Putting science into practice: the diffusion of scientific knowledge exemplified by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’

Forest Policy and Economics 1 Ž2000. 165᎐176

Putting science into practice: the diffusion of scientific knowledge exemplified by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’ Michael PregernigU Institute of Forest Sector Policy and Economics, Uni¨ ersity of Agricultural Sciences Vienna, Gregor-Mendel Strasse 33, 1180 Vienna, Austria Received 21 May 1999; received in revised form 18 November 1999; accepted 1 December 1999

Abstract The paper deals with the question of how scientific knowledge is put into practicable action Žor rather how it is not put into action. and explains what role communicative processes play in passing on scientific know-how. In the theoretical part, some selected communication models are introduced. Accordingly, scientific findings do not enter practical fields via clearly defined ‘transport routes’ of information. Knowledge tends to be disseminated via network structures of communication. The acceptance and diffusion of knowledge generated by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’ is employed to test the hypotheses derived. Data were collected with a standardised, self-administered questionnaire Ž249 interviews with managers of forest enterprises and persons working in forest extension services in Austria.. The empirical survey shows that the traditional channels of transfer Ži.e. scientists and extension services. play only a minor direct role in passing on scientific know-how and putting it into practice. Furthermore, we can see that professional and institutionalised channels are supplemented by informal contacts. 䊚 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Transfer of scientific knowledge; Communication science; Forest restoration; Extension service

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Tel.: q43-1-47654-4404; fax: q43-1-47654-4407. E-mail address: [email protected] ŽM. Pregernig.. 1389-9341r00r$ - see front matter 䊚 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 1 3 8 9 - 9 3 4 1 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 0 8 - 8

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1. Introduction Modern society has to face a number of problems. Science has the potential to make a valuable contribution to solving many of them. The practical problem-solving capacity of science, however, depends on two prerequisites: first, science and its findings have to be problemoriented; and second, research results have to be accepted in the field. Eventually, the practical value of scientific research depends on how successfully knowledge is transferred into the application context and implemented by practitioners. From an external viewpoint, forestry science is able to fulfil the criterion of problem orientation in the highest degree: many fields, such as silviculture, forest growth research, forest engineering or forestry economics, are framed around concrete on-site questions. Therefore, the stock of problem-oriented scientific know-how is quite extensive. But at the same time, the translation of innovative ideas into practical action stagnates. There are quite different ways of approaching the question to what extent and how scientific knowledge is converted into political action and on-the-spot behaviour. ‘Interest-driven’ conceptions of the policy process focus on traditional political variables of interests and institutions. Scientific expertise is regarded only as an additional resource political actors can use in pursuing their interests Žcf. Wildavsky, 1987; Krott, 1989.. In contrast to that, theories dealing with processes of ‘policy learning’ pay more attention to knowledge and ideas as explanatory factors in the creation of policies Žcf. Sabatier, 1988; Bennett and Howlett, 1992; Haas, 1992; Laird, 1999.. Both the ideational and the interests’ approach do not answer the question of how scientific ideas actually get into the application context. In this respect, communication science might give valuable insights into the processes of the diffusion of know-how. This paper is dealing with the question of how innovative scientific knowledge is ‘seeping’ Žor not. into practical fields and what part communicati¨ e processes play in passing on scientific know-how ŽSection 2.. In the theoretical part of the paper, some selected communication models

are introduced ŽSection 3.. The acceptance and diffusion of knowledge generated by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’ is used to test the hypotheses derived ŽSection 4.. Finally, possibilities for a more efficient organisation of knowledge transfer are discussed ŽSection 5..

2. Beyond the linear model of knowledge transfer The exchange of knowledge between science and practice is usually described with the term ‘knowledge transfer’ ŽSchuster, 1990, p. 1.. For Nowotny Ž1994, p. 31f.. the term ‘knowledge transfer’ is associated with a picture of spatial separation between a place of knowledge production and a place of knowledge use. Thus, the main challenge is the way in which knowledge is ‘transported’ from one place to another. In relevant literature the theoretical concept behind this picture is referred to as the ‘linear model of knowledge transfer’. Today there is extensive evidence that the concept should be interpreted in a wider sense. Usually, science ‘diffuses’ into society on routes, which are not pre-organised and pre-planned. So the simple ‘one-way model’ of knowledge transfer has to be replaced by a network-model of knowledge diffusion ŽKruger and Russ-Mohl, 1990, p. 506.. ¨ Communication networks consist of interconnected individuals who are linked by patterned flows of information ŽRogers, 1995, p. 308.. A number of sociological studies show that scientific know-how on its way into practical fields is subject to various transformations Že.g. Beck and Bonß, 1989; Ronge, 1989.. Dunn Ž1993, p. 265f.. points out ‘w...x that processes of knowledge production and use are symbolic or communicative actions involving two or more parties who reciprocally affect the acceptance and rejection of knowledge claims through argument and persuasion. Thus, knowledge is not exchanged, translated, or transferred: it is transacted by negotiating the truth, relevance, and cogency of knowledge claims.’ In Jurgen Habermas’s theory of communicative ¨ action, as well, knowledge is defined both by the

