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Qualifying of manpower for the desalination industry
DESALINATION Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
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Qualifying of manpower for the desalination industry Hisham EI-Dessouky*, Hisham Ettouney, Imad Alatiqi Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Petroleum, Kuwait University, Safat, Kuwait Tel. +965 481-1188; Fax +965 483-9498; email: [email protected] Received 27 September 1998; accepted 9 May 1999
Abstract
Rapid expansion and growth expected to occur in the desalination industry in the next two decades necessitates preplanning of a comprehensive program for education, research, and training. The proposed education programs include an engineering subprogram in desalination, a two-year technical degree in desalination technology, graduate programs, and continuing and cooperative education. The graduate education programs include research studies leading to a one-year diploma in desalination as well as MSc and PhD degrees in desalination research. The continuing education courses include introductory to more advanced level topics. Such classes would provide the general public with a realistic view of the industry, needs for water conservation, environmental impact, and the strategic importance of the desalination industry. The proposed cooperative engineering studies would be supported in part by the desalination industry. Field training programs are proposed for entry-level and practicing engineers and technicians. Desalination research centers should be established to address design and operational problems of the industry and to develop novel and more efficient desalination systems. Keywords: Desalination; Training; Education; Research; Technology
1. Introduction Water desalination is the branch of engineering concerned with the development, design, construction, and safe and economic operation of the processes in which seawater is split into fresh water and highly concentrated brine. The desalination industry is the lifeline to several countries and regions around the world *Corresponding author.
with limited supplies of fresh water. Water desalination is becoming common practice to solve the problem of the poor distribution of natural fresh water resources across the globe. In some regions, massive amounts of flood rain cause loss of life, destruction o f property, and flooding of crops and countryside homes. Simultaneously, severe droughts plague other regions and result in starvation and eventual death of human beings, cattle herds, and wildlife.
0011-9164/99/$- See front matter © 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved PII: S 0 0 1 1 - 9 1 6 4 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 5 9 - 4
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The desalination industry has progressed rapidly since its inception on an industrial scale in the middle of this century. The number of desalination plants in 1960 was five units with a total production rate of 5000 m3/d. Today the world production capacity stands at 22.8>(106 m3/d, with more than 12,500 operating desalination units. Desalination is used for fresh water supply in more than 120 countries around the world, and its market value exceeds $5 x 109/y [ 1]. It is expected that the industry will double during the next two decades to meet the increasing demand due to growing population, progress, changes in life style, and increase in industrial and urban activities. To reduce the cost of desalinated water, irrespective of the process type, specialists are required at each stage of the desalination industry for process and plant design, development, planning, and plant operation. Despite the large production capacity, there are a limited number of specialized and developed programs for education and training of the necessary manpower to actively participate in the industry. This places a burden on the industry to cope with the many drawbacks and inefficiencies of on-thejob training. Efficient and active programs are needed for qualifying the necessary manpower in different areas of the water desalination industry. Initiating and supporting active specialized centers for desalination research is a must to improve and to develop new technologies capable of lowering the unit production cost, conserving limited energy and water resources, and protecting the environment. Presently, the majority of the technical undergraduate programs in the region are focused on specializations in machining, welding, electronics, air conditioning, automotive, etc. A limited number of programs can be found in study areas close to desalination such as chemical technology. In general, the graduate student from these programs does not have the necessary background or education to undertake an efficient
role in the desalination industry. Therefore, the graduates must go through lengthy field training to be capable of performing their duties in the plant. Unfortunately, such training programs are not available or sufficient in most of the desalination plants. A compulsory undergraduate course in desalination is offered at the Chemical Engineering Department of Kuwait University. Other mechanical or chemical engineering departments offer a water desalination course as an elective. Examples are the Mechanical Engineering Department at Kuwait University and Chemical Engineering Departments at universities in Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. As for the graduate research programs in various schools, all are geared towards applications in the field of petroleum and petrochemical industries. Desalination research is heavily dependent on the background and interest of the faculty member. Training programs in desalination for practicing engineers and technicians are not fully defined or well developed. Elements and duration of field training for starting engineers/technicians differ considerably from one plant to another. In some instances, training is considered a luxury and it is the employee's responsibility to learn and develop on the job. The same picture applies to intensive training programs for practicing engineers and technicians. Intensive training is non-existent or at the best is infrequent. It is unplanned and depends on personal relations (engineer, department head, and administration). The training budget is often limited to a meager fraction of the company operating cost where engineers and technicians are offered a single training course per year. Such a course is commonly in desalination, corrosion, or power plants. However, the course contents and trainee's background may not be quite compatible. The pool of trainees may include experienced technicians, seniors as well as entrylevel engineers. The situation has motivated this
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1t. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
study on a comprehensive program for education, research, and training in desalination at different levels.
