Public relations leadership development cycle: A cross-cultural perspective

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Public relations leadership development cycle: A cross-cultural perspective Diana Martinellia,⁎, Elina Erzikovab a b

West Virginia University, United States Central Michigan University, United States

AR TI CLE I NF O

AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Leadership Mentorship Leadership development Leadership training Education Public relations leadership dimensions

This exploratory research study is the first known attempt to understand the process and various stages of leadership development in public relations specialists. Using purposive in-depth interviews with PR practitioners and students from five countries (Brazil, China, India, Russia and the U.S.), this study gathered qualitative data about the seven public relations leadership dimensions (Berger & Meng, 2014) to glean insights as to when these dimensions appear/are learned and how they are manifested. This study indicates that having strong technical skills (the communication knowledge and expertise dimension) is viewed as the main prerequisite to develop into a PR leader. Other personal leadership dimensions found to be learned early in life and developed more fully over time include: self-dynamics (first learned through family/peer interactions and through those of school/organizations/groups), ethical orientation (first learned from family/ religious values), team collaboration (first learned through family, sports, church and school projects), relationship-building (first learned through interactions with peers, teachers, family members, coaches). Strategic decision making capabilities seem to develop later in one’s professional growth, after one has both technical skill and professional experience upon which to draw.

1. Introduction Although leadership development has been studied for 50 years (Day, 2000), no research about how leadership evolves over time in public relations professionals is known to exist, despite previous work (Berger & Meng, 2014) that found developing future PR leaders is a top priority globally to help advance both organizations and the profession. In his study of leadership, Northouse (2013) acknowledged the complexity of the leadership concept and its variety of definitions among scholars over time. At its core, he defined leadership as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 5), and he says that the leadership development process “can be observed in leader behaviors” (p. 8). Indeed, scientific evidence has demonstrated that leaders are not necessarily born, but can be developed (Reichard & Paik, 2011), and a number of studies have specifically emphasized the role of public relations practitioner-leaders in their organizations (e.g., Berger & Meng, 2014; Berger & Reber, 2006; Bowen, 2009). As formal and informal leaders, public relations professionals achieve effectiveness in and for organizations, manage ethical practice, and help organizations make strategic choices (Meng & Berger, 2013). This study uses a generic definition of leadership development, drawn from a review of 25 years of scholarship (Day, Fleenor, Atwater, Sturm, & McKee, 2014), and an integrated PR leadership model (Berger, 2012; Meng, 2014; Berger & Meng, 2014) to

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Corresponding author at: 206 Martin Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506-6010, United States. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Martinelli).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.09.002 Received 25 April 2017; Received in revised form 18 July 2017; Accepted 4 September 2017 0363-8111/ © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Martinelli, D., Public Relations Review (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.09.002