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objects of experience and by a priori categories and concepts, which are involved in every act of thought and perception of the knowing subject. The processes of knowing and understanding are based on the patterns of language usage that we share in everyday communicative interaction. Thus, all knowledge is mediated by social experience ŽHabermas, 1995.. Working primarily on G.H. Mead’s social behaviourist approach, Herbert Blumer in his symbolic interactionism sees ‘reality’ as the product of social processes of interpretation and negotiation. Symbolic interactionism rests on three primary premises: first, that human beings act towards things on the basis of the meanings those things have for them; second, that such meanings arise out of the interaction of the individual with others; and third, that an interpretative process is used by the person in each instance in which he or she must deal with things in his or her environment ŽBlumer, 1973, p. 81.. Consequently, meaning is not taken to be innate in the object considered Ži.e. it does not inhere in the objective characteristics of the object., but the meaning of an object is primarily a property of behaviour and depends only secondarily on the intrinsic character of the object itself. Meanings are constructed and re-affirmed in social interaction; they are shaped largely by the actual and anticipated responses of others. Relating to the linear model of knowledge transfer described above, this means a complete reversion of perspective: the push model which is geared to the unilateral transfer of scientific know-how into the non-scientific world has been replaced by a pull model which emphasises the selective demand for and absorption of know-how on the part of the users ŽRonge, 1989, p. 333..

3. Communication models as elements in a theory of knowledge diffusion The following theoretical considerations are based on the fact that the diffusion of scientific knowledge takes place, more or less without exception, in the course of specific acts of communication. For this reason, a special field of emphasis

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has developed in the field of diffusion research, which is mainly founded on communication theories. Communicational approaches try to explain the diffusion of innovations with social contacts and processes of exchange between the potential users of the innovation concerned. For some time, communication research has been dealing with the question of how, and under what circumstances, communication processes lead to changes in the recipients’ behaviour, in their knowledge or opinions and attitudes under the title ‘media effects’. Up to now, research has emphasised the behavioural effects of the mass media and has led to the development of a number of models. Many findings derived from these models can also be used to explain how scientific know-how ‘takes effect’ in specific social contexts. The following communication models are most relevant in our context: the stimulus᎐response model, the two-step flow model and the trimodal model. They are briefly described. 3.1. Stimulus᎐response model The research on media effects originally started from the psychological stimulus᎐response scheme ŽSR.. The ‘classical’ SR model postulates that the mass media ᎏ in analogy to a physical force with direct effect on an object ᎏ have immediate and powerful effects on the audience ŽMerten, 1994, p. 294.. The communicator is directly appealing to the addressee, if necessary via a communication channel, and if the process of transmission is successful, the act of communication has to have some sort of effect. In the context of mass-media transmission processes, the stimulus᎐response model refers to an active communicator who addresses a more or less passive public; in connection with the diffusion of scientific findings it is oriented at processes of immediate, one-sided knowledge transfer as they are outlined in the linear model. 3.2. Two-step flow model The stimulus᎐response model and its central hypotheses were considerably questioned already in the 1940s, when empirical studies showed that

