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Public relations in disaster management and planning for emergency physicians
The Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol 13, No 5, pp 661-668, 1995 Copyright 3 1995Elsevier ScienceLtd Printed in the USA. A11 rights reserved 07364679/95
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PUBLIC RELATIONS IN DtSASTER AND PLANNING FOR ElWER@EMX Franklin D. Friedman,
PHYSICOANS
MD, MS, FACEP
Department of Emergency Medicine, New England Medical Center, Boston, Massachussetts Reprint Address: Franklin D. Friedman, MD, MS, FACEP, Department of Emergency Medicine, New England Medical Center 750 Washington Street, NEMCH #311, Boston, MA 02130
nurtures a media that can report on any event at any time, beaming live pictures instantly to every corner of the globe (3). The ability to view so readily all of life’s great tragedies is a paradoxical achievement at best. Circumspect planning is the best solution to temper the way in which the media’s growth has impacted upon disasters. Reporters can play an extremely useful role that benefits disaster planners, rescue workers, and the public alike. The goal of an effective strategy is to mitigate any deleterious media impact on a disaster scene, and to turn its presence to the advantage of the disaster planners and rescue workers. How can the needs of the news media be met while trying to restore a semblance of order to a chaotic event? A media presence is a certainty in all disastersthe public demands information and will not accept a blackout. The onus falls upon the disaster planners to channel the media’s presence to the advantage of the rescuers. Indeed, news coverage can be very useful. It can alert additional responders when more assistance is needed, warn others to avoid dangerous areas (4), and serve as an impetus to drive communities to prepare for future events. The media’s mission (the term “press” alone is not encompassing, since more coverage is given to electronic journalism in this country than to written re-
0 Abstract-The goal of this article is to serve as a primer of disaster public relations. It will explain the requirements of the media and how best to incorporate their ubiquitous presence to the advantage of the disaster team, including how to give an effective interview, how and where to establish a media center, and the importance of sensing what will make the strongest visual or textual impact. In any disaster response, the media will play a large role. Their presence is condoned by the law and expected by the public. In reality, a reporter will probably arrive at the scene of a disaster before the first health care professional. It is only through the knowledge of the media’s needs, and an appreciation of the ways in which it can assist the d&aster team, that planners can best forge a relationship with the media that will confer the greatest mutual benefit. 0 Keywords-disaster media
management; disaster planning;
INTRODUCTION
Disasters and the media have become increasingly prominent facets of modern life. Growth in population, industry, and commercial development bear much of the responsibility for many of the disasters and their consequencesthat we have witnessed in recent years (1,2). Moreover, growth in technology
Disaster Medicine is coordinated by Znting “J&e” Jucoby, MD, of the University of California-San Diego Medical Center, San Diego, California RECEIVED: 28 Se tember1994; FINALSUBMISSIONRECEIVED: 27 February 1995; ACCEPTED: 13 h-farch1995 661
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porting) is to report on events as rapidly as possible. Sadly, it seemsthat they pay more attention to tragic events than to joyous ones. When tragedy of disastrous magnitude strikes, the original calamity then is dramatized by the arrival of throngs of media personnel who want to cover the event. Their presence can quickly compound an already volatile situation, and their members can become victims as well. By way of preparation, disaster planners should draft a multifold strategy for utilizing the press. When a disaster response team forms, a designated public relations member should be appointed. Key contacts should be established in the media, and a relationship between the disaster team and the press should be cultivated long before disaster ever strikes. In preparing any disaster plan, designate a location for correspondents-equip it adequately with the requirements of the media in mind, but situate it according to the needs of the disaster response team.
LEGALLY,
MUST THE MEDIA
BE INVOLVED?
When first planning for a disaster, organizers often wonder what can be done about the media. On first thought, many planners feel that the presence of the media will be more of a hindrance than a help, and wish to exclude them. Besides the benefits attainable by an active media presence, which will be illustrated later in this article, the law frequently sanctions their presence. Society as a whole takes its perceived right to know very seriously, and insists on comprehensive reporting of calamities. The United States Supreme Court has addressed the balance between the public’s perceived right to know and the issue of public safety and a secure disaster response. The First Amendment of The Constitution protects the right to gather news (5,6). However, The Court has ruled that the press is not guaranteed special access to a location ’ that is not also generally available to all of the public at large (7,8,9). Consequently, there is no constitutional right of accessto a disaster scene when the public is excluded. Nevertheless, many states have softened this approach, and some have actually affirmed the media’s right of accessto disasters (10). For example, California lawmakers have ruled that reporters cannot even be cordoned to a separate area, despite risk to their safety, unless it can be shown that un-
’ No specificcaseconcerningaccessto a disasterscenehas beentried in Federal Court (to this date): thesecasesinvolve accessto prisons, grandjuries, and depositions.
restricted accesswould interfere with emergency personnel’s ability to perform their duties ( 11). Recognizing that society has an interest in learning about all the details of every major disaster (no matter how grisly), and that the media will be present, planners therefore need to make designs that incorporate the press. Ideally, reporters will be situated in a location that will allow them sufficient accessto a scene to satisfy their viewers’ needs, but far enough removed so that they will not interfere with the rescue effort. Some ideas to accomplish this goal will be discussed later.
THE GOVERNMENT AND EMERGENCY BROADCASTING
The Emergency Broadcasting System (EBS) was established to provide a system by which government could alert the populace of an impending natural or other catastrophe. It evolved from the control of electromagnetic radiation system (CONELRAD), which was created in 1951 for the President to communicate with the public in times of national emergency (actually to warn Americans of impending nuclear attack) (1). Since the 197Os,state and regional officials have used the system to alert radio and television stations about hazardous weather conditions and local disasters. In case of disaster, or during a drill, a warning tone and messageis sent from a government agency to a master radio or TV station, which then relays the tone and message to other stations, which can choose to broadcast it. The message generally includes the nature of the disaster, what citizens should do, and where to turn for further information. The citizenry is familiar with the system because stations regularly broadcast the attention-getting tone as part of a periodic voluntary drill. During an actual emergency, the President, Governor, or other official initiates the EBS. This signal may be the first alert that a disaster responder receives about an accident. In 1992, the Los Angeles Police Department used the EBS to ask all officers to report to work during the riots (12). Its inherent weaknessesinclude potential disruption by a broken link in the chain (i.e., a disabled station), or an official who does not know how to activate the EBS ( 1). In 1994, the Federal Communications Commission, which oversees the EBS, unveiled plans to overhaul the system. The new system is to include newer equipment that can activate consumer electronic devices even when they are turned
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off, and specifies that routine drills may occur less frequently ( 13).