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examine the specific dimensions that shape public relations leaders' development across their lifespans in five countries: Brazil, China, India, Russia and the United States. The importance of this study lies in its anticipated theoretical and practical implications for public relations leadership development across cultures. In particular, the results contribute to a better understanding of what leadership behaviors emerge at what age/phase of development and may serve to spur additional research about PR leadership development stages and possible interventions to facilitate this growth. 2. Literature review Scholarly research on leadership has increased dramatically over the past two decades (Dinh, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, & Hu, 2014), but despite this focus, scholarship still does not offer a unifying theory of leadership development (Murphy & Johnson, 2011). Research has shown, however, that early leadership experiences shape leadership behaviors later in life (e.g. Komives, Longerbeam, Owen, Mainella, & Osteen, 2006; Murphy & Johnson, 2011). Murphy (2011) summarized research on leadership tasks and developmental stages, suggesting that the development of leadership skills starts as early as the preschool years. For example, in elementary school (ages 6–11), children learn how to coordinate group work and express themselves through public speaking. Skills learned in middle school (ages 12–14) may include leading student projects and self-management. In late adolescence (ages 15–19), individuals tackle such tasks as organizing complex projects and motivating team members. Serving as a supervisor and establishing grassroots organizations may be learned during college and young adulthood (Murphy, 2011). The Leadership Identity Development Model (Komives et al., 2006) also describes a continuum of leadership development over time: from childhood, when people are dependent on other leaders; to high school and beyond, when people evolve to become independent leaders; and then to the highest leadership stage, when they become interdependent leaders who recognize that leadership comes from multiple levels within an organization and not just from authorities/bosses. 2.1. Leadership development Based on a review of 25 years of research and theory, Day et al. (2014) defined leadership development as an interdependent process of enhancing individual leadership capabilities and expanding the collective capacity of organizations. To evolve to the highest levels of leadership, such organizational practices as 360° feedback, executive coaching, networking, new job assignments, and active learning are believed to be beneficial (Day, 2000). However, there is no solid scientific evidence of these practices’ actual effectiveness. What is known is that “leadership is developed through the enactment of leadership” (Day, 2000, p. 605). In other words, leadership development is most meaningful in the context of actual work. The same philosophy can be applied to youth leadership, and particularly to college and university programs. For example, a recent study in Ireland (Redmond & Dolan, 2016) discussed the need for “authentic opportunities for young people to practice their skills” (p. 262) in developing young leaders, and research by Erzikova and Berger (2012) found that student-led projects were among the pedagogies deemed by PR educators to be most useful in teaching leadership. Overall, the effectiveness of leadership learning interventions in organizations largely depends on how leadership development is conceptualized. Brungardt (1996) argued that leadership education and leadership training are distinct components of leadership development. For example, leadership training is the most narrow of the three, referring to specific task-oriented teachings, while education involves more formal, conceptual learning, such as college courses and professional seminars. Leadership development includes both education and training, and refers to ongoing growth and evolution over time. Indeed, most successful companies go beyond a traditional approach, where, for example, the leader is responsible for leadership functions, to a more contemporary approach, where all employees are expected to participate in leadership processes (Day, Zaccaro, & Helpin, 2004). In these latter types of organizations, the growth of leaders is seen as a widespread, ongoing developmental process, not as a number of specific professional development trainings undertaken by a select few. 2.2. Mentoring Although not every leadership development method is appropriate across all leader development stages (childhood, adolescence, adulthood), mentoring is a powerful approach that can be applied to every leadership development phase across the lifespan (Solansky, 2010; Eby et al., 2013). Similar to leader-follower relationships that imply “raising one another to higher levels of morality and motivation” (Burns, 1978, p. 20), mentoring relationships can have a life-long impact on both mentee and mentor. In fact, a positive mentoring context (i.e., proximity between mentor and mentee, social and emotional connection, long-term goals, assessment immediacy) itself mirrors the development of transformational leadership (Middlebrooks & Haberkorn, 2009). In their study of Irish youth, Redmond and Dolan (2016) noted that for leadership development to succeed, the process must involve the presence of mentors. Youth mentoring entails a supportive relationship between a non-parental adult and a young person. Based on the apprenticeship model of education, academic mentorship implies that a teacher facilitates students’ academic development both inside and outside of the classroom. Most common forms of education-based mentorship include academic support, psychosocial support, and role modeling (Gershenfeld, 2014). In Redmond and Dolan’s (2016) leadership model, mentor access is one of the necessary environmental conditions for youth leadership development. Workplace mentoring occurs in an organizational setting and aims to help novices adjust to their organizations and to facilitate 2

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Fig. 1. The integrated model of excellent leadership in public relations with organizational structure and culture. Taken from “Unpacking the relationship between organizational culture and excellent leadership in public relations: An empirical investigation," by J. Meng, 2014, Journal of Communication Management, 18(4), p. 370. (Used with permission of the author.)

their career advancement. In particular, within organizations, mentoring might focus on instrumental support (providing instruction and feedback) and/or psychosocial support (role modeling and encouragement) (Kram, 1985). Many global public relations associations offer mentoring programs, and a dyadic relationship, where a mentor and mentee work as a pair, seems to be the most common approach (Kiesenbauer, Burkert, & Zerfass, 2015). Junior employees too might become mentors themselves through “reverse mentoring," as when they help more seasoned colleagues learn about cutting-edge technologies, for example (Hays & Swanson, 2012). The aforementioned global study of leadership in public relations (Berger & Meng, 2014) revealed that participants learned more about excellent leadership from role models and/or mentors on the job than from university education or management development programs. Further, professionals with more than 20 years of experience rated the power of role models significantly higher than did less experienced professionals, especially in the United States, China and India (Erzikova & Petersone, 2014).

