that as these participants were in the telic state (see Figures 2a and 2b) this level of felt arousal may have been somewhat unpleasant. However, as the serious±playful scores indicated, the examination setting group reversed to the paratelic state after the examination and these moderate arousal levels (even though they decreased signi¢cantly) would then have been experienced as more pleasant. In this case, the change in the experience of moderate felt arousal from unpleasant to pleasant appears more likely to have been as a result of a reversal from the telic to paratelic state rather than from a decrease in arousal per se, as some other research has shown (e.g. Berlyne, 1960).
signi¢cance values of r = 033455, p = 00065; r = 036659, p = 00027; and r = 037025, p = 00024, respectively were observed (n = 65 in each case). The direction of the correlations would suggest that those who were less aroused pre-task did better on all three exam measures. Although the mean absolute level of felt arousal was moderate rather than low and might give some support to the inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance (see, for example, Berlyne 1960), it would appear from this result that, in general, low levels of felt arousal were most conducive to performance in examinations. No signi¢cant correlations were observed for other TSM dimensions.
Preferred arousal. No statistically signi¢cant di¡erences between TSM presentations were revealed [F(3,192) = 129, p = 02796]. Scores on the ¢rst two and last two TSM presentations are almost identical (see Figure 2d). Note that the pre-task scores are somewhat lower for the preferred arousal than for felt arousal (see Figure 2d). Although pre-examination participants would have liked to have had lower arousal, post-task scores showed no di¡erences between felt and preferred arousal conditions.
Participants. Participants were ¢rst-year students enrolled in a recreational sports (badminton) class at Nijenrode University in the Netherlands. This group, the recreational sport (paratelic) setting group, comprised 76 participants (44 females and 32 males, ages 17±22 years, M = 197)
E¡ort. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparisons test) were found across TSM presentations [F(3,192) = 2431, p = 00001]. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 1 and 4, 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 (see Figure 2e). The amount of e¡ort expended by the examination setting group, in terms of the projected actual, projected ideal and pre-task scores are similar, but the post-task score is, as might be expected, signi¢cantly lower, perhaps re£ecting that the level of e¡ort required to cope with the demands of the examination was no longer necessary.
Procedure. The experimental procedure for the recreational sport group was the same as that used in Study 2 with the exception that the instructions given referred to a game of recreational badminton rather than an examination. Also, the future event was a real recreational badminton game. No performance evaluation data was collected during the badminton game as it was considered inappropriate in (and might well change the nature of) a paratelicoriented activity that was played for fun.
Examination performance results. A correlation analysis of the pre-task administration of the TSM to the examination setting group revealed highly signi¢cant Rho values between how aroused participants felt prior to the task and how successful they were on the mid-term examination. This was true for the multiple choice scores, the essay question scores and for the total examination scores where
Study 3 Method
Measures. In this study, participants completed a Dutch version of the TSM (Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993) administered in the same manner and at the same times as in Study 2.
Results and discussion Serious±playful. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) were obtained across the four sessions [F(3,225) = 394, p = 0001]. Comparisons (Geisser Greenhouse test) between TSM presentations 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 2 and 4 all yielded an alpha of 005 or greater (see Figure 2a). Mean scores were consistent across three of the four situations, with scores in the low end of the paratelic range. Notice that participants' mean score was
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more serious in the projected ideal setting. It is possible that when asked about ideal states for playing badminton by experimenters in a physical education context, students' expectation was that they should give the impression that they were more serious about sport. Certainly the mean score here is in the telic range of the scale. Planning±spontaneous. Mean scores across all four TSM presentations are consistent and within the paratelic range. There were no statistically signi¢cant di¡erences across the four TSM presentations or between TSM presentations. This group was not very planning oriented as is the case for individuals operating in the paratelic state. Felt arousal. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) between TSM presentations were found [F(3,225) = 493, p = 00037). Also, similar signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) were found to exist between TSM presentations 1 and 4, and 3 and 4 at the 005 level or better (see Figure 2c). For the recreational sport setting group, the projected actual and pre-task felt arousal scores are very close, with the projected ideal arousal level somewhat higher. Pre- to post-task felt arousal levels increased signi¢cantly resembling other prepost sport ¢ndings (e.g. Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993; Kerr & van Schaik, 1995). Preferred arousal. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) were obtained across TSM administrations [F(3,225) = 390, p = 00001]. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse Test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 1 and 2, 1 and 4, 2 and 3, and 2 and 4 (see Figure 2d). Preferred arousal scores were somewhat higher than felt arousal scores across all four TSM presentations. Generally participants in the recreational sport setting group would have liked to have had higher arousal than they actually experienced in all four TSM presentations. At the same time, the graphs for both felt and preferred arousal are remarkably similar. E¡ort. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) were found across TSM presentations [F(3,225) = 485, p = 00034). Signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 1 and 4, and 3 and 4 (see Figure 2e). While there are no di¡erences between scores for the ¢rst three TSM presentations, not surprisingly post-task scores after vigorous activity are higher (signi¢cantly so for two of the three comparisons).