THE PUBLIC RELATIONS OFFICER Whether in a hospital or in the field as part of a disaster response team, someone should be designated as the contact person who will coordinate the distribution of information to the public. This person (or team of people in a large operation) will be the gatekeeper, controlling information coming out from a disaster relief effort, and accessto the team from the world trying to get a look in. When performed optimally, the role need not be adversarial, since all sides benefit. The person assuming the role of public relations officer need not necessarily be a trained spokesperson. Potentially, this can be the team leader, or a physician or nurse from an emergency department. Nevertheless, he or she must have a clear understanding of the requirements of the position. These requirements include: a thorough understanding of the institution or team, the ability to distribute information from the response that is accurate and appropriate, the knowledge to advance whatever message is needed to the public, and to appreciate and accommodate the needs of the media (14). A public relations officer frequently already exists in a hospital, or as part of a larger organization such as the police or fire department. An individual department, such as a hospital’s emergency department, may wish to designate its own spokesperson. Furthermore, in some disaster situations, an outside organization such as the Red Cross may even handle public relations ( 15). To have an understanding of the disaster response team, the spokesperson must spend time with the team and attain familiarity with any response plans. He or she needs to know the roles of different members of the team, how the team operates, and be familiar with the jargon of a rescue effort. He or she must participate in training sessions along with the rest of the team. As someone who spends time with the team, the team will also develop a familiarity with the public relations person, resulting in greater openness, and development of trust. In addition, this person needs to be familiar with journalists, editors, film crews, and producers. He or she needs to know many of the individuals, know their logistical requirements, and appreciate their deadlines. This so-called “external affairs officer” is the one who should be responsible for maintaining a
resource directory, keeping it current, and developing an ongoing relationship with correspondents. In disaster plans, this resource directory contains contact names and phone numbers, and other vital information. When a disaster really occurs (or seems likely to occur), this information is readily available and contacts in the press are easily notified. This is important for three reasons. First, the contacts themselves may have gleaned additional information from their own sources (i.e., satellite hookups and wire services). Second, material for the public is easily disseminated in this manner (e.g., a meeting location for a volunteer search and rescue team can be transmitted, or important phone numbers may be broadcast). Third, arrangements may be made concerning the specific locations where journalists should assemble and with whom they should speak. The ideal public affairs person will also develop a sense for appropriate times to notify the press, to alert them of potentially newsworthy occasions. For example, a timely word to a producer may result in a piece on the nightly news when a team launches an area-wide training exercise, stages a mock train crash, or even realizes that it is in need of more funds and equipment. The spokesperson for a disaster team or institution may find other tasks that will promote the image and the agenda of the organization through such avenues as newsletters and press releases. Desktop publishing, which takes advantage of the widely available personal computer, makes producing professionallooking publicity pieces a very simple task. A regularly published news bulletin serves at least two purposes: It provides a forum to notify both members of the team and members of the press of training exercises, changes in operations, and general announcements. Even when times are quiet, the bulletin reminds and reassures its readers that the disaster team is ready. MEDIA CONTACTS To prepare the public response to a disaster, a hospital, emergency medical system, or disaster team needs to cultivate a relationship with the media long before the disaster klaxons ever sound. Personal relationships are easier to develop and maintain than institutional ones; therefore, matters are easiest if one individual maintains a network of relationships with other individuals in the newspapers, television stations, and other reporting organizations. Although every disaster differs, it is paramount for disaster
664 planners to decide in advance their goals for utilizing the media. Typical goals for the media that disaster planners should make include: (a) preparations and instructions for the community; (b) protocols to disseminate regular news bulletins, lists of victims and their status, and updates on continuing medical risk to the community (e.g., in a chemical spill); (c) a call for volunteers; and (d) community instruction to prevent worsening or recurrence of a situation. Additional benefits might include the added name recognition of an organization or institution. Unfortunately, under the media’s glare, equal amounts of criticism are attracted if the disaster response appears to go poorly. To ensure the smoothest alliance between the press and disaster responders, a one-on-one relationship is optimal. Many institutions and organizations will employ a public relations specialist. Furthermore, viewers and readers desire the perspective of the words and images of the head of a disaster team or organization. In either case, this one person should cultivate a relationship with the producers and editors of news organizations. The key figure in an individual news organization with whom contact should be made is the news editor (13). Generally, he or she is the person who will make the decision about which pieces to print in the paper or to broadcast on the screen. The editor will dispatch a crew to an event that seemsnewsworthy. Individual reporters depend on the editor’s blessing to feature a story. Reporters are rarely experts on the topics about which they report; they are always looking for new authorities. When a news item germane to one’s area of expertise or specialty arises, a helpful phone call or letter to the producer, editor, or actual reporter frequently yields a favorable response such as an offer to interview or quote. Even if an interview does not materialize, that producer, editor, or reporter often will record the name and phone number of the source, to use as a resource in the future. Hence, a relationship is created. One example that demonstrates how such a relationship is forged might occur with a disaster team in a coastal region, one that would likely plan for hurricanes and floods. Keeping in mind that preparation is the best response to chaotic changes in the weather or the seas, residents need to be encouraged to act sensibly, stock up for emergencies, and to know how to evacuate if necessary. What better way to accomplish this goal than to have the local evening news program run a week-long series about hurri-
F. D. Friedman
canes as the season approaches? The disaster team gains an opportunity to present its plan to the public and a forum to make its existence known. At the same time, the news show gains viewer share with an informative public interest piece with a timely, compelling topic. Similarly, after a connection is made between disaster team and news organization, the team member making that phone call should start his or her own directory of contacts within the media. In this way, when the institution or team has a messageto promulgate, the task is as easy as a phone call to one or more of these connections. A list or directory of key contacts makes a crucial resource for a disaster team. GIVING A MEDIA INTERVIEW For everyone involved in the planning of a disaster response, a time for the media interview will eventually come. It will either be at the scene of an actual disaster, or perhaps only during a training exercise. Just as responding well to a disaster requires practice and a certain expertise, so does giving an interview. During an interview, either as an authority on hurricanes as the season approaches, or because your region has just borne the brunt of a force IV storm, how should that public exchange be handled? The important goal is to turn the interview to the advantage of the one being interviewed. One should have a reason for consenting to an interview-one has a messageto get across, or a specific question to answer. The most important rule is to stick to one’s own agenda, not be forced into someone else’s. An interview is a process of give and take; one should take what one needs, and give only what one wants. Several basic factors are crucial to bear in mind. Most important of these is to remember that one is representing an organization with a specific message to get across to the public (not simply to the person conducting the interview) ( 16). When the opportunity to give an interview arises, one must choose a theme carefully. In any interview, this messageconstitutes a “single overriding communication objective” (SOCO) ( 17). When the interviewer tries to lead, the guest should answer questions in a way that returns to the original theme being emphasized. A single point stressed repeatedly throughout an interview, akin to the “soundbite” in politics, is the best strategy to make limited airtime (or column space) count. For example, if a team leader gives an interview to
Public Relations in Disasters
update the press on the rescue effort to date in a specific earthquake disaster, there is no reason for an emergency responder to answer a question such as: “Do we have so many victims because the building code was not enforced?” This is known as a “loaded question”- it asks the respondent to assume a fact laden with several other implications (i.e., inadequately enforced building code). Besides the point that the interviewed relief worker probably can offer only an opinion, to answer such a question would serve no useful goal for the rescue team. An appropriate response would be: “You are correct, this was a severe quake. I would advise that everyone evacuate the affected area until the civil authorities have said it is safe to return.” The SOCO in this case is that “the populace must follow the directions of the civil authorities as the best way to keep additional casualties to a minimum.” The most prevalent emotion about facing the media is probably fear. To be nervous during an interview is natural; however, measures can be taken to lessenthe fright. During a one-on-one interview, one can make inquiries about the nature of the questions before the session formally begins. During a film or taped interview, one can ask to stop the camera or tape, to allow another opportunity to try to answer a question. Nevertheless, one must remain on guard: Never assume that a microphone or camera is turned off, or that a request to keep a comment off the record will be honored. During a more formal press conference, answers should be carefully considered. One must be sure to hear the entire question, allowing the questioners to complete their sentence before answering. If not certain of a question’s meaning, clarification should be requested. One can say “did you mean to say [whatever one heard]?” The advanced version of this technique is to use this approach to rephrase the question to one that the respondent would prefer to answer. There are other questions that may require care in order not to involve legal issues. One should be careful not to mention any specific details that could compromise patient confidentiality (e.g., “I treated Mrs. Smith who suffered a nervous breakdown after she saw her house collapse.“). When a television crew films a treatment area, they will frequently need to obtain the consent of their subjects before they can broadcast a recognizable image of them. Consequently, a site in front of the emergency department entrance may prove to be a preferable backdrop to one within the actual department . In addition, it makes no sense to pass on a piece