2.3. Public relations leadership The model of integrated public relations leadership (Berger, 2012; Meng, 2014; Berger & Meng, 2014) supports Northouse's (2013) view of the leadership development process, which can be behaviorally observed. The model comprises six interrelated personal dimensions and one structural/cultural dimension (see Fig. 1). The personal dimensions are: self-dynamics (i.e. self-insights and vision), team collaboration capabilities, ethical orientation, relationship-building skills, strategic decision-making capability, and communication knowledge management (i.e. expertise). A seventh dimension, organizational structure and culture, influences the environment for, and practice of, leadership. A survey of nearly 4500 public relations practitioners in 23 countries supported the universality of the seven dimensions in everyday public relations practice (Berger & Meng, 2014). Importantly, the global study participants tended to believe that leadership in PR is not significantly different from leadership in other occupations (Erzikova & Petersone, 2014). The global study (Berger & Meng, 2014) also focused on specifics of PR leadership in different countries, including Brazil, China, India, Russia and the U.S. Among numerous other findings, Bardhan and Patwardhan (2014) found that Indian practitioners valued a transformational leadership style, while Russian participants believed an authoritarian style helped them get their jobs done (Erzikova, 2014). Supportive senior leadership was identified as the number one factor in facilitating leadership effectiveness in China (Hung-Baesecke, Jin, & Meng, 2014). Similarly, Brazilian participants expressed deep gratitude toward organizational heads, seeing them as visionary leaders (Athaydes, Becker, Cogo, Furlanetto, & Nassar, 2014). In the United States, PR leaders said reporting to the CEO had the greatest influence on their effectiveness (Berger, Meng, Heyman, Harris, & Bain, 2014). This study sought to further explore and extend the integrated model of public relations leadership used in Berger and Meng's (2014) international survey by seeking in-depth qualitative data related to when and how the model's leadership dimensions are learned and manifested, and whether the patterns of leadership development appear to be similar or different across cultures. 3

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3. Research questions Drawing from Day et al.'s (2014) 25 years of scholarship review, leadership development was defined generically in this study as an interdependent process of enhancing individual leadership capabilities and also expanding the collective capacity of organizations to improve social and operational effectiveness. Research questions included the following: 3.1. RQ 1 What are public relations practitioners’ perceptions of leadership development across their lifespans? 3.2. RQ 2 What are public relations students’ perceptions of leadership development? 3.3. RQ 3 Are the development stages of leadership in public relations different from those of other fields or professions? If so, how? 3.4. RQ 4 How effective do people perceive formal educational activities (e.g. college curricula, professional seminars and workshops) and informal PR leadership education (e.g. mentoring, self-learning) to be in developing or eliciting leadership in public relations? 3.5. RQ 5 What is the role of mentors (e.g. parents, teachers, colleagues) in developing public relations leadership skills/abilities? 3.6. RQ 6 What are the effects of organizational (cultural) conditions on public relations leadership development? 4. Method Purposive in-depth interviews with PR practitioners and students from five countries (Brazil, China, India, Russia and the U.S.) were conducted in person or via telephone by experienced scholars, who used an interview guide and who are native speakers of the countries represented in this study. Each of the participating scholars has published research and holds academic rank at a university. These five countries were selected because they were represented in the global study (Berger & Meng, 2014), reflected diverse political climates/ideologies, and the Principle Investigators knew researchers who were natives of these countries and who agreed to participate. The guide was piloted in the U.S., and then researchers in each of the countries translated it into their respective native languages, as applicable. In each country, interviews were conducted with 1) five public relations practitioners of varied experience who were considered to be leaders based on their positions/titles and 2) at least five public relations students at varying stages of college study who were considered to be leaders by their professors and/or peers. Researchers emailed a list of public relations leadership dimensions used in the Berger and Meng (2014) study to participants prior to the interviews to allow time for the interviewees to review the concepts. (See Appendix A.) Interviews started with the researchers providing the participants with the definition of leadership development as noted above. During the interviews, participants were asked to reflect upon leadership activities and development throughout their lives that helped them become leaders in the field. Overall, 51 participants were interviewed in person or by telephone: 25 practitioners (14 females and 11 males), who ranged in age from mid–20 s to early 60 s and had a combined 430 years of public relations experience, and 26 students (10 males and 16 females), who were sophomore- through graduate-level (19 undergraduates and 7 graduate students). Interviews were transcribed in the native language by native speakers and summarized. Interviewees were asked to review the interview summaries to perform member checks (Creswell, 2014) to ensure the transcriptions accurately reflected their respective comments and views. The checked summaries, transcriptions and translations were divided and reviewed by the two study Principle Investigators, who then compared and contrasted them to identify common patterns and outlying perspectives. Miles and Huberman’s (1994) three-step approach was used to analyze interview transcripts. During the data reduction/condensation phase, transcripts were carefully read to identify re-occurring themes to cluster and code them. To facilitate preliminary conclusion drawing, data were displayed by research question in the form of short blocks of texts to study patterns of redundancy, and then preliminary conclusions were reviewed and verified by both Principle Investigators during the analysis process. 4