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General discussion Important conclusions were, ¢rst, that the results from these three studies con¢rm previous research ¢ndings by others, and second, reversal theory proved to be a useful theoretical base on which to carry out empirical investigations in this context. For example, the results from Study 1 showed that people are sensitive to particular physical locations and respond to them by changes in psychological mood (see also Knez, 1995; Korpela & Hartig, 1996). Reversal theory predictions about how locations might a¡ect individuals' metamotivational state were tested and substantiated. It was found that participants were more likely to be in the telic state on entering a university library and a lecture theatre, and more likely to be in the paratelic state on entering a sports centre or a student union party. This result, as well as con¢rming reversal theory predictions, ¢ts neatly with everyday experience. It may be that the moods induced by particular locations are linked to people's previous experience of the type of activities that they and others engage in when in those locations. Previous research by Thayer (1989, 1996) and Morris and Reilly (1987) had indicated that people are capable of self-regulating their mental state. The main purpose of Studies 2 and 3 was to investigate how aware participants were of the most appropriate psychological state for di¡erent settings. Generally, the results revealed that participants were knowledgeable about the metamotivational state and arousal level suitable for examination and recreational sport settings. Their projected scores for actual and ideal states were close to their scores recorded just before engaging in the activity. Of particular interest amongst the results for the examination setting was an obvious reversal from the telic to paratelic state which occurred after the examination. This reversal was marked by a signi¢cant increase in playfulness scores and signi¢cant decreases in felt arousal and e¡ort scores. With regard to participants' performance in the examination it is interesting to note that those participants who were less aroused before the examination performed better on both multiple choice and essay sections as well as on total score. As reversal theory would predict for this type of setting, results from the recreational sport setting indicated that participants were in the paratelic state. It was not surprising that felt arousal levels were signi¢cantly higher after playing badminton. High felt arousal is a recognized feature of activity in the paratelic state where it is actively sought
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after and enjoyed. Previous reversal theory sport research (e.g. Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993; Kerr & van Schaik, 1995) has reported similar ¢ndings. This increase in felt arousal was matched by increases in preferred arousal and e¡ort pre-post-recreational sport activity. Finally, it might be interesting to consider what would happen to people's metamotivational state and arousal levels when locations are used for unusual or non-typical activities. For example, as happens in some universities, sports halls are used for examinations, and libraries and lecture rooms may be used for receptions or other social events. In other words, if a location which is usually used for paratelic settings is changed to a telic setting or vice versa will people's psychological state change accordingly? It seems probable that, as is the case in all these locations and settings, cognition would play a crucial role in mood response under such circumstances, but investigating such a scenario might make a suitable topic for future research. Notes Correspondence and reprint requests should be addressed to J. H. Kerr, Institute of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan 305.
References Apter, M. J. (1982). The Experience of Motivation. London: Academic Press. Apter, M. J. (1989). Reversal Theory: motivation emotion and personality. London: Routledge. Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Con£ict, Arousal and Curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill. Cook, T. D. & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: design and analysis issues for ¢eld settings. Boston: Houghton Mi¥in Company.