665 of information based solely on a rumor. Nor should a revelation be made that will cause panic and chaos, unless the appropriate authorities are aware that the statement will be made, and have made plans accordingly. For example, one should not announce that radiation has leaked from a power plant unless it can be confirmed and information about evacuation routes and decontamination sites can be transmitted simultaneously. Credibility and authority are the chief qualities that an audience likes to see projected in the person being interviewed. The public would rather listen to a team leader or chief medical officer than to someone whose only responsibility is public affairs. Whoever speaks needs to demonstrate competence and knowledge equally, without appearing arrogant or being patronizing. When an answer is not known, an effort to obtain that information should be made, and the findings conveyed. The last point about giving interviews is that, like anything else, they become easier with practice (18). One gains the necessary skills by volunteering to give interviews. One must seize the opportunity to practice one’s skills when, for example, the local reporter calls seeking an opinion on the risks of water sports in the summer, or about the dangers of trick-ortreating on Halloween. Finally, after giving an interview, one should listen to or watch the results later. Make mental or written notes about what was good and what was bad. Did one fidget or look down when a difficult question was asked? Does one trail off toward the end of each answer? Make an effort to correct flaws. Although public relations consultants could hone one’s image before the camera to assure an optimal interview, for the novice simplicity is the best solution. One wants to appear confident, authoritative, and relaxed. One valuable set of rules that incorporate these qualities is as follows ( 14,15,19): 1. Know with whom you will speak and what the topic will be. 2. Prepare your answers and deliver them in simple terms. 3. Adhere to your “SOCO .” 4. Be honest and stick to the facts. 5. Know the reporter’s deadline and objectives. 6. Pick a suitable place for the interview ~ 7. Check your appearance and address your answers to the reporter or questioner (not to a camera or microphone). 8. Check with your hospital (or organization) public relations department for additional advice.
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UP MEDIA
HEADQUARTERS
The goal of every aggressive reporter is to relay dramatic images or stories as rapidly as possible. To this end, the successful reporter wants live action footage of a disaster in progress. Recall the images of lava overcoming peoples’ houses as the owners watched in horror during the Hawaiian volcano in 1990, or an interview with a family member seconds after he or she learned of the loss of a loved one. While appreciating the visual or textual impact of such scoops, an element of control has to be placed on the media to respect the dignity of disaster victims and their family members. Although there will be tremendous demands placed by the media, such control may still be accomplished in several ways. First, we must examine how the news operates in a disaster, and what are its requirements. Moments after a disaster occurs, the press will find out about it -a citizen will telephone the local station or someone will overhear calls for emergency vehicles on a radio scanner. As the throngs converge, they will all want to be in the epicenter at once. Hordes of camera crews, photographers, video and print reporters, editors, and possibly network anchors will arrive. Each will want a clear view of the carnage and an opportunity to interview survivors and rescuers alike. Furthermore, the volume of support equipment is not inconsequential; each crew will travel with a van or truck containing satellite dishes, large antennae, thick cables, and probably additional support vehicles. They will require electricity, telephone lines, and sufficient space. Certainly, as technology has advanced, there has been some downsizing and an increased movement toward portable equipment. This has proved to be a mixed blessing, since it means that sending a crew has become that much easier to do. One of the direct causesof Cable News Network’s (CNN) overwhelming successhas been its ability to rapidly deploy an entire news crew almost anywhere in the world-an achievement made possible by downsizing and satellite uplinks; other networks are rapidly following this model. The first logistics problem thus arises: where to physically locate all of the people and their equipment? Large trucks may require accessto utility systems and they may require a flat surface on which to park. When a disaster plan is incorporated for a specific location such as a hospital or a stadium, these needs can be addressed in advance. A telephone call to various stations and wire services can be made to ask about specific physical requirements. However,
random events in nature, within a city block or upon the highways, demand improvisation. Deciding where to locate the personnel is a different issue. Their presence can impede the search for victims, and their treatment, and can invade the privacy of bereaved survivors. Moreover, uncontrolled accesscan lead to situations where the magnitude of reporting personnel can become more of a story than the actual event. In the same way that disasters are frequently graded in different levels (3), the amount of resources and space that must be devoted to the media will differ by the severity of the incident. For example, when an apartment building burns down and an emergency department receives fifteen victims, expect little more attention than that of the local news stations. Space in a lobby of the hospital should be more than adequate for their crews, and the amount of time that the public interest lasts will be equally brief. On the other end of the scale, a severe earthquake with its epicenter at the city’s edge will challenge the resources of the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) in at least a hundred-mile radius. News attention will be focused from across the country and internationally. Reporters will vie with rescue workers for the first accessto victims. In this extremely chaotic situation, a comprehensive plan that judiciously incorporates the media is paramount. Somewhere between these two scenarios is the train collision downtown at rush hour with hundreds of people in need of assistance. The local response capability will be stretched, and news interest may be piqued across the country. However, order should be restored within hours, and the public’s interest will wane within days. Each situation requires a different type of location in which to try to situate the media crews. Even for the smaller events, a team made up of security officers and the public relations members may be required to establish order. Once a designated area for the crews is established, guarantee regular updates and some accessto the scene. Journalists and reporters will not take well to being cordoned unless they can produce a viable product to show at their deadline. One solution that has worked in enormous situations like the Kuwait-Iraq war, or in other events like celebrity court cases, where the amount of space is exceeded by the number of reporters, involves a single video and audio feed to a central location. There, all share from the pool. Members of each station’s crew may take turns operating the camera and microphone. During that war, the regularly scheduled press
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conferences became as much a focus of the news as coverage of the event itself, while still serving the need to limit accessof the media to the scene. Optimally, disaster responders would make themselves available to answer questions at these times, besides trained public relations officials. INVOLVING
THE MEDIA
IN A DISASTER
The involvement of the media in a disaster closely parallels the three phases of a disaster (20,21): there is an activation phase, an implementation phase, and a recovery period. While each will flow from one to the next, each has its own distinct character ( 13). The activation phase begins very close to the time when the disaster itself occurs. Someone will either notify members of the press directly, or a reporter will hear the call for rescuers on a radio scanner. Sometimes, the news agencies will be immediately aware of the event too. When the Loma Prieta earthquake struck in the Santa Cruz mountains of California in 1989, ground motion could easily be felt more than a hundred miles away in Sacramento (22). The 1990 San Francisco earthquake occurred during the World Series, and live television broadcast the effects immediately. Frequently, a news organization will not be as fortunate, and will require corroboration before committing the resources necessary to send a news team. Therefore, it is not uncommon for an Emergency Department to receive a phone call from a reporter asking about the victims of an event even before the department’s telemetry radio has notified it of the incoming patients. In a hospital, this is the point in time when the public relations activation phase should also begin. When an event occurs of the magnitude to instigate a telephone call from the press, a worthwhile response is a notification call to the institution’s spokesperson. This should be part of the checklist that an emergency department employs at the start of a disaster response. As the disaster response begins to unfold, the publicity officer should coordinate his or her effort with that of the disaster response leader, and that of the security officers. Decisions need to be made quickly on where to situate the media, and to what extent their accessmay need to be limited. In addition, the press officer should try either to meet with members of the media, or talk on the telephone to learn their requirements and expectations. The press officer is the one who should return the call to the press after they have made the inquiry mentioned above.
