- Email: [email protected]
Punarnavā, ‘once again new’
Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’
261
Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’ BOTANICAL
NAMES:
Boerhavia repens, B. diffusa, Nyctaginaceae
OTHER NAMES: S´ vetapunarnava¯, Raktapunarnava¯ (S); Sant, Gadahpurna (H); Mukkurattai (T); Red Spiderling, Spreading Hogweed (E)
Botany: Punarnava¯ is a herbaceous perennial with a large root and highly branched stems that are prostrate or ascending to a height of up to a metre. The leaves are simple, ovate-oblong, acute or obtuse at the tip and rounded or subcordate at the base, glabrous above, white with minute scales below. The small rose or white coloured flowers are borne in small umbels arranged in corymbone, axillary and terminal panicles, giving way to a detachable indehiscent seed with a thin pericarp. Punarnava¯ is found throughout the subcontinent of India as a weed of wastelands and roadsides, and is also found in similar tropical and subtropical environs in Africa and the Americas. The Sanskrit name S´ vetapunarnava¯ refers to B. repens (with white flowers), whereas Raktapunarnava¯ refers to B. diffusa (with red flowers) (Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1994). Part used: Roots, aerial parts.
Dravygun.a: The various nighan.t.us typically differentiate between S´ vetapunarnava¯ and Raktapunarnava¯, and based on this, provide differing and sometimes contradictory accounts of the dravygun.a. ●
Rasa: tikta, madhura, kat.u, ka´sa¯ya (S´ vetapunarnava¯); tikta (Raktapunarnava¯)
●
Vipa¯ka: madhura (S´ vetapunarnava¯); kat.u (Raktapunarnava¯)
●
Vı¯rya: us.n.a, ru¯ks.a (S´ vetapunarnava¯); ´sita, laghu (Raktapunarnava¯)
●
Karma: dı¯pana, bhedana (Svetapunarnava¯), stambhana (Raktapunarnava¯), sulapra´samana, kr . mighna, chedana, sva¯sahara, mu¯travirecana, mu¯travi´sodhana, ´sotahara, hr . daya, vis.aghna, a¯rtavajanana, rasa¯yana, tridos.ahara; the
Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states that Raktapunarnava¯ increases va¯ta, and thus S´ vetapunarnava¯ is preferred in va¯taja conditions (Dash 1991, Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1994). Constituents: Among the first constituents isolated from Punarnava¯ was the sulfate of an alkaloid named punarnavine, and since then a variety of constituents have been described, including rotenoid analogues (boeravinone A–F, punarnavoside), lignans (liriodendrin, syringaresinol mon-β-D-glucoside), xanthones (boerhavine, dihydroisofuranoxanthone), C-methylflavone, hentriacontane, β-sitosterol, ursolic acid, potassium nitrate, and amino acids (Kapoor 1990, Williamson 2002, Yoganarasimhan 2000). Medical research: In vitro: immunomodulant (Mehrotra et al 2002). ● In vivo: hepatoprotective (Chandan et al 1991); antibacterial (Singh et al 1986); adaptogenic (Sharma et al 1990); hypoglycaemic (Chude et al 2001); anti-amoebic, immunomodulant (Sohni & Bhatt 1996). ●
Toxicity: The LD50 for an ethanolic extract of the root and whole plant is 1000 mg/kg in adult albino rats (Williamson 2002). Indications: Dyspepsia, gastritis, ulcer, constipation ´ vetapunarnava¯), diarrhoea and dysentery (S (Raktapunarnava¯), intestinal parasites, fistula, jaundice, cirrhosis, splenomegaly, fever, cough, bronchitis, asthma, pleurisy, urinary tenesmus, renal diseases, gonorrhoea, oedema, ascites, scrotal enlargement, haemorrhage, scabies, lumbago, myalgia, leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, heart disorders, heart valve stenosis, anaemia, epilepsy, debility and fatigue, ophthalmia.