Kerr, J. H. & Cox, T. (1991). Arousal and individual di¡erences in sport. Personality and Individual Di¡erences 12, 1075±1085. Kerr, J. H. & van Schaik, P. (1995). E¡ects of game outcome on psychological mood states in rugby. Personality and Individual Di¡erences 19, 407±410. Kerr, J. H. & van den Wollenberg, A. E. (1997). High and low intensity exercise and psychological mood states. Psychology & Health 12, 603 ± 618. Kerr, J. H. & Vlaswinkel, E. H. (1993). Self-reported mood and running under natural conditions. Work & Stress 7, 161± 177. Knez, I. (1995). E¡ects of indoor lighting on mood and cognition. Journal of Environmental Psychology 15, 39 ± 51. Korpela, K. & Hartig, T. (1996). Restorative qualities of favorite places. Journal of Environmental Psychology 16, 221± 233. Morris, W. N. & Reilly, N. P. (1987). Toward the self-regulation of mood: theory and research. Motivation and Emotion 11, 215 ± 249. Schachter, S. & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review 69, 378 ± 399. Svebak, S. & Murgatroyd, S. (1985). Metamotivational dominance: a multi-method validation of reversal theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48, 519±528. Svebak, S., Storfjell, O. & Dalen, K. (1982). The e¡ect of a threatening context upon motivation and task-induced psychological changes. British Journal of Psychology 73, 505±512. Thayer, R. E. (1989). The Biopsychology of Mood and Arousal. New York: Oxford University Press. Thayer, R. E. (1996). The Origin of Everyday Moods. New York: Oxford University Press. Thayer, R. E., Peters, D. P., Takahashi, P. J. & BirkheadFlight, A. M. (1993). Mood and behavior (smoking and sugar snacking) following moderate exercise. A partial test of self-regulation theory. Personality and Individual Di¡erences 14, 97±104. Tukey, J. (1954). Causation, regression and path analysis. In O. Kempthorne, (Ed.), Statistics and Mathematics in Biology. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State College Press.
0272 - 4944/99/030287+08 $30.00/0
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOCATIONS AND ACTIVITIES JOHN H. KERR1 AND PAUL TACON2 1
University of Tsukuba, Japan, 2 York University, Canada Abstract
According to reversal theory, entering places or buildings may induce particular psychological states. Study one tested this hypothesis by examining the metamotivational states of subjects (n = 400) just after they entered two `telic' and two `paratelic' locations. Results from the telic state measure indicated signi¢cant di¡erences between the four groups on the serious±playful and planning±spontaneous items, indicators of operative metamotivational state. In Studies 2 and 3, participants (n = 65; n = 76) completed the measure four times on two occasions in relation to `telic' and `paratelic' activity settings. The ¢rst completion took place after participants imagined their actual and ideal states for their respective activities and the second, 4 weeks later, immediately pre- and post-performing their respective activities. Results from both studies indicated signi¢cant di¡erences between the four presentations on serious±playful, planning±spontaneous, felt arousal, and e¡ort items, and in Study 3 only the preferred arousal item. These results suggest that individuals are sensitive to the psychological states required in particular settings. # 1999 Academic Press
Introduction That people are sensitive, in terms of emotional states, mood and cognition, to particular locations and the conditions pertaining in those settings, has been shown in some recent research ¢ndings. For example, Korpela and Hartig (1996) undertook a study of Finnish students' favourite places and places which they considered unpleasant. Their results indicated that subjects' emotional states differed between favourite places, a central city square (neutral) and unpleasant places, and these results were consistent with arguments about selfregulation of emotions (Korpela & Hartig, 1996). For example, subjects associated signi¢cantly higher positive a¡ect and signi¢cantly lower anger/aggression and fear arousal with their favourite place compared to the central square. Also, correlational analysis showed that the pattern of di¡erences in self-reported emotional states was found to parallel the pattern of di¡erences found for the restorative quality of the di¡erent places. Other research ¢ndings (e.g. Knez, 1995) have shown the e¡ects of speci¢c aspects of individual locations such as indoor lighting on mood and cognition.