When some certainty exists that a disaster has indeed occurred, news editors will dispatch reporting crews. This begins their implementation phase. It includes: (a) the collection of facts about the incident; (b) photographs and live camera footage (if possible); and (c) interviews with witnesses, victims, and rescuers. In a protracted or enormous situation, offsite interviews and expert commentators will become part of the news event as well. The second phase of a disaster, from the point of view of the media, is the point at which information begins to be relayed to the public-the point at which actual reporting begins. This will include a description of the nature of the incident, an estimate of the number of victims and of the damage, a characterization of the response, and a projection of the disaster’s duration (if it is ongoing). Attempts will be made to release detailed descriptions of the extent of injuries, including the names of victims and specifics about treatment rendered. As discussed earlier, the disaster planner should expect to incorporate these aspects of the media’s response into the total scheme of dealing with the disaster. During the implementation phase, when designating sections like the Incident Command Center, the media headquarters will also need to be selected. Although not as high a priority as finding and treating victims, one must make time for statements to the press (23). The spokesperson will take on much of this responsibility; all interview requests should initially be made through this person (24). However, it is wise to expect an interview or a press conference as part of the activities in which a disaster responder might participate during a break in the effort. Reporters will expect regular briefings, regardless of whether their accessto the sceneis impeded. Press conferences serve several purposes, including to bring updated information to the public quickly and thoroughly (25), and to confirm or deny rumors. They should conclude with a projection of when the next briefing will be given. The final phase of a disaster, the recovery period, plays an important place in the media response as well. More than simply withdrawing all of their equipment and personnel, the reporters will want to recount the events that led to the disaster, and summarize what occurred. There will be requests for more interviews and there will be reruns of previous footage and interviews. The limiting factor in the media response is the public’s interest in the event. The more sustained that the rescue effort becomes, the more that the public interest will wane. Where initially a huge body of
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reporters converged, a skeleton crew will remain as the energy to cover the event dissipates. As the effort of the disaster team winds down as well, an important opportunity should not be lost. General interest in disaster prevention is at its apogee immediately after a disaster occurs (1). Directors of disaster teams need to take advantage of the public’s newly heightened awarenessof both the community’s vulnerability to disaster, and of the resources found in the organizations that have just responded to the calamity. This is the time to call a press conference to encourage the citizenry to lobby their elected officials for more funds for the local EMS unit, for the disaster responseteam, or to fund the community trauma center. People will be eager to volunteer their services and need only to be instructed how to go about doing this. There is never a better time to use the media to involve the population in improving disaster readiness. CONCLUSION The live images on television of a hurricane or train crash can startle viewers and sharpen their insight into the work that rescuers do to alleviate devasta-
tion. Similarly, these images can prod others to heed the warnings of officials when the next calamity approaches. Although some people feel that growing technologies intrude during times of our greatest misfortunes, the astute planner of a disaster response knows that when they are shrewdly applied, the benefits of these technologies can outweigh any interference. The media’s presence at the scene of a disaster is inevitable; their members may even arrive before the disaster response team. To incorporate their presence into any complete strategy, planners will need to designate an appropriate area for the media, allow live coverage at the scenewhen safe, and schedule regular news conferences and briefings. Assign at least one individual the duty of press officer with the task of developing ties with news editors, learning about the equipment requirements for a video crew, and remaining very familiar with the operations of the disaster team. The remaining members of the team or emergency service organization should learn the basic skills necessary to give an interview to the press. The coverage of disasters by the media goes hand in hand with the response itself, so each side needsto learn about the other.
REFERENCES 1. Auf Der Heide E. Disaster response: principles of preparation and coordination. St. Louis: CV Mosby;1989. 2. Mahoney LE. Medical preparedness for disasters. Ann Int Med. 1986;104:114-5. 3. Waekerle JF. Disaster planning and response. New Engl J Med. 1991;324:815-21. 4. Merchant JA. Preparing for disaster. Am J Pub Health. 1986; X233-5. 5. United States v. Sherman. 581 F.2d 1358 (9th Cir,1978). 6. In re Express-News Corp. 695 F.2d 807 (5th Cir, 1982). 7. Branzburg v. Hayes. 408 U.S. 92 S.Ct. 2588 (1972). 8. Houchins v. KQED. 438 U.S. 1,16,98 S.Ct. 2588 (1978). 9. Times Newspapers Limited v. McDonnell Douglas Corp. 387 F.Supp. 189 (1974). 10. Gough AR, Gulliver LS. Anchors, bites and choppers: media relations and legal issues in disasters. J Em Nursing. 1990;16: 20-3. 11. Leiserson v. City of San Diego. 184 Cal.App.3d. 229 Cal Reptr. 1986;22-31. 12. Farhi P. Emergency Broadcast System may tone down. The Washington Post, 1992;12August:fOl; final edition. 13. Los Angeles Times staff. Nation in brief. Los Angeles Times, 1994; 14 December:21; home edition. 14. Partington AJ, Savage PEA. Disaster planning: managing the media. Brit Med J. 1985;291:590-2.