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5. Findings 5.1. Public relations practitioners’ perceptions of leadership development across the lifespan (RQ1) Across the five represented countries, the professionals interviewed believed they began learning leadership skills at an early age: most were in elementary school and began learning to be a leader as a result of family necessity (e.g. being the eldest child) or through sports teams or in their classrooms. A female PR leader from China mentioned she started learning leadership skills “through all the school activities and the gymnastic training my parents threw me into.” Brazilian and Indian professionals reported first joining a group/organization in their teens, while the majority of U.S. and Russian professionals joined in elementary school. U.S., Indian, Chinese, and Russian professionals tended to be group members as part of school and/or sports, while the majority of Brazilian practitioners were first members of church groups. Across cultures, a majority of professionals first became a group/team leader in their teens, although a few first served as a leader in college or as a professional. In Russia, India, and the U.S., leadership was first exhibited most often through school (e.g. classroom “commanders,” extra-curricular/sports activities and student council/government). In Brazil, most professionals reported becoming leaders through church activities, taking part in church services or leading younger children in classes. 5.2. Public relations students’ perceptions of their leadership development (RQ 2) Similar to the professional respondents, the majority of student respondents from every country except Brazil believed they began learning leadership skills at an early age, while serving as class monitors or through sports during grade school, whereas four of the five interviewed students from Brazil reported learning leadership skills as teenagers. Two Brazilian students were first team leaders through church activities; another two, through high school/college work. All students from China mentioned that extracurricular activities in grade school and university provided them with opportunities to learn leadership skills. Two Chinese students reported learning leadership skills at elementary school after their teachers assigned them to be group leaders. All students from India reported being in grade school when they first began learning these skills. The skills they reported learning were as follows: how to work with people, how to lead in an egalitarian manner, how to remain calm and in control during difficult times, and how to work selflessly for the welfare of the entire team. An Indian undergraduate student said, “In my life, I'm very fortunate to learn leadership skills at the age of 11 because I'm a trained Bharatnatyam dancer. For a dancer, leadership skills are very important because we have to synchronize and form a group from the very start of our learning.” Four of the five Indian students were involved in leadership capacities for NGOs at the time of the interviews. The majority of Russian students indicated they were 7 years old when they began learning leadership skills. Four of the five first served as class leaders in elementary school. The majority of U.S. students reported being 10 or younger when they began learning leadership skills. Most were first leaders on sports teams; two were leaders through student government/council. 5.3. If and how the development stages of leadership in public relations differ from those of other fields or professions (RQ 3) The majority of Russian and Indian professionals believed there was no difference in PR and other fields’ leadership development; however, the majority of Brazilian and U.S. practitioners said there was a difference. The Brazilian respondents believed that PR leadership development was hindered more than in other fields because of the nature of PR education (i.e. not enough emphasis on leadership or entrepreneurship in college to help facilitate and motivate future PR leaders). In contrast, some U.S. and Chinese professionals believed the complex nature of PR professionals’ roles (i.e. internal/external listener/scanner, communicator, counselor) may help hasten—or at least set apart—leadership development in PR professionals, more so than in other fields. There was consensus across practitioners that the six PR leadership dimensions (Meng & Berger, 2013)—self-dynamics, team collaboration, ethical orientation, relationship-building skills, strategic decision-making capability and communication knowledge management—were important leadership skills across all professions/fields. However, several participants indicated the amount of emphasis on these six characteristics could vary by profession. Communication knowledge was viewed by interviewees as a prerequisite before PR practitioners are given professional leadership opportunities. For example, a study participant from India said, “I think basic knowledge and expertise, as far as your own domain is concerned, is a basic whether you’re a leader in PR or you’re a leader in another field.” A Brazilian practitioner stated, “Perhaps leadership comes as a consequence of good work,” even when not actively sought or pursued. The importance of “soft skills” (i.e. the “human touch”), which were also highlighted in the global study (Jin, 2014), was alluded to by at least one practitioner in every country. For example, an Indian practitioner said, “First of all, you need to learn what soft skills are because … being able to kind of catch the wavelength of every individual client and then connect with him, that’s a bit of a tricky job. That is a little different from maybe a manufacturing or any technical discipline.” Ethics, entrepreneurship, and collaboration were mentioned as particularly important for PR leaders by at least one responding practitioner in every country except Russia. Being visionary was mentioned by at least one practitioner in each country except India and China, while measurement/evaluation was mentioned as a key leadership function only by some Indian and U.S. practitioners. Two Chinese practitioners emphasized the ability to respond quickly as being necessary for leaders. Strategic decision making was discussed by participants more broadly. For example, a millennial U.S. practitioner said, “Leadership is about taking calculated risks. And being confident and comfortable doing that….” A U.S. practitioner in her 60 s noted, “A critical component of leadership is always being prepared for what’s around the corner when you don’t even know what’s around the corner.” 5