262
PART 2: A¯yurvedic materia medica
Contraindications: Pregnancy; the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states the Raktapunarnava¯ is contraindicated in va¯takopa conditions. Due to its potential GABAnergic activity Punarnava¯ may be contraindicated with concurrent use of tranquilisers, antidepressants and antiseizure drugs. Nadkarni (1954) states that in high doses Punarnava¯ may act as an emetic. Medicinal uses: Punarnava¯ is an important ¯ yurvedic medicine, indicated by rasa¯yana dravya in A the translation of its Sanskrit name, ‘once again new’. For this purpose Punarnava¯ can be taken as a milk decoction, 10–24 grams of the root taken twice daily. The potent rejuvenating properties of Punarnava¯ root are also made use of in a variety of rejuvenating formulae, including the famous medicinal confection Cyavanapra¯´sa. Punarnava¯, however, also has a number of more mudane uses, especially for its ability to correct diseases of the urinary tract and treat oedema. As a simple remedy for cystitis the svarasa or cu¯rn.a of Punarnava¯ can be taken, 10–15 mL of the juice, or 3–5 grams of the powder, thrice daily until symptoms are gone. In the treatment of oedema 10–15 mL of the fresh juice of the leaves can be mixed with a small amount of Marica or S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, taken twice daily for several weeks. The fresh juice is also taken in jaundice and in menstrual disorders. Lt. Col. Chopra found that Punarnava¯ was efficacious in the treatment of oedema and ascites due to early cirrhosis and peritonitis, using a liquid extract prepared from either the dry or fresh plant material of Svetapunarnava¯ (Nadkarni 1954). Nadkarni (1954) adds that Punarnava¯ is equally effective in oedema secondary to heart disease from stenosis of the valves, in pleurisy and in other oedematous conditions. In most cases Punarnava¯ is used in polyherbal formulations to treat oedema and other conditions. In the treatment of oedema as well as colic, bloating, flatulence, constipation, haemorrhoids, intestinal parasites, and anaemia, the Cakradatta recommends Punarnava¯man.d.´sra, composed of equal parts Punarnava¯, Trivr.t, S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, Pippalı¯, Marica, . Vid.an ga, Devada¯ru, Citraka, Pus.karamu¯la, Haridra¯, Dañtı¯, Cavya, Indrayava, Kat.uka, Pippalı¯mu¯la and Mustaka, decocted in cow’s urine (Sharma 2002). Another formula called Punarnava¯di taila is mentioned by the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa in the treatment of urinary calculi, muscle pains and hernia associated with the aggravation of kapha and
va¯ta, used in vasti (enemata) and internally (Srikanthamurthy 2000). A decoction of Punarnava¯, Devada¯ru, Harı¯takı¯ and Gud.u¯cı¯ combined with Guggulu is stated to be effective in abdominal enlargement (udararoga), as well as intestinal parasites, obesity, anaemia, oedema and skin diseases (Sharma 2002). Similarly, a combination of Punarnava¯, Devada¯ru, Gud.u¯cı¯, Pa¯t.ha¯, Bilva, Goks.ura, Br.hatı¯, Kan.t.aka¯ri, Haridra¯, Da¯ruharidra¯, Pippalı¯, Citraka and Va¯saka, reduced to a fine powder and taken with cow’s urine is used in abdominal enlargement secondary to intestinal parasites (Sharma 2002). In va¯ttika forms of oedema a combination of Punarnava¯, S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, Eran.d.a and Br.hatı¯ is stated by the Cakradatta to be efficacious (Sharma 2002). As a . topical therapy for oedema the S´ a¯ran gadhara sam . hita¯ recommends Punarnava¯di lepa, prepared by combining equal parts powders of Punarnava¯, Da¯ruharidra¯, S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, Siddha¯rtha and S´ igru with rice water (Srikanthamurthy 1984). Given the ability of Punarnava¯ to mobilise kidney function and thus promote the elimination of metabolic wastes in joints and muscles, it is also used to treat inflammatory joint disease, including gout and rheumatoid arthritis. To this extent the Cakradatta recommends a formula called S´ atya¯di kva¯tha, consisting of a decoction of Punarnava¯ with a paste of S´ at.¯ı and S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, taken every day for at least 1 week (Sharma 2002). Similarly, the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa advocates a complex formula called Punarnava¯ guggulu in the treatment of gout, hernia, sciatica, muscular atrophy and inflammatory joint disease (Srikanthamurthy 2000). In the treatment of . internal abscesses the S´ a¯rangadhara sam . hita¯ recommends a decoction of Punarnava¯ and Varun.a (Srikanthamurthy 1984). Punarnava¯ is also valued in . ophthalmic disorders, the S´ a¯rangadhara sam . hita¯ recommending a collyrium (añjana) for itching, prepared by mixing the cu¯rn.a with milk; mixed with honey to treatment ophthalmic discharges; with ghr.ta for corneal wounds; with taila for poor vision; and with rice water (kanjika) for night blindness (Srikanthamurthy 1984). In the treatment of alcoholism the Cakradatta recommends a decoction of Punarnava¯ to restore ojas (Sharma 2002). In the treatment of diabetes Punarnava¯ can be combined with S´ ila¯jatu and Gud.u¯cı¯. Punarnava¯ is also consumed as a nourishing vegetable in India, as it is rich in vitamins and minerals, and has undergone investigation for its potential in famine relief (Smith et al 1996).
Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’
Dosage: ● Cu ¯rn.a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d. ● Svarasa: fresh herb, 10–15 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d. ● Kva ¯tha: dried root, 60–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d. ● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 45%; 2–5 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.
REFERENCES Chandan BK, Sharma AK, Anand KK 1991 Boerhavia diffusa: a study of its hepatoprotective activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 31(3):299–307 Chude MA, Orisakwe OE, Afonne OJ et al 2001 Hypoglycaemic effect of the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 33:215–216 Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New Delhi, p 57–58 Kapoor LD 1990 CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 79 Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols 1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2045–2047 Mehrotra S, Mishra KP, Maurya R et al 2002 Immunomodulation by ethanolic extract of Boerhaavia diffusa roots. International Immunopharmacology 2(7):987–996 Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic, Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K. Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 205, 207 Sharma K, Vali Pasha K, Dandiya PC 1990 Is Boerhavia diffusa linn. (Punarnava) an antistress drug? Indian Pharmacological Society, 23rd Annual Conference, Dec. 6–8, Bombay
263
Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation. Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 118–119, 179, 246, 346, 347, 357 Singh A, Singh RG, Singh RH et al 1986 Effect of Boerhavia diffusa (Punarnava) in experimental pyelonephritis in albino rats. Indian Pharmacological Society, 19th Annual Conference, October 24–26, Srinagar Smith GC, Clegg MS, Keen CL, Grivetti LE 1996 Mineral values of selected plant foods common to southern Burkina Faso and to Niamey, Niger, West Africa. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 47(1):41–53 Sohni YR, Bhatt RM 1996 Activity of a crude extract formulation in experimental hepatic amoebiasis and in immunomodulation studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 54(2–3):119–124 Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 S´ a¯ran.gadhara sam . hita¯: a treatise on Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 71, 236, 269 Srikanthamurthy KR 2000 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 2. Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 408, 481 Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1. Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 265 Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 1. Orient Longman, Hyderabad, p 281–283 Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill Livingstone, London, p 76–77 Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 547–548
261
Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’ BOTANICAL
NAMES:
Boerhavia repens, B. diffusa, Nyctaginaceae
OTHER NAMES: S´ vetapunarnava¯, Raktapunarnava¯ (S); Sant, Gadahpurna (H); Mukkurattai (T); Red Spiderling, Spreading Hogweed (E)
Botany: Punarnava¯ is a herbaceous perennial with a large root and highly branched stems that are prostrate or ascending to a height of up to a metre. The leaves are simple, ovate-oblong, acute or obtuse at the tip and rounded or subcordate at the base, glabrous above, white with minute scales below. The small rose or white coloured flowers are borne in small umbels arranged in corymbone, axillary and terminal panicles, giving way to a detachable indehiscent seed with a thin pericarp. Punarnava¯ is found throughout the subcontinent of India as a weed of wastelands and roadsides, and is also found in similar tropical and subtropical environs in Africa and the Americas. The Sanskrit name S´ vetapunarnava¯ refers to B. repens (with white flowers), whereas Raktapunarnava¯ refers to B. diffusa (with red flowers) (Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1994). Part used: Roots, aerial parts.