15. Kennedy RH. Considerations in local disasters. Bull Am Co11 Surgeons. 1965;50:117-28. 16. Successful media interviews. Federal Emergency Management Agency. April 1991. 17. American College of Emergency Physicians media training. LC Williams & Associates: 1986. 18. Rafe SC, Pfister WJ. Art of the interview. Videopro. 1983; August:54-8. 19. Illinois Epic. November, 1991, 20. Cowley RA, Myers RA, Gretes AJ. EMS response to mass casualties. Emerg Med Clin NA. 1984;2:687-93. 21. Bern AI. Disaster medical services. In: Roush WR, ed. Principles of EMS systems: a comprehensive text for physicians. American College of Emergency Physicians; 1976. 22. Haynes BE, Freeman C, Rubin JL, Koehler GA, Enriquez SM, Smiley DR. Medical response to catastrophic events: California’s planning and the Loma Prieta earthquake. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21:368-74. 23. Aghababian RV. Hospital disaster planning. Top Emerg Med. 1986;7:46-54. 24. Plante DM, Walker JS. EMS response at a hazardous material incident: some basic guidelines. J Emerg Med. 1989;7:55-64. 25. The MDS Publicity Strategist. Number 2. 1991.
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PUBLIC RELATIONS IN DtSASTER AND PLANNING FOR ElWER@EMX Franklin D. Friedman,
PHYSICOANS
MD, MS, FACEP
Department of Emergency Medicine, New England Medical Center, Boston, Massachussetts Reprint Address: Franklin D. Friedman, MD, MS, FACEP, Department of Emergency Medicine, New England Medical Center 750 Washington Street, NEMCH #311, Boston, MA 02130
nurtures a media that can report on any event at any time, beaming live pictures instantly to every corner of the globe (3). The ability to view so readily all of life’s great tragedies is a paradoxical achievement at best. Circumspect planning is the best solution to temper the way in which the media’s growth has impacted upon disasters. Reporters can play an extremely useful role that benefits disaster planners, rescue workers, and the public alike. The goal of an effective strategy is to mitigate any deleterious media impact on a disaster scene, and to turn its presence to the advantage of the disaster planners and rescue workers. How can the needs of the news media be met while trying to restore a semblance of order to a chaotic event? A media presence is a certainty in all disastersthe public demands information and will not accept a blackout. The onus falls upon the disaster planners to channel the media’s presence to the advantage of the rescuers. Indeed, news coverage can be very useful. It can alert additional responders when more assistance is needed, warn others to avoid dangerous areas (4), and serve as an impetus to drive communities to prepare for future events. The media’s mission (the term “press” alone is not encompassing, since more coverage is given to electronic journalism in this country than to written re-
0 Abstract-The goal of this article is to serve as a primer of disaster public relations. It will explain the requirements of the media and how best to incorporate their ubiquitous presence to the advantage of the disaster team, including how to give an effective interview, how and where to establish a media center, and the importance of sensing what will make the strongest visual or textual impact. In any disaster response, the media will play a large role. Their presence is condoned by the law and expected by the public. In reality, a reporter will probably arrive at the scene of a disaster before the first health care professional. It is only through the knowledge of the media’s needs, and an appreciation of the ways in which it can assist the d&aster team, that planners can best forge a relationship with the media that will confer the greatest mutual benefit. 0 Keywords-disaster media
management; disaster planning;
INTRODUCTION
Disasters and the media have become increasingly prominent facets of modern life. Growth in population, industry, and commercial development bear much of the responsibility for many of the disasters and their consequencesthat we have witnessed in recent years (1,2). Moreover, growth in technology
Disaster Medicine is coordinated by Znting “J&e” Jucoby, MD, of the University of California-San Diego Medical Center, San Diego, California RECEIVED: 28 Se tember1994; FINALSUBMISSIONRECEIVED: 27 February 1995; ACCEPTED: 13 h-farch1995 661
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porting) is to report on events as rapidly as possible. Sadly, it seemsthat they pay more attention to tragic events than to joyous ones. When tragedy of disastrous magnitude strikes, the original calamity then is dramatized by the arrival of throngs of media personnel who want to cover the event. Their presence can quickly compound an already volatile situation, and their members can become victims as well. By way of preparation, disaster planners should draft a multifold strategy for utilizing the press. When a disaster response team forms, a designated public relations member should be appointed. Key contacts should be established in the media, and a relationship between the disaster team and the press should be cultivated long before disaster ever strikes. In preparing any disaster plan, designate a location for correspondents-equip it adequately with the requirements of the media in mind, but situate it according to the needs of the disaster response team.
LEGALLY,
MUST THE MEDIA
BE INVOLVED?
When first planning for a disaster, organizers often wonder what can be done about the media. On first thought, many planners feel that the presence of the media will be more of a hindrance than a help, and wish to exclude them. Besides the benefits attainable by an active media presence, which will be illustrated later in this article, the law frequently sanctions their presence. Society as a whole takes its perceived right to know very seriously, and insists on comprehensive reporting of calamities. The United States Supreme Court has addressed the balance between the public’s perceived right to know and the issue of public safety and a secure disaster response. The First Amendment of The Constitution protects the right to gather news (5,6). However, The Court has ruled that the press is not guaranteed special access to a location ’ that is not also generally available to all of the public at large (7,8,9). Consequently, there is no constitutional right of accessto a disaster scene when the public is excluded. Nevertheless, many states have softened this approach, and some have actually affirmed the media’s right of accessto disasters (10). For example, California lawmakers have ruled that reporters cannot even be cordoned to a separate area, despite risk to their safety, unless it can be shown that un-
’ No specificcaseconcerningaccessto a disasterscenehas beentried in Federal Court (to this date): thesecasesinvolve accessto prisons, grandjuries, and depositions.
restricted accesswould interfere with emergency personnel’s ability to perform their duties ( 11). Recognizing that society has an interest in learning about all the details of every major disaster (no matter how grisly), and that the media will be present, planners therefore need to make designs that incorporate the press. Ideally, reporters will be situated in a location that will allow them sufficient accessto a scene to satisfy their viewers’ needs, but far enough removed so that they will not interfere with the rescue effort. Some ideas to accomplish this goal will be discussed later.
THE GOVERNMENT AND EMERGENCY BROADCASTING
The Emergency Broadcasting System (EBS) was established to provide a system by which government could alert the populace of an impending natural or other catastrophe. It evolved from the control of electromagnetic radiation system (CONELRAD), which was created in 1951 for the President to communicate with the public in times of national emergency (actually to warn Americans of impending nuclear attack) (1). Since the 197Os,state and regional officials have used the system to alert radio and television stations about hazardous weather conditions and local disasters. In case of disaster, or during a drill, a warning tone and messageis sent from a government agency to a master radio or TV station, which then relays the tone and message to other stations, which can choose to broadcast it. The message generally includes the nature of the disaster, what citizens should do, and where to turn for further information. The citizenry is familiar with the system because stations regularly broadcast the attention-getting tone as part of a periodic voluntary drill. During an actual emergency, the President, Governor, or other official initiates the EBS. This signal may be the first alert that a disaster responder receives about an accident. In 1992, the Los Angeles Police Department used the EBS to ask all officers to report to work during the riots (12). Its inherent weaknessesinclude potential disruption by a broken link in the chain (i.e., a disabled station), or an official who does not know how to activate the EBS ( 1). In 1994, the Federal Communications Commission, which oversees the EBS, unveiled plans to overhaul the system. The new system is to include newer equipment that can activate consumer electronic devices even when they are turned
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off, and specifies that routine drills may occur less frequently ( 13).