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Interviewees across countries also discussed the importance in any field of both personal and professional growth in leadership development, and many noted the following in particular: honing occupation-related skills, observing outstanding leaders’ behaviors, learning by doing, and reflecting on mistakes. Although student interviewees had limited experience with professional leadership in other fields, some of their perceptions may hold value for educators, employers and future scholarship, and thus are included here. For example, all of the U.S. students mentioned the importance of ethics to PR leadership, while a minority of students in each of the other countries did so. Russian students were the only ones to mention assertiveness as a top leadership quality, and they indicated that leadership is about working for social good. Most of the U.S. and Indian students mentioned the importance of relationships in PR leadership, while several U.S., Indian, and Brazilian students mentioned the importance for PR leaders in particular to be strategic and collaborative. 5.4. Perceptions of formal and informal PR leadership education (RQ 4) While largely available and accessible in the U.S., formal leadership training is not as institutionalized in the other countries represented in this study. All of the U.S. practitioners had taken formal leadership training: some as adults on the job or through the Public Relations Society of America; others, in college coursework or in high school through formal club or work activities. In contrast, professionals from China did not have any formal leadership training, although most indicated their companies have both formal and informal mentorship and leadership programs. These Chinese professionals believed that success in public relations leadership is driven by a combination of both education and experience. No Indian professionals had taken any formal leadership training before beginning their careers, but some had exposure through master’s degree study (in business and economics) or through company/agency workshops. Brazilian professionals indicated formal leadership training only through college coursework, except for one who took advantage of an entrepreneurial leadership course that her company offered its engineers, and only one Russian professional had taken formal leadership development training (through her previous work at a news organization). A female Russian practitioner represented the skepticism of some Russian interviewees when she said, “My attitude toward leadership education is ironic and negative because this concept is used by all sorts of charlatans who call themselves trainers…. Leadership development is most and foremost professional development.” Most Indian practitioners believed that formal leadership training at an earlier stage in their development would have been useful for facing later career challenges, and they were open to such training in the future. They noted it was important to get away from the office and its routine to learn new perspectives; however, a U.S. practitioner noted the impracticality/difficulty of taking time away from the office to partake in training. At least one practitioner from each country except China indicated that PR leadership should be part of a PR college curriculum, and most respondents across countries believed that, ideally, formal and informal leadership education complement each other, with formal instruction offering a foundation for experiential learning. Informal training (e.g. mentorship, self-education, observation, experience) was more highly prized and practiced across practitioners/countries than was formal training, and most of the practitioners in Brazil, Russia, and the U.S. were currently involved in some type of informal leadership development activity. Specifically, the majority of Russian respondents indicated they were reading articles and books about leadership, while most of the U.S. practitioners indicated they were mentoring others. Practitioners across countries understood the need for continual learning to be effective professionally. The majority of Russian practitioners wanted training in management. Other types of desired training/education mentioned by practitioners included: motivating and managing teams, budgeting, entrepreneurship, marketing, finance, digital and social media, public speaking, nonprofit PR, and access to case studies that offer examples of both leadership successes and failures. As with the majority of professionals, the majority of Indian, Russian, and U.S. students believed informal leadership education was more effective than formal education, but Indian students believed that both formal and informal training inform each other, and they wished they had received more formal leadership education. Brazilian students were split between formal and informal leadership development being most effective, and only one student, who was Chinese, thought formal leadership education would be more effective than informal training. No Chinese, Indian, or Russian student participants had any formal public relations leadership training, although a majority of students across countries except China reported formal generic leadership training through youth organizations or through school/ college/internship workshops/panels. The majority of Chinese students believed they would benefit more from skill-specific training than from leadership training. Indian students emphasized the value of informal learning through life experiences, while Russian and U.S. students mentioned more self-learning and mentoring as valuable educational activities, as had practitioners in those countries. A few students across countries indicated they were currently learning informally about leadership through work, and others said they were learning informally through class activities and student groups. Desired training topics mentioned by students more than once across cultures included crisis management and facilitating effective team work. 5.5. The role of mentors in developing public relations leadership skills/abilities (RQ 5) Across cultures, all interviewed professionals have or have had mentors, and all highly valued their mentors and the experience of mentoring others. In fact, they believed that leaders/mentors actually learn themselves while teaching others. In addition, the most common early mentors of respondents across countries were family members. All five of the Russian practitioners named their fathers (who were activists, community and organizational leaders) as influential early mentors in their lives. Behind family, teachers were the most commonly mentioned mentors by U.S. and Brazilian practitioners, 6