Reversal theory (Apter, 1982, 1989) is one of the few general theories in psychology which makes speci¢c predictions about how a person's physical surroundings as de¢ned may a¡ect their mental state. Physical surroundings here would include actual structures or buildings as diverse as a circus tent or a church, and also smaller units, ranging from, for example, a billiard hall to a bank manager's of¢ce. Apter (1982, p. 59, 1989, p. 49) has claimed that entering di¡erent locations or settings tends to induce particular mental states or modes. In brief, reversal theory postulates the existence of four sets of mutually exclusive but paired metamotivational states, (phenomenological states characterized by a certain way of interpreting some aspect(s) of one's motivation) between which individuals are thought to switch or reverse depending on the circumstances pertaining at the time. The name `reversal theory' comes from this concept of metamotivational state reversals. It is in relation to two of these states, the so-called telic (from the Greek word telos meaning goal or end) and paratelic (alongside telic) pair, that Apter's (1982, p. 59, 1989, p. 49) claims were made. When the telic state is operative individuals are concerned with goal
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achievement and their behaviour is likely to be serious, planned and future oriented. In comparison, individuals with the paratelic state operative are concerned with their ongoing activity which is likely to be playful, spontaneous and very much related to the present. In addition, there are di¡erences in preference for felt arousal (the degree to which an individual feels him or herself to be worked up) between the two states. Low felt arousal is preferred and experienced as pleasant in the telic state and high felt arousal is preferred and experienced as pleasant in the paratelic state. One of the ways that reversals between these two states may be triggered is by the occurrence of some environmental event or situation. This is known as a contingent reversal, as the reversal between states is contingent upon an environmental event taking place (Apter, 1982, p. 70). Also, it is thought, that by deliberately bringing about changes in the immediate environment an individual could indirectly control his or her own reversals and prompt reversals between states. In this way, by entering certain places or situations, telic to paratelic or paratelic to telic reversals are likely to be induced. The purpose of Study 1 in this paper was to test Apter's arguments by examining whether the telic or paratelic state was operative as individuals entered four di¡erent locations. Of these four locations two were chosen as being likely to induce the telic state and two the paratelic state (see Study 1, Method). According to other mood researchers, such as Thayer (1989) and Morris and Reilly (1987), people are quite skilled at modulating their mental states (mood and arousal) and use a variety of strategies for doing so. For example, sugar snacks, ca¡eine, tobacco and other drugs are used, sometimes on a daily basis, by many people to dissipate unpleasant moods (e.g. Thayer et al., 1993). This suggests that individuals are able to sense their moods and levels of arousal and utilize techniques to enhance their mood which have worked for them in the past. Which techniques, and to what degree they are used, will vary from individual to individual. Thayer (1989, p. 157) also suggested that some of these techniques are `consciously employed, but probably there is only a low awareness about the process much of the time'. To date, in reversal theory, the degree to which people are aware of their operative metamotivational state and felt arousal levels has not received much attention. However, given what Apter (1989) has said about individuals being able to induce particular metamotivational states by, for example, en-
tering certain settings, might it therefore be presumed that people are aware of their operative metamotivational state and level of arousal and are sensitive to which state is most appropriate for a particular setting? It is perhaps worthwhile here to note the results of pioneering work by Schachter and Singer (1962) that suggested an individual's arousal response to an event was related to his or her interpretation of that event. Reversal theory does emphasize the role that cognition plays in an individuals's interpretation of his or her own motivation, so presumptions about people's awareness of their operative metamotivational state and felt arousal level may not be unreasonable. Such propositions should, however, be testable. An examination (Apter, 1989, p. 48) and a recreational sports activity (Apter, 1982, p. 59) are two speci¢c examples of situations or settings which are considered to be telic and paratelic in orientation, respectively. By adopting a research methodology which asked subjects to project what their actual and ideal metamotivational state and felt arousal characteristics might be in either of these situations, one could compare these responses with those measured during the actual performance of the activities. Such a comparison should provide an indication of how aware individuals are of their operative metamotivational state and arousal level in locations where serious-minded, planned, goal oriented activities or playful, spontaneous activities are engaged in. The research design described in this paragraph was carried out in the second and third studies reported below. In sum, in accordance with reversal theory predictions it was hypothesized that entering places or buildings associated with telic activities or paratelic activities would induce the telic and paratelic metamotivational states, respectively. In addition, it was hypothesized that individuals would be sensitive to the psychological states required for performing telic and paratelic tasks in their respective activity settings in terms of projected actual and ideal and pre- and post-task self-ratings of metamotivational state, arousal and e¡ort. Study 1 Method Subjects. Subjects in this study were four equal groups of Dutch students (200 females and 200 males, aged 18±24 years, M = 199). There were no