THE PUBLIC RELATIONS OFFICER Whether in a hospital or in the field as part of a disaster response team, someone should be designated as the contact person who will coordinate the distribution of information to the public. This person (or team of people in a large operation) will be the gatekeeper, controlling information coming out from a disaster relief effort, and accessto the team from the world trying to get a look in. When performed optimally, the role need not be adversarial, since all sides benefit. The person assuming the role of public relations officer need not necessarily be a trained spokesperson. Potentially, this can be the team leader, or a physician or nurse from an emergency department. Nevertheless, he or she must have a clear understanding of the requirements of the position. These requirements include: a thorough understanding of the institution or team, the ability to distribute information from the response that is accurate and appropriate, the knowledge to advance whatever message is needed to the public, and to appreciate and accommodate the needs of the media (14). A public relations officer frequently already exists in a hospital, or as part of a larger organization such as the police or fire department. An individual department, such as a hospital’s emergency department, may wish to designate its own spokesperson. Furthermore, in some disaster situations, an outside organization such as the Red Cross may even handle public relations ( 15). To have an understanding of the disaster response team, the spokesperson must spend time with the team and attain familiarity with any response plans. He or she needs to know the roles of different members of the team, how the team operates, and be familiar with the jargon of a rescue effort. He or she must participate in training sessions along with the rest of the team. As someone who spends time with the team, the team will also develop a familiarity with the public relations person, resulting in greater openness, and development of trust. In addition, this person needs to be familiar with journalists, editors, film crews, and producers. He or she needs to know many of the individuals, know their logistical requirements, and appreciate their deadlines. This so-called “external affairs officer” is the one who should be responsible for maintaining a
resource directory, keeping it current, and developing an ongoing relationship with correspondents. In disaster plans, this resource directory contains contact names and phone numbers, and other vital information. When a disaster really occurs (or seems likely to occur), this information is readily available and contacts in the press are easily notified. This is important for three reasons. First, the contacts themselves may have gleaned additional information from their own sources (i.e., satellite hookups and wire services). Second, material for the public is easily disseminated in this manner (e.g., a meeting location for a volunteer search and rescue team can be transmitted, or important phone numbers may be broadcast). Third, arrangements may be made concerning the specific locations where journalists should assemble and with whom they should speak. The ideal public affairs person will also develop a sense for appropriate times to notify the press, to alert them of potentially newsworthy occasions. For example, a timely word to a producer may result in a piece on the nightly news when a team launches an area-wide training exercise, stages a mock train crash, or even realizes that it is in need of more funds and equipment. The spokesperson for a disaster team or institution may find other tasks that will promote the image and the agenda of the organization through such avenues as newsletters and press releases. Desktop publishing, which takes advantage of the widely available personal computer, makes producing professionallooking publicity pieces a very simple task. A regularly published news bulletin serves at least two purposes: It provides a forum to notify both members of the team and members of the press of training exercises, changes in operations, and general announcements. Even when times are quiet, the bulletin reminds and reassures its readers that the disaster team is ready. MEDIA CONTACTS To prepare the public response to a disaster, a hospital, emergency medical system, or disaster team needs to cultivate a relationship with the media long before the disaster klaxons ever sound. Personal relationships are easier to develop and maintain than institutional ones; therefore, matters are easiest if one individual maintains a network of relationships with other individuals in the newspapers, television stations, and other reporting organizations. Although every disaster differs, it is paramount for disaster
664 planners to decide in advance their goals for utilizing the media. Typical goals for the media that disaster planners should make include: (a) preparations and instructions for the community; (b) protocols to disseminate regular news bulletins, lists of victims and their status, and updates on continuing medical risk to the community (e.g., in a chemical spill); (c) a call for volunteers; and (d) community instruction to prevent worsening or recurrence of a situation. Additional benefits might include the added name recognition of an organization or institution. Unfortunately, under the media’s glare, equal amounts of criticism are attracted if the disaster response appears to go poorly. To ensure the smoothest alliance between the press and disaster responders, a one-on-one relationship is optimal. Many institutions and organizations will employ a public relations specialist. Furthermore, viewers and readers desire the perspective of the words and images of the head of a disaster team or organization. In either case, this one person should cultivate a relationship with the producers and editors of news organizations. The key figure in an individual news organization with whom contact should be made is the news editor (13). Generally, he or she is the person who will make the decision about which pieces to print in the paper or to broadcast on the screen. The editor will dispatch a crew to an event that seemsnewsworthy. Individual reporters depend on the editor’s blessing to feature a story. Reporters are rarely experts on the topics about which they report; they are always looking for new authorities. When a news item germane to one’s area of expertise or specialty arises, a helpful phone call or letter to the producer, editor, or actual reporter frequently yields a favorable response such as an offer to interview or quote. Even if an interview does not materialize, that producer, editor, or reporter often will record the name and phone number of the source, to use as a resource in the future. Hence, a relationship is created. One example that demonstrates how such a relationship is forged might occur with a disaster team in a coastal region, one that would likely plan for hurricanes and floods. Keeping in mind that preparation is the best response to chaotic changes in the weather or the seas, residents need to be encouraged to act sensibly, stock up for emergencies, and to know how to evacuate if necessary. What better way to accomplish this goal than to have the local evening news program run a week-long series about hurri-
F. D. Friedman
canes as the season approaches? The disaster team gains an opportunity to present its plan to the public and a forum to make its existence known. At the same time, the news show gains viewer share with an informative public interest piece with a timely, compelling topic. Similarly, after a connection is made between disaster team and news organization, the team member making that phone call should start his or her own directory of contacts within the media. In this way, when the institution or team has a messageto promulgate, the task is as easy as a phone call to one or more of these connections. A list or directory of key contacts makes a crucial resource for a disaster team. GIVING A MEDIA INTERVIEW For everyone involved in the planning of a disaster response, a time for the media interview will eventually come. It will either be at the scene of an actual disaster, or perhaps only during a training exercise. Just as responding well to a disaster requires practice and a certain expertise, so does giving an interview. During an interview, either as an authority on hurricanes as the season approaches, or because your region has just borne the brunt of a force IV storm, how should that public exchange be handled? The important goal is to turn the interview to the advantage of the one being interviewed. One should have a reason for consenting to an interview-one has a messageto get across, or a specific question to answer. The most important rule is to stick to one’s own agenda, not be forced into someone else’s. An interview is a process of give and take; one should take what one needs, and give only what one wants. Several basic factors are crucial to bear in mind. Most important of these is to remember that one is representing an organization with a specific message to get across to the public (not simply to the person conducting the interview) ( 16). When the opportunity to give an interview arises, one must choose a theme carefully. In any interview, this messageconstitutes a “single overriding communication objective” (SOCO) ( 17). When the interviewer tries to lead, the guest should answer questions in a way that returns to the original theme being emphasized. A single point stressed repeatedly throughout an interview, akin to the “soundbite” in politics, is the best strategy to make limited airtime (or column space) count. For example, if a team leader gives an interview to