Dravygun.a: The various nighan.t.us typically differentiate between S´ vetapunarnava¯ and Raktapunarnava¯, and based on this, provide differing and sometimes contradictory accounts of the dravygun.a. ●
Rasa: tikta, madhura, kat.u, ka´sa¯ya (S´ vetapunarnava¯); tikta (Raktapunarnava¯)
●
Vipa¯ka: madhura (S´ vetapunarnava¯); kat.u (Raktapunarnava¯)
●
Vı¯rya: us.n.a, ru¯ks.a (S´ vetapunarnava¯); ´sita, laghu (Raktapunarnava¯)
●
Karma: dı¯pana, bhedana (Svetapunarnava¯), stambhana (Raktapunarnava¯), sulapra´samana, kr . mighna, chedana, sva¯sahara, mu¯travirecana, mu¯travi´sodhana, ´sotahara, hr . daya, vis.aghna, a¯rtavajanana, rasa¯yana, tridos.ahara; the
Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states that Raktapunarnava¯ increases va¯ta, and thus S´ vetapunarnava¯ is preferred in va¯taja conditions (Dash 1991, Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1994). Constituents: Among the first constituents isolated from Punarnava¯ was the sulfate of an alkaloid named punarnavine, and since then a variety of constituents have been described, including rotenoid analogues (boeravinone A–F, punarnavoside), lignans (liriodendrin, syringaresinol mon-β-D-glucoside), xanthones (boerhavine, dihydroisofuranoxanthone), C-methylflavone, hentriacontane, β-sitosterol, ursolic acid, potassium nitrate, and amino acids (Kapoor 1990, Williamson 2002, Yoganarasimhan 2000). Medical research: In vitro: immunomodulant (Mehrotra et al 2002). ● In vivo: hepatoprotective (Chandan et al 1991); antibacterial (Singh et al 1986); adaptogenic (Sharma et al 1990); hypoglycaemic (Chude et al 2001); anti-amoebic, immunomodulant (Sohni & Bhatt 1996). ●
Toxicity: The LD50 for an ethanolic extract of the root and whole plant is 1000 mg/kg in adult albino rats (Williamson 2002). Indications: Dyspepsia, gastritis, ulcer, constipation ´ vetapunarnava¯), diarrhoea and dysentery (S (Raktapunarnava¯), intestinal parasites, fistula, jaundice, cirrhosis, splenomegaly, fever, cough, bronchitis, asthma, pleurisy, urinary tenesmus, renal diseases, gonorrhoea, oedema, ascites, scrotal enlargement, haemorrhage, scabies, lumbago, myalgia, leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, heart disorders, heart valve stenosis, anaemia, epilepsy, debility and fatigue, ophthalmia.
262
PART 2: A¯yurvedic materia medica
Contraindications: Pregnancy; the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states the Raktapunarnava¯ is contraindicated in va¯takopa conditions. Due to its potential GABAnergic activity Punarnava¯ may be contraindicated with concurrent use of tranquilisers, antidepressants and antiseizure drugs. Nadkarni (1954) states that in high doses Punarnava¯ may act as an emetic. Medicinal uses: Punarnava¯ is an important ¯ yurvedic medicine, indicated by rasa¯yana dravya in A the translation of its Sanskrit name, ‘once again new’. For this purpose Punarnava¯ can be taken as a milk decoction, 10–24 grams of the root taken twice daily. The potent rejuvenating properties of Punarnava¯ root are also made use of in a variety of rejuvenating formulae, including the famous medicinal confection Cyavanapra¯´sa. Punarnava¯, however, also has a number of more mudane uses, especially for its ability to correct diseases of the urinary tract and treat oedema. As a simple remedy for cystitis the svarasa or cu¯rn.a of Punarnava¯ can be taken, 10–15 mL of the juice, or 3–5 grams of the powder, thrice daily until symptoms are gone. In the treatment of oedema 10–15 mL of the fresh juice of the leaves can be mixed with a small amount of Marica or S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, taken twice daily for several weeks. The fresh juice is also taken in jaundice and in menstrual disorders. Lt. Col. Chopra found that Punarnava¯ was efficacious in the treatment of oedema and ascites due to early cirrhosis and peritonitis, using a liquid extract prepared from either the dry or fresh plant material of Svetapunarnava¯ (Nadkarni 1954). Nadkarni (1954) adds that Punarnava¯ is equally effective in oedema secondary to heart disease from stenosis of the valves, in pleurisy and in other oedematous conditions. In most cases Punarnava¯ is used in polyherbal formulations to treat oedema and other conditions. In the treatment of oedema as well as colic, bloating, flatulence, constipation, haemorrhoids, intestinal parasites, and anaemia, the Cakradatta recommends Punarnava¯man.d.´sra, composed of equal parts Punarnava¯, Trivr.t, S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, Pippalı¯, Marica, . Vid.an ga, Devada¯ru, Citraka, Pus.karamu¯la, Haridra¯, Dañtı¯, Cavya, Indrayava, Kat.uka, Pippalı¯mu¯la and Mustaka, decocted in cow’s urine (Sharma 2002). Another formula called Punarnava¯di taila is mentioned by the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa in the treatment of urinary calculi, muscle pains and hernia associated with the aggravation of kapha and