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the direct effects of mass media are rather insignificant. At the same time, it turned out that ideas often flow from the mass media to a small, active part of the population Žthe opinion leaders., and from them via face-to-face contact to the less active sections of the population Žthe opinion followers.. The first step, from the media sources to opinion leaders, is mainly a transfer of information, whereas the second step, from opinion leaders to their followers, additionally involves the dissemination of opinion in the sense of interpersonal influence ŽRogers, 1995, p. 285; Burkart, 1998, p. 206ff... The two-step flow model was met with widespread response in the field of both political and communication sciences. Analysing the diffusion of innovative ideas with the help of the two-step model lead to fruitful results because similar processes of opinion leadership can be observed ŽMerten, 1988, p. 611; Rogers, 1995, p. 285.. Today, however, the two-step flow model is put into question as well ŽMerten, 1988; Burkart, 1998, p. 207ff... The model’s main disadvantages are, that it still follows the linear concept of knowledge transfer and that the differentiation between the opinion leaders and the opinion followers is too rigid: there is strong empirical evidence that communication flows not only from active communicators to passive addressees but that communication is also actively controlled by the addressees ŽKroeber-Riel, 1992, p. 668.. Thus, the rigid differentiation between these two roles has to be reconsidered. Troldahl and Van Dam Ž1965. suggest that face-to-face communication might better be characterised as opinion sharing. Instead of using the term ‘opinion leader’, parties to a discussion are labelled ‘opinion gi¨ ers’ and ‘opinion askers’ to indicate their role in a particular conversation. Moreover, the authors point out that participants in a conversation exchange roles quite often. 3.3. Trimodal model Going on from the criticism of the stimulus᎐response paradigm, Merten Ž1994. draws up a communication model based on social-constructivist assumptions. The trimodal model is based on the

Fig. 1. Trimodal model of communication ŽMerten, 1994, p. 312; modified..

Žconstructivist . notion that reality is neither objectively given nor a simple cognitive ‘reflection’ of reality but subjectively constructed. This implies the possibility of selective behaviour. In addition to that, the model assumes that realities are constructed through communication so that communication processes provide the most relevant selection structures. In the trimodal model, media effects are explained by three types of factors: Ž1. the given information; Ž2. the internal context mainly determined by the addressee’s experience, knowledge and attitudes; and Ž3. the external context which is primarily defined by the specific situational and social setting ŽFig. 1.. Although the trimodal model in its original form relates to mass media effects, it can also be employed to explain the diffusion of scientific knowledge ŽDunn, 1993, p. 265f... In accordance with the central idea of the trimodal model, selecti¨ e strategies play an important role in utilising scientific findings: 1. Different recipients select different ‘offers’ of scientific interpretations of reality ŽM 1 , M 2 ,... M n in Fig. 1.. The term ‘interpretations of reality’ indicates that not the ‘objective’ content, but the subjective assessment by potential users, is decisive for the nature and scope of the knowledge adopted. Rogers Ž1983, p.

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211f.. puts it as follows: ‘Like beauty, innovations exist only in the eye of the beholder. And it is the beholder’s perceptions that influence the beholder’s behaviour.’ 2. The information picked up is then interpreted by the recipients by referring to both their personal knowledge and experience and to their existing values and attitudes Žinternal context; I 1 , I 2 ,... I m .. 3. For the recipients, the situational and social settings ŽE 1 , E 2 ,... E x . define ‘their’ environment and, therefore, determine the selection of information and the following interpretation. Depending on the specific object of innovation, the social and communicative structure of a system either promotes or inhibits the diffusion of innovation in the system ŽDyk, 1975, p. 30; Rogers, 1995, p. 37.. While today’s researchers in the field of media effects have more or less unanimously agreed on the inadequacy of a one-step communication model based on the classical SR paradigm, they still disagree on an accepted alternative model. Out of the multitude of new approaches ᎏ in spite of their theoretical isolation ᎏ some distinctive characteristics of communicative relations can be identified: communication processes usually comprise se¨ eral stages with situational and social structures, and the selecti¨ e beha¨ iour of the addressees having major influence. Applied to the transfer of scientific knowledge, this means that the linear model of knowledge transfer has to be rejected. Scientific findings do not enter practical fields via clearly defined ‘transport routes’ of information. Knowledge is rather disseminated in network structures of communication. In the following, this frame hypothesis will be tested on data on the diffusion of scientific knowledge generated by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’.