Public Relations in Disasters
update the press on the rescue effort to date in a specific earthquake disaster, there is no reason for an emergency responder to answer a question such as: “Do we have so many victims because the building code was not enforced?” This is known as a “loaded question”- it asks the respondent to assume a fact laden with several other implications (i.e., inadequately enforced building code). Besides the point that the interviewed relief worker probably can offer only an opinion, to answer such a question would serve no useful goal for the rescue team. An appropriate response would be: “You are correct, this was a severe quake. I would advise that everyone evacuate the affected area until the civil authorities have said it is safe to return.” The SOCO in this case is that “the populace must follow the directions of the civil authorities as the best way to keep additional casualties to a minimum.” The most prevalent emotion about facing the media is probably fear. To be nervous during an interview is natural; however, measures can be taken to lessenthe fright. During a one-on-one interview, one can make inquiries about the nature of the questions before the session formally begins. During a film or taped interview, one can ask to stop the camera or tape, to allow another opportunity to try to answer a question. Nevertheless, one must remain on guard: Never assume that a microphone or camera is turned off, or that a request to keep a comment off the record will be honored. During a more formal press conference, answers should be carefully considered. One must be sure to hear the entire question, allowing the questioners to complete their sentence before answering. If not certain of a question’s meaning, clarification should be requested. One can say “did you mean to say [whatever one heard]?” The advanced version of this technique is to use this approach to rephrase the question to one that the respondent would prefer to answer. There are other questions that may require care in order not to involve legal issues. One should be careful not to mention any specific details that could compromise patient confidentiality (e.g., “I treated Mrs. Smith who suffered a nervous breakdown after she saw her house collapse.“). When a television crew films a treatment area, they will frequently need to obtain the consent of their subjects before they can broadcast a recognizable image of them. Consequently, a site in front of the emergency department entrance may prove to be a preferable backdrop to one within the actual department . In addition, it makes no sense to pass on a piece
665 of information based solely on a rumor. Nor should a revelation be made that will cause panic and chaos, unless the appropriate authorities are aware that the statement will be made, and have made plans accordingly. For example, one should not announce that radiation has leaked from a power plant unless it can be confirmed and information about evacuation routes and decontamination sites can be transmitted simultaneously. Credibility and authority are the chief qualities that an audience likes to see projected in the person being interviewed. The public would rather listen to a team leader or chief medical officer than to someone whose only responsibility is public affairs. Whoever speaks needs to demonstrate competence and knowledge equally, without appearing arrogant or being patronizing. When an answer is not known, an effort to obtain that information should be made, and the findings conveyed. The last point about giving interviews is that, like anything else, they become easier with practice (18). One gains the necessary skills by volunteering to give interviews. One must seize the opportunity to practice one’s skills when, for example, the local reporter calls seeking an opinion on the risks of water sports in the summer, or about the dangers of trick-ortreating on Halloween. Finally, after giving an interview, one should listen to or watch the results later. Make mental or written notes about what was good and what was bad. Did one fidget or look down when a difficult question was asked? Does one trail off toward the end of each answer? Make an effort to correct flaws. Although public relations consultants could hone one’s image before the camera to assure an optimal interview, for the novice simplicity is the best solution. One wants to appear confident, authoritative, and relaxed. One valuable set of rules that incorporate these qualities is as follows ( 14,15,19): 1. Know with whom you will speak and what the topic will be. 2. Prepare your answers and deliver them in simple terms. 3. Adhere to your “SOCO .” 4. Be honest and stick to the facts. 5. Know the reporter’s deadline and objectives. 6. Pick a suitable place for the interview ~ 7. Check your appearance and address your answers to the reporter or questioner (not to a camera or microphone). 8. Check with your hospital (or organization) public relations department for additional advice.
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UP MEDIA
HEADQUARTERS
The goal of every aggressive reporter is to relay dramatic images or stories as rapidly as possible. To this end, the successful reporter wants live action footage of a disaster in progress. Recall the images of lava overcoming peoples’ houses as the owners watched in horror during the Hawaiian volcano in 1990, or an interview with a family member seconds after he or she learned of the loss of a loved one. While appreciating the visual or textual impact of such scoops, an element of control has to be placed on the media to respect the dignity of disaster victims and their family members. Although there will be tremendous demands placed by the media, such control may still be accomplished in several ways. First, we must examine how the news operates in a disaster, and what are its requirements. Moments after a disaster occurs, the press will find out about it -a citizen will telephone the local station or someone will overhear calls for emergency vehicles on a radio scanner. As the throngs converge, they will all want to be in the epicenter at once. Hordes of camera crews, photographers, video and print reporters, editors, and possibly network anchors will arrive. Each will want a clear view of the carnage and an opportunity to interview survivors and rescuers alike. Furthermore, the volume of support equipment is not inconsequential; each crew will travel with a van or truck containing satellite dishes, large antennae, thick cables, and probably additional support vehicles. They will require electricity, telephone lines, and sufficient space. Certainly, as technology has advanced, there has been some downsizing and an increased movement toward portable equipment. This has proved to be a mixed blessing, since it means that sending a crew has become that much easier to do. One of the direct causesof Cable News Network’s (CNN) overwhelming successhas been its ability to rapidly deploy an entire news crew almost anywhere in the world-an achievement made possible by downsizing and satellite uplinks; other networks are rapidly following this model. The first logistics problem thus arises: where to physically locate all of the people and their equipment? Large trucks may require accessto utility systems and they may require a flat surface on which to park. When a disaster plan is incorporated for a specific location such as a hospital or a stadium, these needs can be addressed in advance. A telephone call to various stations and wire services can be made to ask about specific physical requirements. However,
random events in nature, within a city block or upon the highways, demand improvisation. Deciding where to locate the personnel is a different issue. Their presence can impede the search for victims, and their treatment, and can invade the privacy of bereaved survivors. Moreover, uncontrolled accesscan lead to situations where the magnitude of reporting personnel can become more of a story than the actual event. In the same way that disasters are frequently graded in different levels (3), the amount of resources and space that must be devoted to the media will differ by the severity of the incident. For example, when an apartment building burns down and an emergency department receives fifteen victims, expect little more attention than that of the local news stations. Space in a lobby of the hospital should be more than adequate for their crews, and the amount of time that the public interest lasts will be equally brief. On the other end of the scale, a severe earthquake with its epicenter at the city’s edge will challenge the resources of the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) in at least a hundred-mile radius. News attention will be focused from across the country and internationally. Reporters will vie with rescue workers for the first accessto victims. In this extremely chaotic situation, a comprehensive plan that judiciously incorporates the media is paramount. Somewhere between these two scenarios is the train collision downtown at rush hour with hundreds of people in need of assistance. The local response capability will be stretched, and news interest may be piqued across the country. However, order should be restored within hours, and the public’s interest will wane within days. Each situation requires a different type of location in which to try to situate the media crews. Even for the smaller events, a team made up of security officers and the public relations members may be required to establish order. Once a designated area for the crews is established, guarantee regular updates and some accessto the scene. Journalists and reporters will not take well to being cordoned unless they can produce a viable product to show at their deadline. One solution that has worked in enormous situations like the Kuwait-Iraq war, or in other events like celebrity court cases, where the amount of space is exceeded by the number of reporters, involves a single video and audio feed to a central location. There, all share from the pool. Members of each station’s crew may take turns operating the camera and microphone. During that war, the regularly scheduled press