2. Elements of the q u a l i f y i n g p r o g r a m The qualifying program is executed on several levels (Fig. 1) and is dedicated to provide c o m p r e h e n s i v e theoretical and practical education in desalination with the following objectives: • Prepare manpower at all levels required to design, develop, construct, and operate different desalination processes efficiently and safely. • Reduce the time and cost for training of newly hired staff. • Provide manpower with the necessary theoretical basis for better understanding of different aspects of water desalination.
/ % t / ~ Desalination J
A.LI
Engineering Subprogram in
~ A.1.2Two years Technical Degree in Desailnat/on /
A.4Cooperative
~.~lOneye*Diploma in
•
Expose the trainee to elements of other related industries, which include wastewater treatment, power plants, and air pollution. • Exchange of ideas among trainees of different backgrounds. • Introduce the trainees to recent trends in desalination. • Reduce the gap between the industry, research centers, and universities. The proposed qualifying programs in desalination include: (A) Education, (B) Training, and (C) Research. These must be reviewed on a frequent basis to meet the needs of the changing job market, technological developments, trends in research and development, and progress in the industry. The following sections describe the proposed program.
%/ ) [ A.2.2Two ~ -'earsM.Sc. Degree
~
A.2.3M.Sc. Thesis
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A.2.4Ph.D ~.Thesis ~ Research /
I II
C)Desalination Research Institutions
Education
QualifyingMan Power in the Desalination Industry
~B) Trammg~ . ~ B.I EntryL e v e l ~ ~ F i e l d Training J
Fig. 1. Elements of the proposed program for qualifying manpower in the desalination industry.
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
58 (A) Education
Undergraduate programs • Engineering subprogram in desalination • Two-year technical degree in desalination technology Graduate programs • One-year graduate diploma in desalination • Two-year graduate Master's degree in desalination • MSc thesis research in desalination • PhD thesis research in desalination Continuing education Cooperative education (B) Engineering training programs
Entry level field training Intensive training (C) Desalination research centers
(A) Education
Undergraduate programs Engineering subprogram in desalination (12 credit hours) The objectives of the proposed subprogram (Fig. 2) include the following: • Understanding of desalination processes. • Development of basic tools for process design and evaluation. • Field training in local desalination plants with focus on system operation, maintenance, supervision, and performance evaluation. • Introduction to research and development in desalination. The program is composed of four courses. The first two courses are compulsory and contain desalination topics: desalination fundamentals [2] and water treatment in desalination processes. The other two courses are selected from the
following: • Power plants • Environmental pollution • Wastewater treatment • Industrial waste management • Safety • Material selection and corrosion • Advanced engineering thermodynamics • Process heat transfer • Physical chemistry • Turbo machinery All of the above courses have general engineering aspects in addition to special focus on applications in desalination industries. Implementation of the above subprogram in desalination is simple since many of the elective courses are commonly taught in most o f the engineering faculties. As for the two desalination courses, the first course on desalination fundamentals of thermal and membrane desalination processes has been taught at Kuwait University since 1984 and has been through dramatic developments and modifications since 1991. The outlines for the two compulsory courses in desalination are given in Table 1. Currently, the authors are in the process of completing a textbook on fundamentals of seawater desalination [3]. The book includes process classification, description, design, practice, and a large number of examples and problems. The book includes a comprehensive computer package for design and rating of thermal desalination processes [4] and is supported by a web site, which is updated frequently [5]. Other subprograms in engineering degrees are common in several engineering programs in the region. They may include a minimum of two electives or a maximum of four. Examples for these subprograms include polymers, environmental pollution, corrosion, physical metallurgy, air conditioning, and power plants.