va¯ta, used in vasti (enemata) and internally (Srikanthamurthy 2000). A decoction of Punarnava¯, Devada¯ru, Harı¯takı¯ and Gud.u¯cı¯ combined with Guggulu is stated to be effective in abdominal enlargement (udararoga), as well as intestinal parasites, obesity, anaemia, oedema and skin diseases (Sharma 2002). Similarly, a combination of Punarnava¯, Devada¯ru, Gud.u¯cı¯, Pa¯t.ha¯, Bilva, Goks.ura, Br.hatı¯, Kan.t.aka¯ri, Haridra¯, Da¯ruharidra¯, Pippalı¯, Citraka and Va¯saka, reduced to a fine powder and taken with cow’s urine is used in abdominal enlargement secondary to intestinal parasites (Sharma 2002). In va¯ttika forms of oedema a combination of Punarnava¯, S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, Eran.d.a and Br.hatı¯ is stated by the Cakradatta to be efficacious (Sharma 2002). As a . topical therapy for oedema the S´ a¯ran gadhara sam . hita¯ recommends Punarnava¯di lepa, prepared by combining equal parts powders of Punarnava¯, Da¯ruharidra¯, S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, Siddha¯rtha and S´ igru with rice water (Srikanthamurthy 1984). Given the ability of Punarnava¯ to mobilise kidney function and thus promote the elimination of metabolic wastes in joints and muscles, it is also used to treat inflammatory joint disease, including gout and rheumatoid arthritis. To this extent the Cakradatta recommends a formula called S´ atya¯di kva¯tha, consisting of a decoction of Punarnava¯ with a paste of S´ at.¯ı and S´ u¯n.t.hı¯, taken every day for at least 1 week (Sharma 2002). Similarly, the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa advocates a complex formula called Punarnava¯ guggulu in the treatment of gout, hernia, sciatica, muscular atrophy and inflammatory joint disease (Srikanthamurthy 2000). In the treatment of . internal abscesses the S´ a¯rangadhara sam . hita¯ recommends a decoction of Punarnava¯ and Varun.a (Srikanthamurthy 1984). Punarnava¯ is also valued in . ophthalmic disorders, the S´ a¯rangadhara sam . hita¯ recommending a collyrium (añjana) for itching, prepared by mixing the cu¯rn.a with milk; mixed with honey to treatment ophthalmic discharges; with ghr.ta for corneal wounds; with taila for poor vision; and with rice water (kanjika) for night blindness (Srikanthamurthy 1984). In the treatment of alcoholism the Cakradatta recommends a decoction of Punarnava¯ to restore ojas (Sharma 2002). In the treatment of diabetes Punarnava¯ can be combined with S´ ila¯jatu and Gud.u¯cı¯. Punarnava¯ is also consumed as a nourishing vegetable in India, as it is rich in vitamins and minerals, and has undergone investigation for its potential in famine relief (Smith et al 1996).
Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’
Dosage: ● Cu ¯rn.a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d. ● Svarasa: fresh herb, 10–15 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d. ● Kva ¯tha: dried root, 60–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d. ● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 45%; 2–5 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.
REFERENCES Chandan BK, Sharma AK, Anand KK 1991 Boerhavia diffusa: a study of its hepatoprotective activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 31(3):299–307 Chude MA, Orisakwe OE, Afonne OJ et al 2001 Hypoglycaemic effect of the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 33:215–216 Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New Delhi, p 57–58 Kapoor LD 1990 CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 79 Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols 1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2045–2047 Mehrotra S, Mishra KP, Maurya R et al 2002 Immunomodulation by ethanolic extract of Boerhaavia diffusa roots. International Immunopharmacology 2(7):987–996 Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic, Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K. Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 205, 207 Sharma K, Vali Pasha K, Dandiya PC 1990 Is Boerhavia diffusa linn. (Punarnava) an antistress drug? Indian Pharmacological Society, 23rd Annual Conference, Dec. 6–8, Bombay
263
Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation. Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 118–119, 179, 246, 346, 347, 357 Singh A, Singh RG, Singh RH et al 1986 Effect of Boerhavia diffusa (Punarnava) in experimental pyelonephritis in albino rats. Indian Pharmacological Society, 19th Annual Conference, October 24–26, Srinagar Smith GC, Clegg MS, Keen CL, Grivetti LE 1996 Mineral values of selected plant foods common to southern Burkina Faso and to Niamey, Niger, West Africa. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 47(1):41–53 Sohni YR, Bhatt RM 1996 Activity of a crude extract formulation in experimental hepatic amoebiasis and in immunomodulation studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 54(2–3):119–124 Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 S´ a¯ran.gadhara sam . hita¯: a treatise on Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 71, 236, 269 Srikanthamurthy KR 2000 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 2. Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 408, 481 Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1. Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 265 Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 1. Orient Longman, Hyderabad, p 281–283 Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill Livingstone, London, p 76–77 Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 547–548