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conferences became as much a focus of the news as coverage of the event itself, while still serving the need to limit accessof the media to the scene. Optimally, disaster responders would make themselves available to answer questions at these times, besides trained public relations officials. INVOLVING
THE MEDIA
IN A DISASTER
The involvement of the media in a disaster closely parallels the three phases of a disaster (20,21): there is an activation phase, an implementation phase, and a recovery period. While each will flow from one to the next, each has its own distinct character ( 13). The activation phase begins very close to the time when the disaster itself occurs. Someone will either notify members of the press directly, or a reporter will hear the call for rescuers on a radio scanner. Sometimes, the news agencies will be immediately aware of the event too. When the Loma Prieta earthquake struck in the Santa Cruz mountains of California in 1989, ground motion could easily be felt more than a hundred miles away in Sacramento (22). The 1990 San Francisco earthquake occurred during the World Series, and live television broadcast the effects immediately. Frequently, a news organization will not be as fortunate, and will require corroboration before committing the resources necessary to send a news team. Therefore, it is not uncommon for an Emergency Department to receive a phone call from a reporter asking about the victims of an event even before the department’s telemetry radio has notified it of the incoming patients. In a hospital, this is the point in time when the public relations activation phase should also begin. When an event occurs of the magnitude to instigate a telephone call from the press, a worthwhile response is a notification call to the institution’s spokesperson. This should be part of the checklist that an emergency department employs at the start of a disaster response. As the disaster response begins to unfold, the publicity officer should coordinate his or her effort with that of the disaster response leader, and that of the security officers. Decisions need to be made quickly on where to situate the media, and to what extent their accessmay need to be limited. In addition, the press officer should try either to meet with members of the media, or talk on the telephone to learn their requirements and expectations. The press officer is the one who should return the call to the press after they have made the inquiry mentioned above.
When some certainty exists that a disaster has indeed occurred, news editors will dispatch reporting crews. This begins their implementation phase. It includes: (a) the collection of facts about the incident; (b) photographs and live camera footage (if possible); and (c) interviews with witnesses, victims, and rescuers. In a protracted or enormous situation, offsite interviews and expert commentators will become part of the news event as well. The second phase of a disaster, from the point of view of the media, is the point at which information begins to be relayed to the public-the point at which actual reporting begins. This will include a description of the nature of the incident, an estimate of the number of victims and of the damage, a characterization of the response, and a projection of the disaster’s duration (if it is ongoing). Attempts will be made to release detailed descriptions of the extent of injuries, including the names of victims and specifics about treatment rendered. As discussed earlier, the disaster planner should expect to incorporate these aspects of the media’s response into the total scheme of dealing with the disaster. During the implementation phase, when designating sections like the Incident Command Center, the media headquarters will also need to be selected. Although not as high a priority as finding and treating victims, one must make time for statements to the press (23). The spokesperson will take on much of this responsibility; all interview requests should initially be made through this person (24). However, it is wise to expect an interview or a press conference as part of the activities in which a disaster responder might participate during a break in the effort. Reporters will expect regular briefings, regardless of whether their accessto the sceneis impeded. Press conferences serve several purposes, including to bring updated information to the public quickly and thoroughly (25), and to confirm or deny rumors. They should conclude with a projection of when the next briefing will be given. The final phase of a disaster, the recovery period, plays an important place in the media response as well. More than simply withdrawing all of their equipment and personnel, the reporters will want to recount the events that led to the disaster, and summarize what occurred. There will be requests for more interviews and there will be reruns of previous footage and interviews. The limiting factor in the media response is the public’s interest in the event. The more sustained that the rescue effort becomes, the more that the public interest will wane. Where initially a huge body of
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reporters converged, a skeleton crew will remain as the energy to cover the event dissipates. As the effort of the disaster team winds down as well, an important opportunity should not be lost. General interest in disaster prevention is at its apogee immediately after a disaster occurs (1). Directors of disaster teams need to take advantage of the public’s newly heightened awarenessof both the community’s vulnerability to disaster, and of the resources found in the organizations that have just responded to the calamity. This is the time to call a press conference to encourage the citizenry to lobby their elected officials for more funds for the local EMS unit, for the disaster responseteam, or to fund the community trauma center. People will be eager to volunteer their services and need only to be instructed how to go about doing this. There is never a better time to use the media to involve the population in improving disaster readiness. CONCLUSION The live images on television of a hurricane or train crash can startle viewers and sharpen their insight into the work that rescuers do to alleviate devasta-
tion. Similarly, these images can prod others to heed the warnings of officials when the next calamity approaches. Although some people feel that growing technologies intrude during times of our greatest misfortunes, the astute planner of a disaster response knows that when they are shrewdly applied, the benefits of these technologies can outweigh any interference. The media’s presence at the scene of a disaster is inevitable; their members may even arrive before the disaster response team. To incorporate their presence into any complete strategy, planners will need to designate an appropriate area for the media, allow live coverage at the scenewhen safe, and schedule regular news conferences and briefings. Assign at least one individual the duty of press officer with the task of developing ties with news editors, learning about the equipment requirements for a video crew, and remaining very familiar with the operations of the disaster team. The remaining members of the team or emergency service organization should learn the basic skills necessary to give an interview to the press. The coverage of disasters by the media goes hand in hand with the response itself, so each side needsto learn about the other.
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15. Kennedy RH. Considerations in local disasters. Bull Am Co11 Surgeons. 1965;50:117-28. 16. Successful media interviews. Federal Emergency Management Agency. April 1991. 17. American College of Emergency Physicians media training. LC Williams & Associates: 1986. 18. Rafe SC, Pfister WJ. Art of the interview. Videopro. 1983; August:54-8. 19. Illinois Epic. November, 1991, 20. Cowley RA, Myers RA, Gretes AJ. EMS response to mass casualties. Emerg Med Clin NA. 1984;2:687-93. 21. Bern AI. Disaster medical services. In: Roush WR, ed. Principles of EMS systems: a comprehensive text for physicians. American College of Emergency Physicians; 1976. 22. Haynes BE, Freeman C, Rubin JL, Koehler GA, Enriquez SM, Smiley DR. Medical response to catastrophic events: California’s planning and the Loma Prieta earthquake. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21:368-74. 23. Aghababian RV. Hospital disaster planning. Top Emerg Med. 1986;7:46-54. 24. Plante DM, Walker JS. EMS response at a hazardous material incident: some basic guidelines. J Emerg Med. 1989;7:55-64. 25. The MDS Publicity Strategist. Number 2. 1991.