4. The diffusion of scientific knowledge exemplified by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’ The Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against

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Forest Decline’ Ž‘Forschungsinitiative gegen das Waldsterben’, FIW. has been the largest research project in the history of Austrian forest-related science to date. The research programme started in 1983 and will end in 2000. While the first stage of the programme was more or less restricted to causal analytical investigations, the second phase was strongly directed to the field of ecological rehabilitation of forest ecosystems. Bringing together research findings from the fields of silviculture, forest ecology, forest entomology, forest pathology, forest engineering, wildlife biology and forest economics, the final stage of the research initiative, the ‘general synopsis’, aims at drawing up general guidelines for integral stress diagnosis, risk evaluation and practical forest rehabilitation based on previous scientific findings. The research programme finally aims at a methodology for deducing concrete recommendations to foresters on how to restore and manage degraded forest ecosystems. The general synopsis, furthermore, comprises a project dealing with the socio-political aspects of forest restoration. The objective of this project is to evaluate the acceptance of scientific recommendations in the field of practical forestry as well as the political acceptance of scientific recommendations in the ‘forest-policy arena’. The empirical data used in this paper were collected within the scope of the above-mentioned research project carried out by the author in the course of his dissertation studies ŽPregernig, 1999.. Before going into the empirical testing of the working hypotheses derived from the theoretical explanations, the research design used in the FIW study will be briefly described. 4.1. Research design The parent population, i.e. the target group of the study, was defined as follows: Ž1. managers or owners of forest enterprises with at least 500 ha of forest land as direct ‘converters’ of scientific recommendations; and Ž2. employees of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and the Chambers of Agriculture with an academic degree in forestry at federal, provincial and district levels as innovative ‘transmission belts’ between science and

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practice Žespecially for small forest enterprises and farms.. Altogether the target group consisted of 600 persons Žforest enterprises: 348; forest authority: 177; Chambers of Agriculture: 75.. These 600 persons were interviewed by means of standardised, self-administered questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed by mail in November 1996. Within 10 weeks, 259 questionnaires were returned Žgross response rate: 44%. of which 249 questionnaires could be used Žnet response rate: 42%.. 4.2. Findings of the empirical sur¨ ey Exemplified by scientific findings generated by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’, the central ‘paths of knowledge’ from forest science to forest professionals will be discussed in a descriptive way. In the beginning, I will discuss the transfer routes outlined in the linear model, i.e. mainly direct contacts to science and to professional change agents. Interpreting the classical model in a wider sense, I will then examine the transfer potential of other sources of information. Finally, I will compare the different sources of information in terms of ‘transfer efficiency’. 4.2.1. Frequency and forms of contacts to science Research results can be directly converted into practical use by direct contacts between scientific institutions Žor rather individual scientists . and external partners ŽKuttruff, 1994, p. 56f... The number of direct contacts is a useful indicator for the intensity of the immediate flow of information from science to practice Žand vice versa.. In the course of the empirical survey, the forest professionals were asked how often they had got in touch with scientific institutions in connection with questions of forest restoration by then: 11% had been in regular contact with at least one of the five scientific institutions named in the questionnaire; 50% had frequent contact; 22% had contacted a scientific institution only once; and 17% had not had any contact to science relating to the subject. This means that there is a rather large group of forest professionals with well-

established connections to Žforest. science; but at the same time there are numerous persons who have practically no direct contacts. Asked about their past experience with universities and other research institutes, 80% of the respondents were basically satisfied, 18% remember both positive and negative aspects, and 2% see mainly negative aspects. Negative features are primarily connected with the following topics Žfree responses.: lack of practical orientation Žapprox. 40% of the issues mentioned.; incomprehensibility of scientific findings Ž15%.; time delays Ž10%.; self-interests of scientists Ž10%.; and scepticism of scientists towards forestry Ž8%.. 4.2.2. Frequency and forms of contacts to change agents There is one special type of interpersonal communication which is of outstanding importance in the diffusion of innovative ideas, namely consultation by professional change agents. Change agents are individuals who try to influence their clients’ decisions on innovations Že.g. teachers, consultants, extension agents, etc.. ŽRogers, 1995, p. 335.. Professional consultation plays an important role in passing on scientific findings as well: since direct interaction between science and practice take place only rarely, it is up to professional consultants to keep themselves updated in scientific terms, to evaluate the latest findings and to communicate this information to their clientele. The empirical study reveals that the majority of Austrian forest professionals have few contacts to change agents. On average, the managers of forest enterprises contact ‘their’ consultants approximately 17 times a year. But once again there is a rather large group of persons with almost no connections to a change agency. When requested to assess the quality of the consulting services on a five-stage scale Ž1: ‘very satisfied’; 5: ‘not satisfied at all’. the foresters give the forest authority an average rating of 2.3 and the Chamber of Agriculture a rating of 2.9. Approximately 38% of the foresters are only moderately or poorly satisfied with the services offered by the forest authority; approximately 57% are

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only moderately or poorly satisfied with the services offered by the Chambers of Agriculture. If the forest enterprises had to pay for consultation, only 6% of the respondents would use these services to the same extent; 42% would reduce its use, and 52% would completely do without extension services. This is a strong indication that foresters in the field strongly underestimate the potential benefits of consultation.