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who noted they served as role models and/or gave them confidence and opportunities to pursue leadership positions/activities. Chinese professionals reported former or current bosses to be their most inspiring mentors; in India, the most inspiring mentors tended to be family members, followed by former or current bosses. The majority of professionals' current mentors were older and were current or past public relations colleagues. A female Brazilian practitioner said, “My current mentor is my manager and the first leader to convey it is OK to make mistakes," and a U.S. millennial practitioner said, “You build a network of people who make you stronger, who stretch you in the right directions, and who provide a safe place for you to take risks….” As with the majority of practitioners, a majority of students across countries reported family members being mentors, and as with Russian practitioners, a majority of Russian students indicated their fathers as the most inspiring. Chinese, U.S., Indian, and Brazilian students were nearly evenly split between family members and teachers/professors being their most inspiring mentors. A male graduate student from India talked about how his father taught him values that apply to the profession: “There is either right or a wrong, and you can’t keep the legs in both the boats in sail, so you have to be in one boat. I feel if you are ethical … you can … not compromise the principles for anything.” 5.6. The effects of organizational (cultural) conditions on public relations leadership development (RQ 6) The influence of organizational cultures on leadership development was asked only of practitioners. U.S., Chinese, and Indian practitioners mentioned that a PR agency’s structure can help either foster or hinder leadership development. For example, the Indian practitioners said their agency environments taught them to be less individualistic and aggressive and to grow into more teamoriented and collaborative leaders. However, a U.S. practitioner indicated large agencies typically offer few leadership opportunities to young staffers, owing to their more formalized leadership structures, and two Chinese practitioners discussed leadership difficulties associated with balancing their agencies’ profitability and communication priorities. Indian professionals noted a strong economy provides PR agency leadership opportunities that otherwise might not exist, owing to the increased client work. At least one practitioner from each country except Russia said a boss’s belief in others is part of an environment conducive to leadership development. However, at least one practitioner from Russia, India and Brazil said a negative, authoritative environment can make someone a better practitioner by necessity. Several Russian and U.S. professionals emphasized the positive role that mentors had in creating a good work environment. A male U.S. practitioner in his mid–50 s said, “There are places I’ve been where they want to grow leaders and keep leaders, and understand that people are important to the organization. Those companies that have long-range vision … are the best places to work and to grow leadership, and the worst places are the ones that … quite frankly, view [the workplace] as a factory….” Russian and Brazilian practitioners both mentioned perfectionism as an expectation in the workplace; however, the former saw it as a positive motivator, while the latter saw it as unreasonable and rigid. All three female U.S. practitioners discussed gender as playing a role in leadership development, noting that women need support from and mentorship from other successful women; however, no other practitioners mentioned gender as a potential workplace leadership hurdle. Two female Indian students did note, however, that their families were not wholly supportive of their professional goals because of a different generational viewpoint regarding women’s work roles. 6. Discussion Scholars Berger and Reber (2006) argued that the future of public relations is “closely tied to what its leaders know and don’t know, say and don’t say, and do and don’t do” (p. 236). This study indicates that having strong technical skills (the communication knowledge management dimension) is viewed as the main prerequisite to develop into a PR leader; thus, this dimension seems to be the critical first step for receiving PR leadership opportunities, or the first step on the “ladder” toward professional PR leadership. In the global study (Berger & Meng, 2014), communication knowledge and expertise, including its associated “soft skills,” was also found to be “a critical leadership dimension” (p. 108) and it makes intuitive sense: One likely will not be given leadership opportunities if one’s work and emotional intelligence are not already strong. According to the interviews conducted for this study, foundational communication knowledge can begin with public speaking and relationship maintenance at a relatively young age and it evolves more formally and professionally through college and work experience. However, Bronstein and Fitzpatrick (2015) note that the current U.S. undergraduate public relations curriculum “is still largely focused on hard skill development, with fewer courses devoted to the development of soft skills, entrepreneurship, and other building blocks of leadership” (p. 81). Other personal leadership dimensions found in this study to be “seeded” (learned) early in life include:

• self-dynamics, which were first learned through family/peer interactions and through those of school/organizations/groups; • ethical orientation, which were first learned from family/religious values; • team collaboration, which were first learned through family, sports, church and school projects; and • relationship-building, which were first learned through interactions with peers, teachers, family members, coaches. However, strategic decision-making capabilities seem to develop later in one’s professional development, after one has both technical skill and professional experience upon which to draw. Thus, this dimension may be the highest-order leadership dimension on the PR leadership “ladder”, being successfully applied only after experience and skills pertaining to the other dimensions have been realized. In the global study (Berger & Meng, 2014), strategic decision making stood out as “the most significant leadership condition in various situations and geographic locations” (p. 108). 7

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Overall, this study’s PR leadership evolution findings align with generic leadership development, as delineated in the Leadership Identity Development Model (Komives et al., 2006) and in Murphy's (2011) table of youth leadership tasks and skills over time. Specifically, the findings and model align as follows:

• Relevant PR leadership skill development began as early as elementary school. Supportive and encouraging teachers helped build confidence and provided leadership experiences. • Parents and other family members (grandparents, siblings) were strong role models and mentors by instilling professional aspirations and strong personal values. • Most interviewees joined groups and began to take on leadership roles as adolescents. • Leaders continued to learn and grow while they simultaneously taught/inspired others. In fact, there was consensus on the value and importance of mentoring in furthering leadership development for both mentees and mentors.