Psychological Responses to Locations and Activities
signi¢cant age di¡erences between groups which were divided equally on the basis of gender. Measures. A Dutch version of the telic state measure (TSM) (Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985; Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993) was used in this study. The TSM consists of ¢ve response items including serious± playful, planning±spontaneous, felt arousal (low± high), preferred arousal (low±high) and investment of e¡ort in the task (low±high). Each item has a six point rating scale with de¢ning adjectives at each end. If desired, a sixth item, arousal discrepancy, is calculated by subtracting the score on the felt arousal item from the score on the preferred arousal item. Low scores (1±3) on TSM serious±playful and planning±spontaneous items are considered indicative of the telic state and high scores (4±6) are considered indicative of the paratelic state. The ¢fth (e¡ort) item was not included in Study 1 as participants were not asked to perform a task. The TSM has been used previously in several research studies (e.g. Svebak et al., 1982; Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985; Kerr & Cox, 1991; Kerr & Van den Wollenberg, 1997) and more complete details of the development and use of the measure can be found in Svebak and Murgatroyd (1985). Procedure. Individual participants entering four di¡erent locations were approached just after entry and asked to complete the TSM according to how they felt at that time. This procedure continued until data from 50 males and 50 females was collected at each location. Two of these locations were considered likely to induce the telic state and two the paratelic state in most participants (after Apter, 1988). The two telic locations were the university library (group 1), and a lecture theatre just prior to a lecture on statistics (group 2). The two paratelic locations were the university sports centre (group 3) and a party in the students' union building (group 4). Results and discussion Group mean di¡erences were examined using SPSS analysis of variance procedures. Signi¢cant di¡erences between group mean scores were found on the TSM serious±playful item [F(3,396) = 2519, p5 0001] and planning^spontaneous item [F(3,396) = 1689, p50001] but not on the TSM felt and preferred arousal items. Participants were signi¢cantly more serious and more planning oriented on entering a university library and a lecture theatre than a sports hall or a student party (see Figure 1). The lack of important di¡erences in felt arousal is some-
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what surprising as higher levels might have been expected at the sports hall and the student union party. Perhaps the activities taking place there have to be well under way before felt arousal increases markedly. Study 2 Method Participants. Participants were students from a class of Introductory Psychology students at York University who participated in this study (and in others) as part of their term work credits. This group, the examination setting (telic) group, comprised 65 participants (44 females and 21 males, aged 18±25 years, M = 202). Measures. The TSM (e.g. Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985) was used in Study 2. As this was a repeated measures design, data from those who, for whatever reason, did not complete all four TSM's was excluded from the analysis (see Procedure). Procedure. The TSM was presented twice, in pairs, with an interval of 4 weeks between these paired administrations. For the ¢rst test, given during the second or third week of class, all participants were asked to imagine that they were going to take part in an examination and were asked to complete the TSM in accordance with the following instructions: Imagine you are about to write the mid-term examination in this course. Please indicate on the scales on the following page how you think you would feel immediately before writing the examination.
Once this was completed, participants were asked to again complete the TSM but according to the following instructions: Imagine you are about to write the mid-term examination in this course. Please indicate on the scales on the following page what you think would be the optimal feelings to have immediately before writing the examination.
After a 4 week interval the actual examination (telic event) that the participants were asked to respond to took place. Immediately prior to the midterm examination all participants were given the TSM with the instructions to rate their feelings at this moment. Once completed they were given the mid-term examination. The fourth administration of the TSM came immediately after completion of the exam. However, as individuals complete their examinations at di¡erent times, participants were
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FIGURE 1. Mean TSM item scores for the four locations (a) serious±playful ( p50001) (b) planning±spontaneous ( p 5 0001) (c) felt arousal ( p = N.S.) (d) preferred arousal ( p = N.S.). telic; para telic.