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The influence of information transported via a specific channel of communication on a person’s behaviour does not only depend on the frequency of use but also on the characteristics ascribed to this channel. This also Žor maybe, primarily. applies to the diffusion of innovative ideas: all innovations carry some degree of uncertainty about the cause᎐effect relationships that are involved with the innovation’s problem-solving capacity. The decision-maker is typically uncertain about the new idea’s results and feels the need for social reinforcement of his or her attitudes towards the new idea ŽRogers, 1995, p. 20f. and p. 168.. The more reliable the source of information consulted, the sooner the decision-maker will be prepared to put up with the risks of an innovation. Where inadequacies of understanding cannot be resolved in a cognitive way, social equivalents have to provide compensation ŽNeidhardt, 1994, p. 53.. In the empirical survey, the characteristics ascribed to a certain source of information were measured in five distinct categories: professional competence, trustworthiness, independence, good experience in the past and personal affinities ŽFietkau et al., 1982, p. 9.. The forest professionals were invited to assess the 12 channels of

4.2.3. Importance and characteristics of other sources of information Apart from direct contacts to scientists and apart from the use of professional extension services, there is a whole chain of other information sources which enable forest professionals to get access to innovative knowledge. In order to assess the importance associated with different types of information sources, the persons were asked to rate 12 different sources on a five-stage scale. Table 1 shows the result of this assessment. If forest managers or forest owners want to learn something about new developments in forestry, they mainly rely on Ždomestic. professional journals, field trips, colleagues’ recommendations in other forest enterprises, as well as courses and seminars.

Table 1 Importance of different sources of information in disseminating innovative knowledge Žpercentage distribution of response categories; N G 116. ‘How important or unimportant are the following sources of information if you want to learn something new about forestry de¨ elopments?’ Very important Ž1.

Important Ž2.

Moderately important Ž3.

Not so important Ž4.

44 52 32 29 19 12 13 4 4 1 2 4

50 33 52 54 45 35 28 40 29 18 21 13

6 12 14 15 29 38 30 26 40 34 24 25

3 1 2 7 12 25 18 19 24 27 30

Unimportant

Mean

S.D.

1.6 1.7 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.6

0.6 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1

Ž5.

Sources of information Professional journals Ždomestic. Field trips Colleagues in forest enterprises Coursesrseminars Specialist books Scientists Professional journals Žforeign. Forest authority Publications of FIW Chambers of Agriculture Superiors Tax authority

1

3 4 12 8 23 26 28

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Table 2 Characteristics of different sources of informationa Characteristics

Sources of information Colleagues in forest enterprises Coursesrseminars Professional journals Ždomestic. Field trips Scientists Specialist books Forest authority Professional journals Žforeign. Superiors Chambers of Agriculture Publications of FIW Tax authority a

Professional competence

Trustworthiness

Independence

Good past experience

Personal affinities

Mean

3.3 2.7 3.0 3.5 3.2 3.3 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.9 3.8 4.0

2.7 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.0 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.9

3.7 3.4 3.0 3.6 3.3 2.8 3.7 3.6 4.0 3.9 3.7 3.9

2.8 2.8 3.4 2.8 3.7 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.9 3.8 4.0 3.9

2.3 3.5 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.8 4.0 3.9

3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.9

Means of ‘channel characteristic’s index’: 1, ‘characteristic is strongly developed’; 4, ‘characteristic is poorly developed’.

information ŽTable 1. with regard to these five characteristics. For each category the respondents were requested to name those three channels of communication coming closest to the description. So for each of the 12 information sources and each of the five characteristics a ‘channel characteristic’s index’ can be calculated. Table 2 shows the average indices for the 12 sources of information.1 Measured by the average over all five channelcharacteristics indices, colleagues in other forest enterprises get the best marks. Largely positive characteristics are also ascribed to courses and seminars, Ždomestic. professional journals, field trips, scientists, specialist books, and colleagues working for the forest authority. Professional competence is expected especially of courses and seminars and domestic professional journals. It is striking that scientists, or direct contacts with them, get a rather low rating in ‘professional competence’. Colleagues in other forest enterprises are regarded as exceptionally