Also, the findings can be viewed through the lens of Brungardt (1996), who discusses the general leadership development lifespan categories, as follows: 1) early childhood and adolescence 2) formal education 3) on-the-job experiences and 4) specialized leadership education. At least a few practitioners and students across countries noted the need for more training on working with teams–further indicating the importance of and challenges involving the PR leadership dimension team collaboration. However, although the need/ desire for such training crosses international boundaries, this study suggests that perhaps formal and specialized PR leadership education should be culturally/country-specific. The findings of this study suggest the following recommendations related to country-specific training be further tested:

• Brazil, India, and U.S.: Leadership is often associated with egalitarianism; an ethical, collaborative approach; and giving back to • • •

society, particularly with millennials. Accordingly, training that focuses on leading an egalitarian-style company and offering meaningful work would resonate with PR students and practitioners in these countries. In addition, information about running consultancies and small business entrepreneurial models are desired in both college courses and professional training in these countries. U.S. and India: Special training for and about the unique challenges and perceptions of women and underrepresented practitioners is warranted. U.S. women practitioners seemed to be personally aware of these gender-related differences in workplace leadership styles and opportunities, while Indian female students seemed to be more aware of culturally based generational gender biases. Russia: Having access to prominent individuals from whom to learn, network and be mentored is considered vital for established and emerging PR leaders. Accordingly, educational programs that include learning from and interacting with recognized authorities/experts would be most effective, and skill-specific training is most highly valued. China: Organizations that intend to develop an effective leadership training program should take into consideration that young PR practitioners appreciate clear direction from teachers and supervisors, but also want more autonomy over their learning. In addition, public relations students value skills-oriented training over more general leadership education.

Overall, these culturally diverse findings give additional credence to the global study’s findings (Berger & Meng, 2014), which demonstrated relatively weak support for developing a “global education curriculum” (p. 116) as an approach to developing PR leaders. It also supported Berger and Meng’s (2014) findings that formal leadership development opportunities are more widely available in the U.S., as well as Erzikova and Petersone's (2014) global findings about the importance of mentors. Also in this study there was consensus across practitioners that the six PR leadership dimensions (Meng & Berger, 2013) were important leadership skills across all professions/fields, and this finding, too, was consistent with the global study result (Erzikova & Petersone, 2014). The global study (Berger & Meng, 2014) found that India's communications culture scored highest of all the countries represented and that it emphasized “ethics, integrity, innovation, and attention to people and knowledge” (Bardhan & Patwardhan, 2014, p. 163). This study’s Indian participants also expressed these values, while practitioner participants across countries in this study recognized that millennial PR practitioners seek transparent, collaborative (i.e. transformational) leadership styles and meaningful work environments, and this view was consistent with the student participants' expressions as well. The findings offer hope, as expressed by Meng and Berger (2017), that millennials’ passion for leadership, appreciation of diversity, transparency and social responsibility can advance the public relations profession overall. In fact, Russian student participants in this study believed that PR leaders work for social good, and the majority of Indian student participants were already active in NGOs, and all U.S. PR student participants explicitly mentioned ethics as being central to leadership, a finding consistent with Erzikova and Berger’s (2011) study that revealed U.S. PR students equate leadership with ethics. Finally, this study found the majority of PR practitioners and students across cultures and ages understand the need to continue to learn about and grow in PR leadership and seem interested in doing so, when possible and practical. However, some Chinese and Russian participants in this study seemed to value learning specific professional skills more than leadership development opportunities. This desire could be practical in nature, given the explosion of technology and commerce, or it also could be cultural. Future studies might further explore these attitudes and their drivers, and how they are influencing the profession there. In this study, experiential application of PR skills and knowledge through students’ extracurricular activities, internships and hands-on coursework were noted as providing important opportunities to practice both tactical and managerial skills, and informal activities (e.g. mentoring, observation, self-teaching through reading/online seminars) were more highly prized/valued across cultures than formal activities (e.g. courses, workshops, seminars). Still, formal college coursework that not only provides technical knowledge and skills but that also discusses and teaches fundamentals of leadership was seen as important by many participants to 8