requested to notify the examiner when they had ¢nished. At that time the student was then given the post-examination TSM to complete. Once again, instructions were to rate their feelings at this moment. Performance scores in the form of examination results (for both essay-type and multiple-choice questions) were also available for comparative analysis. Results and discussion The results were analysed using the Multiple Comparisons and Geisser Greenhouse tests (Tukey, 1954) and Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coe¤cients (see, for example, Cook & Campbell, 1979). Serious±playful. A signi¢cant di¡erence across the four sessions for the examination setting group [F(3,192) = 2825, p = 00001] was obtained. Also, comparisons between TSM presentations 1 and 4, 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 were all signi¢cant at a 005
level of con¢dence or better. These results are consistent across the ¢rst three measurements with a clear telic to paratelic reversal occurring immediately after the examination was over (see Figure 2a). This reversal is what reversal theory would predict as a likely occurrence in this setting. Planning±spontaneous. Statistical analysis (Multiple Comparisons test) shows that scores for the telic examination setting group di¡ered signi¢cantly over the four TSM presentations [F(3,192) = 2073, p = 0001]. Comparisons (Geisser Greenhouse test) between 1 and 3, 1 and 4, 2 and 3, and 2 and 4 were all signi¢cant at or beyond the 005 level (see Figure 2b). Here the projected ideal score is signi¢cantly more telic than for the projected actual score. Both pre-task and post-task scores are signi¢cantly more paratelic. It may be that by the time one enters into an examination there is not a great need (or opportunity) to plan ahead. As well there may be a sense of `well its too late now, either I know my stu¡ or
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FIGURE 2. Mean TSM item scores for the examination activity and recreational sport activity settings; (a) serious±playful (exam p 5 00001; sport p = 0001) (b) planning±spontaneous (exam p = 0001; sport p = N.S.); (c) felt arousal (exam p = 0024; sport p = 00037) (d) preferred arousal (exam p = N.S.; sport p = 00001) (e) e¡ort invested in the task (exam p = 00001; sport p = 00034). ^&^ exam; - -*- - badminton.
I don't and I had better just get on with it'. On the other hand, on a more speci¢c level, there remains a need to plan throughout the examination answers and allotted time. Again, the post-task score indicates a reversal from the telic to the paratelic state.
Felt arousal. For the telic examination setting group signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparisons Test) between TSM presentations were found [F(3,192) = 365, p = 0024]. Also, signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 2 and 4,
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and 3 and 4 (see Figure 2c). For felt arousal, the projected actual, projected ideal and pre-task scores are all similar which possibly shows that the participants were accurate in estimating what arousal levels they will experience at examinations. These felt arousal scores were in the moderate range which suggests that as these participants were in the telic state (see Figures 2a and 2b) this level of felt arousal may have been somewhat unpleasant. However, as the serious±playful scores indicated, the examination setting group reversed to the paratelic state after the examination and these moderate arousal levels (even though they decreased signi¢cantly) would then have been experienced as more pleasant. In this case, the change in the experience of moderate felt arousal from unpleasant to pleasant appears more likely to have been as a result of a reversal from the telic to paratelic state rather than from a decrease in arousal per se, as some other research has shown (e.g. Berlyne, 1960).
signi¢cance values of r = 033455, p = 00065; r = 036659, p = 00027; and r = 037025, p = 00024, respectively were observed (n = 65 in each case). The direction of the correlations would suggest that those who were less aroused pre-task did better on all three exam measures. Although the mean absolute level of felt arousal was moderate rather than low and might give some support to the inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance (see, for example, Berlyne 1960), it would appear from this result that, in general, low levels of felt arousal were most conducive to performance in examinations. No signi¢cant correlations were observed for other TSM dimensions.
Preferred arousal. No statistically signi¢cant di¡erences between TSM presentations were revealed [F(3,192) = 129, p = 02796]. Scores on the ¢rst two and last two TSM presentations are almost identical (see Figure 2d). Note that the pre-task scores are somewhat lower for the preferred arousal than for felt arousal (see Figure 2d). Although pre-examination participants would have liked to have had lower arousal, post-task scores showed no di¡erences between felt and preferred arousal conditions.