1 The index has a possible range of values from 1 to 4, depending on whether a source of information was ranked first Ž1., second Ž2., third Ž3. or was not mentioned at all Ž4.. Due to the selected rule of construction, the distribution of the index values is strongly tilted towards a value of 4. Therefore, seemingly small differences in absolute amounts refer to major differences in real-world circumstances.

trustworthy sources, but also domestic professional journals, courses and seminars, and scientists enjoy a high degree of trustworthiness. Independence is ascribed mainly to specialist books, domestic professional journals, scientists, and courses and seminars. Good experience in the past is conceded to courses and seminars, field trips, and colleagues in other forest enterprises. Personal affinity is once again granted to colleagues in other forest enterprises as well as to field trips, professional journals, and courses and seminars. 4.2.4. ‘Transfer efficiency’ of different sources of information Finally, I will discuss if, and to what extent, different channels of communication are suitable for transferring scientific knowledge and for putting science into practice. For comparing the ‘transfer efficiency’ of different channels of communication, we need an operational indicator. This paper is based on a research project which intended to evaluate the acceptance of scientific recommendations for the rehabilitation of forest ecosystems. By using findings of the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’, I wanted to find out to what extent measures for the restoration of degraded forest ecosystems, which were proposed by scientists, are accepted and implemented by forest professionals. For this,

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forest managers had to come to terms with a selection of 14 possible restoration measures which are generally accepted by experts.2 For each of the 14 proposals, the managers of forest enterprises were asked to specify if they already made use of this measure, if they intended to use it in the future, or if they thought it did not make sense to implement this measure. The assessment of different restoration measures can be used to estimate a person’s readiness to adopt scientific recommendations. We assume that the ratio between the number of restoration measures already implemented in a certain forest enterprise and the total number of measures given

2

The restoration measures chosen can be grouped into the following three categories: silvicultural practices close to nature; information procurement and diagnosis; wild-life ecology and hunting. 3 For more details on the derivation of this index variable Žincluding the question of reliability and validity. see Pregernig Ž1999, p. 220ff...

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in the questionnaire can be used as a compact indicator of a person’s openness towards scientific findings Ž‘acceptance index’..3 The correlation between the frequency of use of different channels of communication and the readiness to accept scientific recommendations can be used as an indicator of the ‘transfer efficiency’ of these channels. The results of this correlation analysis are depicted in Table 3. Column 1 of Table 3 shows the correlation coefficients ŽSpearman’s Rho. for the overall group of forest mangers interviewed. Columns 2᎐4 show a statistical breakdown by size classes. In the overall population there is only a weak Žand statistically insignificant. correlation between the frequency of use of indirect channels of communication Žoperationalised by the use of specialist books and professional journals. and the readiness to implement scientific recommendations. So the hypothesis derived from the criticism of the simple stimulus᎐response model according to which the mass media have only minor direct

Table 3 Correlation between the readiness to adopt scientific recommendations aimed at the rehabilitation of forest ecosystems and the frequency of use of different sources of information Žboth for the total population and different size classes .. Ž1.

Ž2.

Ž3.

Ž4.

Total 121

500᎐1800 ha 49

1800᎐5000 ha 29

) 5000 ha 43

Ž1. Indirect communication channels Žmass media.

0.13a 0.07 b

y0.01 0.48

0.27 0.08

0.13 0.20

Ž2. Direct communication channels

0.23 0.01

0.20 0.11

0.28 0.08

0.25 0.06

a. Training courses

0.28 0.00

0.35 0.01

0.22 0.13

0.17 0.14

b. Change agents Žforest authority, Chambers of Agriculture.

0.19 0.02

0.27 0.04

0.29 0.07

0.06 0.36

0.10 0.14

0.20 0.10

0.08 0.34

0.19 0.12

0.11 0.11

0.01 0.47

0.22 0.13

0.23 0.07

N Sources of information

thereof: contacts in the form consultation

c. ŽDirect. contacts to scientists a b

␳, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. Fig 1-sided.

