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Public policy making in America: Difficult choices, limited solutions
276
BOOK REVIEWS
and knowledge utilization, and to establish the linkages among the three areas. Substantial bibliographies on each area are also provided. Rich opens with a broad overview of the place of knowledge in society. He traces the historical roots of the issue, singling out the last two decades as especially important in America. He outlines the major issues in the field, including conceptual and theoretical definitions, measurement, and the relations between knowledge producers and users. Rich reminds the reader that knowledge comes in many forms and that knowledge production and application are parts of larger social processes. Nelson presents an overview of knowledge creation by identifying the major issues in the creation of scientific information. He covers six majors topics: the sociopolitical environment, resources, systems and subsystems, processes, products, and producers. Feller discusses some critical issues in the popular but still fragmented field of diffusion research. The many disciplines involved in this area, the growing recognition of the complexity and relativity of innovation, and the federal interest in applications, are pushing this work beyond traditional boundaries. Knott and Wildavsky provide an excellent critical analysis of the blind faith in dissemination. They caution against “pretentious knowledge,” premature dissemination, overly administered dissemination, and dissemination to those who need it least. Efforts should be matched with the level of utilization desired (from simple reception to concrete impacts) and the
Public
Policy
Making
in America:
Foresman and Company,
Difficult
Choices,
stage of the policy problem. Dissemination can be a solution if knowledge is provided to particular clienteles under special circumstances. Larsen reviews the current issues in knowledge utilization. She summarizes the many definitions of utilization and describes the various types of research being done. Understandings of the utilization context, of the importance of time, and of the conditions associated with utilization are identified as critical areas. In the final essay, Ganz discusses the linkages among knowledge creation, diffusion, and utilization. She pursues the general theme that “efficient or better knowledge utilization depends on social or institutional change and for social change to occur, certain kinds of knowledge must be made available and used” (p. 186). In short, there are interactive relationships among these processes and their settings, making work in this field complex and challenging. Readers of the journal Knowledge will be familiar with these essays, but may find it convenient to have them bound together. All evaluators will be interested in these issues, and many knowledge users will find the discussions enlightening. Since the authors are trying to define the parameters of an area of inquiry and chart initial courses, many fundamental questions are raised. The agenda they have set for debate and research is an ambitious one. T. W. W.
Limited
Solutions,
by C. P. Chelf.
Gfenview, NI: Scott,
1981, 406 pp., $17.95 (hardcover).
The author’s aim is to provide a perspective and an analytical framework within which one can analyze and evaluate policies and the policy process. He attempts to balance theoretical foundations with practical examples, and blends traditional political science concerns with a focus on policy. The focus is federal policy, but the general approach could be applied elsewhere. The book is intended for students in introductory or intermediate-level policy courses who need a basic critical framework. Part one provides the theoretical and conceptual elements. Resulting from policy demands, policies are courses of action to solve a problem of public concern. Policy actions can include publicly-run programs, legal sanctions, contracts, taxes, expenditures, licensing and inspections, regulation, and investigation. The policy process is “all those myraid decisions and events that go into the formulation and proposal of a policy, its consideration, and finally its enactment and im-
plementation, or its rejection” (p. vii). The central issues are, who makes policy (eg., multiple interest groups, elites, or sub-governments), and how policy is made (ie., rationally, incrementally, systematically, or institutionally). Knowledge of the policy environment is essential to a complete understanding. The author outlines the institutional context of the American system, and mentions the importance of cultural, social, and economic factors. A list of the offical and unofficial participants in the process is described. The author classifies policies into four categories; management, subsidy, regulatory, and redistributive. This typology organizes the remainder of the book. Part two examines “management policy.” The author provides informative discussions of budgetary, fiscal, and monetary policies, emphasizing the political dimensions of each. Foreign and military affairs are described as areas where the federal government has a special and largely legitimized role. Effects are diffuse
BOOK REVIEWS
and public involvement is limited. Contemporary circumstances make both areas extremely complex and sensitive. Part three analyzes “subsidy policies,” covering transportation, education, and agriculture. The federal government’s role in these arenas is not solidly legitimized, and heated struggles among strong interest groups are common. Policies are complex, and changes are incremental. Part four explores “regulatory policies” in business, labor, and the environment. Regulatory policies have grown tremendously in the last decade, while becoming more detailed, intrusive, and socially-aimed. Politics are marked by constantly shifting coalitions, powerful antiregulatory interests, and poorly organized publics. Change is extremely difficult. Part five looks at “redistributive policy,” illustrated by civil rights and social services. Since the government’s intent here is to allocate things of value among different sections of society, policies are intensely political and controversial. Issues have broad social implications, and involvement and debate include many segments of American society. The final chapter discusses the role of policy
277
analysis and evaluation in policy-making. Although there is growing interest and more work in policy analysis, it has still not become an integral part of the policy process. Political, ideological, intellectual, and community differences between analysts and policy actors are still barriers. Chelf identifies two areas where analysts have the greatest trouble; rigidly holding to certain theories or methods, and poorly communicating with policy-makers. He suggests more effective communication practices and more meaningful evidence delivered in a timely fashion. This is a very good book for beginners in policy analysis. The framework and the range of policy areas covered give a good overview. Unfortunately, the contemporary illustrations are mostly from the Carter administration, and the policy arena has changed substantially since then. The book might also be useful to specialists in one policy area who need exposure to other types of policies. Evaluators who wish to maintain a generalist ability could benefit from the scope of this effort. T. W. W.