Participants. Participants were ¢rst-year students enrolled in a recreational sports (badminton) class at Nijenrode University in the Netherlands. This group, the recreational sport (paratelic) setting group, comprised 76 participants (44 females and 32 males, ages 17±22 years, M = 197)
E¡ort. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparisons test) were found across TSM presentations [F(3,192) = 2431, p = 00001]. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 1 and 4, 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 (see Figure 2e). The amount of e¡ort expended by the examination setting group, in terms of the projected actual, projected ideal and pre-task scores are similar, but the post-task score is, as might be expected, signi¢cantly lower, perhaps re£ecting that the level of e¡ort required to cope with the demands of the examination was no longer necessary.
Procedure. The experimental procedure for the recreational sport group was the same as that used in Study 2 with the exception that the instructions given referred to a game of recreational badminton rather than an examination. Also, the future event was a real recreational badminton game. No performance evaluation data was collected during the badminton game as it was considered inappropriate in (and might well change the nature of) a paratelicoriented activity that was played for fun.
Examination performance results. A correlation analysis of the pre-task administration of the TSM to the examination setting group revealed highly signi¢cant Rho values between how aroused participants felt prior to the task and how successful they were on the mid-term examination. This was true for the multiple choice scores, the essay question scores and for the total examination scores where
Study 3 Method
Measures. In this study, participants completed a Dutch version of the TSM (Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993) administered in the same manner and at the same times as in Study 2.
Results and discussion Serious±playful. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) were obtained across the four sessions [F(3,225) = 394, p = 0001]. Comparisons (Geisser Greenhouse test) between TSM presentations 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 2 and 4 all yielded an alpha of 005 or greater (see Figure 2a). Mean scores were consistent across three of the four situations, with scores in the low end of the paratelic range. Notice that participants' mean score was
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more serious in the projected ideal setting. It is possible that when asked about ideal states for playing badminton by experimenters in a physical education context, students' expectation was that they should give the impression that they were more serious about sport. Certainly the mean score here is in the telic range of the scale. Planning±spontaneous. Mean scores across all four TSM presentations are consistent and within the paratelic range. There were no statistically signi¢cant di¡erences across the four TSM presentations or between TSM presentations. This group was not very planning oriented as is the case for individuals operating in the paratelic state. Felt arousal. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) between TSM presentations were found [F(3,225) = 493, p = 00037). Also, similar signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) were found to exist between TSM presentations 1 and 4, and 3 and 4 at the 005 level or better (see Figure 2c). For the recreational sport setting group, the projected actual and pre-task felt arousal scores are very close, with the projected ideal arousal level somewhat higher. Pre- to post-task felt arousal levels increased signi¢cantly resembling other prepost sport ¢ndings (e.g. Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993; Kerr & van Schaik, 1995). Preferred arousal. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) were obtained across TSM administrations [F(3,225) = 390, p = 00001]. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse Test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 1 and 2, 1 and 4, 2 and 3, and 2 and 4 (see Figure 2d). Preferred arousal scores were somewhat higher than felt arousal scores across all four TSM presentations. Generally participants in the recreational sport setting group would have liked to have had higher arousal than they actually experienced in all four TSM presentations. At the same time, the graphs for both felt and preferred arousal are remarkably similar. E¡ort. Signi¢cant di¡erences (Multiple Comparison test) were found across TSM presentations [F(3,225) = 485, p = 00034). Signi¢cant di¡erences (Geisser Greenhouse test) at the 005 level or better existed between TSM presentations 1 and 4, and 3 and 4 (see Figure 2e). While there are no di¡erences between scores for the ¢rst three TSM presentations, not surprisingly post-task scores after vigorous activity are higher (signi¢cantly so for two of the three comparisons).