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further the profession as a whole and those who work within it. This finding affirms Bronstein and Fitzpatrick's (2015) observation that formal “leadership education would help students develop both the knowledge and skills to lead dynamic industries and a leadership mind-set oriented to innovation” (p. 75). Their work also underscored findings of this study by suggesting that college leadership curricula would be especially beneficial for women who would be entering fields where women leaders are underrepresented. 7. Limitations and future research This exploratory qualitative study sought out patterns across public relations practitioners and students from five countries. The information gained from this limited number of selected interviewees are not generalizable and, thus, may or may not be reflective of other practitioners and students. However, redundant patterns and distinct differences were observed across countries, and some findings were consistent with the quantitative international practitioner study of Berger and Meng (2014), thus lending further credence to them. Based on this study’s findings, an adapted integrated model of leadership in public relations might be proposed, e.g. evolution of PR leadership, that includes mentorship as an ongoing, intervening variable, and that examines the “rungs” of PR leadership needed to evolve to the highest level/most effective PR leader. For example, this qualitative study indicates proficient communication knowledge management as being the foundation upon which future PR leaders are given opportunities to grow, while strategic decision-making capabilities seem to be based on experience over time and proficiencies with the other PR leadership dimensions, e.g. self-dynamics, collaboration, ethics, and relationship building, as well as an understanding of the organizational structure and culture. Future studies might use the generic youth leadership identity development model of Komives et al. (2006) and Murphy and Johnson (2011), which this study supported, to explore a linear, ladder-like pattern of professional PR growth. In addition, such concepts from their work as resilience (Murphy & Johnson, 2011) might also be explored in PR practitioners/leaders. Findings could help further explore how the PR leadership development dimensions evolve and build on each other over time and how they begin to merge from personal into professional leadership characteristics. Self-assessment questionnaires ultimately might be developed to help educators, students, and perhaps even young professionals assess where they fall on the development continuum, and plans/materials could be created to help them progress. In addition, using the indices already developed for each of the leadership dimensions by Meng and Berger (2013), researchers might identify when these dimensions first begin to appear and what challenges to each may be present (e.g. unstable home creates difficulty with relationships; shyness stifles confidence and risk-taking to embrace leadership opportunities; lack of self-awareness stymies self-dynamics). Such work could then involve what researchers have described as a leadership development process comprised of “cultivating and leveraging strengths while understanding and minimizing weaknesses” (Meng & Berger, 2013, p. 48). The research might also be expanded to include other psychological scales that could help identify common patterns among leaders, including levels of resilience, tolerance for ambiguity, and low communication avoidance, and could be used to help aid the development of specific leadership materials in these areas. Funding This study was funded by a grant from The Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations at the University of Alabama. Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge contributing research colleagues Andreia Athaydes and Gustavo Becker, Universidade Luterana do Brasil; Nilanjana Bardhan, Southern Illinois University; and Juan Meng, University of Georgia. Appendix A. Six PR Leadership Dimensions • Six PR Leadership Dimensions • Dimension 1 Self-dynamics: the ability to use one’s personal and professional strengths to effectively contribute to organizational goals. These strengths include such things as being:

• dependable • proactive • forward-looking/visionary • a change agent • Dimension 2 Team Collaboration: the ability to work with others to positively support the public relations function and the organization. This ability is demonstrated by such things as: 9

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• motivating and inspiring others • proactive, professional communications • the interactive development (engaging others in the development) of PR strategies • facilitating a positive interdependence among team members • bringing diverse groups together • Dimension 3 Ethical Orientation: the degree of commitment to professional values and standards when philosophical and legal dilemmas arise or responsibilities and loyalties conflict. This commitment is demonstrated by:

• consistently integrating professional PR values and standards into action • acting promptly to correct erroneous information • understanding differences that grow out of diverse cultures • Dimension 4 Relationship Building: a commitment to share network resources, build connections and cultivate relationships with key stakeholders to facilitate mutual benefits for the organization and its publics. This commitment is demonstrated by:

• the ability to foster trust and credibility across organizational stakeholders • the ability to develop coalitions to support ideas/actions • mentoring/helping young professionals • being sought out for advice/counsel by organizational executives • Dimension 5 Strategic Decision-Making Capability: an understanding of external sociopolitical environments and internal organizational structures, processes and practices, and the ability to translate that knowledge into effective advocacy and organizational progress. This capability is demonstrated by:

• the ability to span boundaries and interpret and relay information across internal/external publics • knowledge of the organization, its business climate and environment • inclusion in determining organizational direction • Dimension 6 Communication Knowledge Management: the possession of public relations expertise and the ability to seek out, organize and effectively apply public relations knowledge to enhance the organization’s overall communications effectiveness. This expertise is demonstrated by the ability to:

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