BOOK REVIEWS
and knowledge utilization, and to establish the linkages among the three areas. Substantial bibliographies on each area are also provided. Rich opens with a broad overview of the place of knowledge in society. He traces the historical roots of the issue, singling out the last two decades as especially important in America. He outlines the major issues in the field, including conceptual and theoretical definitions, measurement, and the relations between knowledge producers and users. Rich reminds the reader that knowledge comes in many forms and that knowledge production and application are parts of larger social processes. Nelson presents an overview of knowledge creation by identifying the major issues in the creation of scientific information. He covers six majors topics: the sociopolitical environment, resources, systems and subsystems, processes, products, and producers. Feller discusses some critical issues in the popular but still fragmented field of diffusion research. The many disciplines involved in this area, the growing recognition of the complexity and relativity of innovation, and the federal interest in applications, are pushing this work beyond traditional boundaries. Knott and Wildavsky provide an excellent critical analysis of the blind faith in dissemination. They caution against “pretentious knowledge,” premature dissemination, overly administered dissemination, and dissemination to those who need it least. Efforts should be matched with the level of utilization desired (from simple reception to concrete impacts) and the
Public
Policy
Making
in America:
Foresman and Company,
Difficult
Choices,
stage of the policy problem. Dissemination can be a solution if knowledge is provided to particular clienteles under special circumstances. Larsen reviews the current issues in knowledge utilization. She summarizes the many definitions of utilization and describes the various types of research being done. Understandings of the utilization context, of the importance of time, and of the conditions associated with utilization are identified as critical areas. In the final essay, Ganz discusses the linkages among knowledge creation, diffusion, and utilization. She pursues the general theme that “efficient or better knowledge utilization depends on social or institutional change and for social change to occur, certain kinds of knowledge must be made available and used” (p. 186). In short, there are interactive relationships among these processes and their settings, making work in this field complex and challenging. Readers of the journal Knowledge will be familiar with these essays, but may find it convenient to have them bound together. All evaluators will be interested in these issues, and many knowledge users will find the discussions enlightening. Since the authors are trying to define the parameters of an area of inquiry and chart initial courses, many fundamental questions are raised. The agenda they have set for debate and research is an ambitious one. T. W. W.
Limited
Solutions,
by C. P. Chelf.
Gfenview, NI: Scott,
1981, 406 pp., $17.95 (hardcover).
The author’s aim is to provide a perspective and an analytical framework within which one can analyze and evaluate policies and the policy process. He attempts to balance theoretical foundations with practical examples, and blends traditional political science concerns with a focus on policy. The focus is federal policy, but the general approach could be applied elsewhere. The book is intended for students in introductory or intermediate-level policy courses who need a basic critical framework. Part one provides the theoretical and conceptual elements. Resulting from policy demands, policies are courses of action to solve a problem of public concern. Policy actions can include publicly-run programs, legal sanctions, contracts, taxes, expenditures, licensing and inspections, regulation, and investigation. The policy process is “all those myraid decisions and events that go into the formulation and proposal of a policy, its consideration, and finally its enactment and im-
plementation, or its rejection” (p. vii). The central issues are, who makes policy (eg., multiple interest groups, elites, or sub-governments), and how policy is made (ie., rationally, incrementally, systematically, or institutionally). Knowledge of the policy environment is essential to a complete understanding. The author outlines the institutional context of the American system, and mentions the importance of cultural, social, and economic factors. A list of the offical and unofficial participants in the process is described. The author classifies policies into four categories; management, subsidy, regulatory, and redistributive. This typology organizes the remainder of the book. Part two examines “management policy.” The author provides informative discussions of budgetary, fiscal, and monetary policies, emphasizing the political dimensions of each. Foreign and military affairs are described as areas where the federal government has a special and largely legitimized role. Effects are diffuse
BOOK REVIEWS
and public involvement is limited. Contemporary circumstances make both areas extremely complex and sensitive. Part three analyzes “subsidy policies,” covering transportation, education, and agriculture. The federal government’s role in these arenas is not solidly legitimized, and heated struggles among strong interest groups are common. Policies are complex, and changes are incremental. Part four explores “regulatory policies” in business, labor, and the environment. Regulatory policies have grown tremendously in the last decade, while becoming more detailed, intrusive, and socially-aimed. Politics are marked by constantly shifting coalitions, powerful antiregulatory interests, and poorly organized publics. Change is extremely difficult. Part five looks at “redistributive policy,” illustrated by civil rights and social services. Since the government’s intent here is to allocate things of value among different sections of society, policies are intensely political and controversial. Issues have broad social implications, and involvement and debate include many segments of American society. The final chapter discusses the role of policy
277
analysis and evaluation in policy-making. Although there is growing interest and more work in policy analysis, it has still not become an integral part of the policy process. Political, ideological, intellectual, and community differences between analysts and policy actors are still barriers. Chelf identifies two areas where analysts have the greatest trouble; rigidly holding to certain theories or methods, and poorly communicating with policy-makers. He suggests more effective communication practices and more meaningful evidence delivered in a timely fashion. This is a very good book for beginners in policy analysis. The framework and the range of policy areas covered give a good overview. Unfortunately, the contemporary illustrations are mostly from the Carter administration, and the policy arena has changed substantially since then. The book might also be useful to specialists in one policy area who need exposure to other types of policies. Evaluators who wish to maintain a generalist ability could benefit from the scope of this effort. T. W. W.