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General discussion Important conclusions were, ¢rst, that the results from these three studies con¢rm previous research ¢ndings by others, and second, reversal theory proved to be a useful theoretical base on which to carry out empirical investigations in this context. For example, the results from Study 1 showed that people are sensitive to particular physical locations and respond to them by changes in psychological mood (see also Knez, 1995; Korpela & Hartig, 1996). Reversal theory predictions about how locations might a¡ect individuals' metamotivational state were tested and substantiated. It was found that participants were more likely to be in the telic state on entering a university library and a lecture theatre, and more likely to be in the paratelic state on entering a sports centre or a student union party. This result, as well as con¢rming reversal theory predictions, ¢ts neatly with everyday experience. It may be that the moods induced by particular locations are linked to people's previous experience of the type of activities that they and others engage in when in those locations. Previous research by Thayer (1989, 1996) and Morris and Reilly (1987) had indicated that people are capable of self-regulating their mental state. The main purpose of Studies 2 and 3 was to investigate how aware participants were of the most appropriate psychological state for di¡erent settings. Generally, the results revealed that participants were knowledgeable about the metamotivational state and arousal level suitable for examination and recreational sport settings. Their projected scores for actual and ideal states were close to their scores recorded just before engaging in the activity. Of particular interest amongst the results for the examination setting was an obvious reversal from the telic to paratelic state which occurred after the examination. This reversal was marked by a signi¢cant increase in playfulness scores and signi¢cant decreases in felt arousal and e¡ort scores. With regard to participants' performance in the examination it is interesting to note that those participants who were less aroused before the examination performed better on both multiple choice and essay sections as well as on total score. As reversal theory would predict for this type of setting, results from the recreational sport setting indicated that participants were in the paratelic state. It was not surprising that felt arousal levels were signi¢cantly higher after playing badminton. High felt arousal is a recognized feature of activity in the paratelic state where it is actively sought
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after and enjoyed. Previous reversal theory sport research (e.g. Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1993; Kerr & van Schaik, 1995) has reported similar ¢ndings. This increase in felt arousal was matched by increases in preferred arousal and e¡ort pre-post-recreational sport activity. Finally, it might be interesting to consider what would happen to people's metamotivational state and arousal levels when locations are used for unusual or non-typical activities. For example, as happens in some universities, sports halls are used for examinations, and libraries and lecture rooms may be used for receptions or other social events. In other words, if a location which is usually used for paratelic settings is changed to a telic setting or vice versa will people's psychological state change accordingly? It seems probable that, as is the case in all these locations and settings, cognition would play a crucial role in mood response under such circumstances, but investigating such a scenario might make a suitable topic for future research. Notes Correspondence and reprint requests should be addressed to J. H. Kerr, Institute of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan 305.
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Kerr, J. H. & Cox, T. (1991). Arousal and individual di¡erences in sport. Personality and Individual Di¡erences 12, 1075±1085. Kerr, J. H. & van Schaik, P. (1995). E¡ects of game outcome on psychological mood states in rugby. Personality and Individual Di¡erences 19, 407±410. Kerr, J. H. & van den Wollenberg, A. E. (1997). High and low intensity exercise and psychological mood states. Psychology & Health 12, 603 ± 618. Kerr, J. H. & Vlaswinkel, E. H. (1993). Self-reported mood and running under natural conditions. Work & Stress 7, 161± 177. Knez, I. (1995). E¡ects of indoor lighting on mood and cognition. Journal of Environmental Psychology 15, 39 ± 51. Korpela, K. & Hartig, T. (1996). Restorative qualities of favorite places. Journal of Environmental Psychology 16, 221± 233. Morris, W. N. & Reilly, N. P. (1987). Toward the self-regulation of mood: theory and research. Motivation and Emotion 11, 215 ± 249. Schachter, S. & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review 69, 378 ± 399. Svebak, S. & Murgatroyd, S. (1985). Metamotivational dominance: a multi-method validation of reversal theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48, 519±528. Svebak, S., Storfjell, O. & Dalen, K. (1982). The e¡ect of a threatening context upon motivation and task-induced psychological changes. British Journal of Psychology 73, 505±512. Thayer, R. E. (1989). The Biopsychology of Mood and Arousal. New York: Oxford University Press. Thayer, R. E. (1996). The Origin of Everyday Moods. New York: Oxford University Press. Thayer, R. E., Peters, D. P., Takahashi, P. J. & BirkheadFlight, A. M. (1993). Mood and behavior (smoking and sugar snacking) following moderate exercise. A partial test of self-regulation theory. Personality and Individual Di¡erences 14, 97±104. Tukey, J. (1954). Causation, regression and path analysis. In O. Kempthorne, (Ed.), Statistics and Mathematics in Biology. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State College Press.