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influence on human behaviour, is true for the transfer of professional knowledge as well. While mass media can play a certain role at the initial stages of an innovation-decision process, interpersonal channels of communication gain importance at the decision-making stage. Interpersonal contacts are more suitable for providing evaluation information and social reinforcement. In the field of forest rehabilitation as well, the ‘density’ of direct communication contacts turns out to be an important determinant for innovation: persons who frequently use interpersonal channels of communication are more frequently prepared to adopt scientific recommendations aimed at the rehabilitation of forest ecosystems. The index ‘frequency of direct communication contacts’, operationalised by the frequency of attending training courses, contacting change agents and scientists, shows a highly significant correlation with the ‘acceptance index’. Different forms of interpersonal communication show different effects on the readiness to adopt scientific recommendations: the strongest effects on actual behaviour can be expected from attending training courses. Persons who regularly take part in seminars, courses, and field trips show a considerably higher readiness to implement scientific findings in forest rehabilitation. It seems that interactive forms of training are suitable not only for transferring scientific knowledge but also for making it applicable to specific practical problems. The frequency of change agent contacts is also clearly reflected in the acceptance of scientific measures. With change agent contacts a special type of interaction is of particular relevance, namely contacts in the course of professional consultation. In theory, consultation, as a form of communication explicitly aimed at the transfer of knowledge, should show strong impacts on the clients’ behaviour. The survey results, however, show that the extension services’ influence is rather weak in the Austrian forestry sector. Similarly, the frequency of contacts to scientific institutions or single scientists shows only minor influence on a person’s readiness to adopt scientific recommendations. Therefore, repeated direct contact to science thus, cannot be equated with the unreflected adoption of all its achievements.

To gain further insights into the relationship between the frequency of use of different sources of information and the readiness to adopt scientific recommendations aimed at the rehabilitation of forest ecosystems the target group has been split into three sub-groups with the size of the forest enterprise serving as the discriminating variable. The size of a forest enterprise Žoperationalised by the total wooded area. is a compact and valid indicator for a number of other characteristics, such as the availability of financial and other resources, the level of technical expertise, etc. The results of this in-depth analysis are shown in columns 2᎐4 in Table 3. For the indirect channels of communication there are no clear differences between size classes Žline 1 in Table 3.. The same applies to the aggregate indicator for the frequency of use of direct communication channels Žline 2.. But a more differentiated analysis shows countermoving correlations for different types of direct communication Žline 2a᎐c.: Training courses show exceptionally strong behavioural effects within the group of small forest enterprises. The information disseminated by change agents shows major impacts within the group of small and medium-sized forest enterprises whereas their influence on the managers of larger entities is more or less negligible. Smaller enterprises with their limited access to resources Žincluding technical know-how. seem to be more dependent on ‘pre-processed’ information than larger entities. Both courses and change agents can reframe scientific knowledge in a way that it is of direct practical relevance for the forest managers in the field. Finally, the information provided by scientists leads to changes in behaviour only within the group of medium- and large-sized forest enterprises; for the managers of smaller entities the abstract language used by scientists seems to be an important obstacle to an efficient transfer of information.

5. Conclusions With the reconstruction of the diffusion of scientific findings generated by the Austrian ‘Research Initiative Against Forest Decline’, this pa-

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per has been dealing with the question of how scientific knowledge is ‘seeping’ into practical fields. The empirical survey, inter alia, showed that traditional change agents, i.e. institutions working in Žfurther . education and extension services, have only minor effects on putting scientific knowledge into practice. But since most of these institutions are oriented at the linear model of knowledge transfer, there is still some potential for innovation: Universities, external transfer agencies and especially professional consultants should manage to increase their performance through the specific instrumentalisation of local information and communication networks. Some novel agricultural extension models rely on just this principle: consultation in small groups Žinstead of individual consultations . gives the farmers a platform for communication where they can exchange personal experiences ŽFrederking, 1995, p. 167.. Moreover, change agents can employ professional aides. An aide is a semi-professional change agent who intensively contacts clients to influence their innovation decisions. Aides provide one means of bridging the heterophily gap frequently found between professional change agents and their client audience ŽRogers, 1995, p. 28.. In a similar way, with ‘pilot projects’ and the promotion of ‘pioneering enterprises’ processes of action-oriented learning could be initiated. Finally, it should be possible to increase the ‘transfer efficiency’ by means of a tighter institutional interconnection between science on the one hand and Žfurther . education and extension services on the other. The foundation of ‘information agencies’ could be one possible step in this direction ŽSchmidt, 1990.. How, or if, scientific knowledge is transferred into other social systems is a question which science will have to discuss with growing regularity in the future. If scientists fail to reflect their relation to other systems, science will lose its social impacts... and, in the long term, it will lose even its social legitimation.

Acknowledgements This research was conducted as part of the

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