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
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H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
Table 1 Description of compulsory courses in the engineering subprogram in desalination processes Course
Contents
Desalination fundamentals
• • • •
Chemical treatment in desalination processes
Two-year technical degree technology
• •
Introduction to thermal desalination processes (3 hours) Single and multistage flash desalination (12 hours) Single and multiple effect evaporation desalination (12 hours) Vapor compression in single and multiple effect evaporation desalination (6 hours) Membrane desalination processes (9 hours) Elements of process economics (3 hours)
• • • • • • • • • • •
Materials of construction (3 hours) Chemical treatment processes (2 hour) Water chemistry (4 hours) Scale formation and antiscalent design (6 hours) Fouling materials and methods of removal (5 hours) Corrosion prevention and control (6 hours) Foaming and control methods (4 hours) Membrane based water pretreatment (3 hours) Flow sheet of water treatment plants (3 hours) Case studies for plant failure (6 hours) Post treatment of product water (3 hours)
in desalination
The objectives o f the technical degree in desalination are to: • introduce the student to different desalination processes, • provide graduates with proper background and capabilities to participate and perform efficiently in desalination plants. The program includes elementary courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, and courses in general education, engineering sciences, and engineering technology (Fig. 2). The program of 70 credit hours is outlined in Table 2. The proposed program introduces the student to the necessary courses in humanities, science, engineering, and desalination and industrial
technology. Inspection o f the above program shows that technology courses constitute 46.7%, engineering courses 23.3%, and the remaining 30% includes the humanities and science courses. This enables the graduates to join the workforce in desalination plants with pre-knowledge on process terminology, process elements, and process flow sheet, which includes pumping, treatment plants, power station, desalination system, process control, safety, inspection, operation, maintenance, and environmental pollution. A description of the desalination technology course is given in Table 3. The course is 3 credit hours (or 45 contact hours), and it can be taught in a half or a quarter-year semester. Success in teaching of this course, as well as other technical courses, relies on having a well-prepared and
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
Table 2 Two-year technical program in desalination
Table 3 Description of the desalination technology course
Category
Courses
Course
Contents
Basic sciences (10 credits)
• •
Desalination technology
•
General education (9 credits)
Engineering sciences (15 credits)
•
General chemistry (4 hours) General mathematics (3 hours) Physics (3 hours)
• • •
Communications (3 hours) Behavioral science (3 hours) Technical writing (3 hours)
•
Material and energy balances (3 hours) Fluid mechanics and machinery (3 hours) Heat and mass transfer (3 hours) Unit operations (3 hours) Application software (3 hours)
• • • •
Engineering technology (36 credits)
• •
• • • • • • • • •
Orientation to industrial applications (3 hours) Operation, inspections and maintenance of desalination plants (3 hours) Plant safety and security (3 hours) Plant engineering management (3 hours) Desalination technology (3 hours) Power generation (3 hours) Environmental considerations (3 hours) Material selection (3 hours) Waste water treatment (3 hours) Instrumentation and control (3 hours) Workshop (3 hours)
•
• •
• • • • • • • • • Chemical treatment in desalination processes
• • • • • ° ° •
• • •
61
Survey of desalination methods (1 hour) Conventional thermal and membrane desalination processes (2 hours) Evaluation of thermal desalination processes (6 hours) Start-up and shut-down procedures (6 hours) Operation (6 hours) Maintenance and cleaning (6 hours) Process control (3 hours) Instrumentation (3 hours) Water chemical treatment processes (3 hours) Materials of construction (3 hours) Pumping stations (3 hours) Cogeneration plants (2 hours) Environmental impact (1 hour) Materials of construction (3 hours) Chemical treatment processes (2 hours) Water chemistry (4 hours) Scale formation and anti-scalant design (6 hours) Fouling materials and methods of removal (5 hours) Corrosion prevention and control (6 hours) Foaming and control methods (4 hours) Membrane-based water pretreatment (3 hours) Flow sheet of water treatment plants (3 hours) Case studies for plant failure (6 hours) Post-treatment of product water (3 hours)
62
t-£ El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
comprehensive textbook that covers various elements of the course. Fortunately, text material is available for many of the technical courses such as safety, environmental polluticn, and instrumentation. Also, the textbook by Spicg!er and EI-Sayed [6] includes several of the technica', aspects of the desalination industry.
Graduate p r o g r a m s in desalination
The main objective of the graduate programs is to conduct desalination research aiming at reduction of product cost. This is achieved by: • Developing better understanding of unit and process performance. • Finding solutions for operational problems. • Improving system and unit efficiency. • Developing new and novel desalination processes. Graduate research in desalination is conducted in several engineering departments such as chemical, mechanical, and materials. Research is normally performed on a departmental level, and in some instances it is necessary to conduct interdepartmental multi-disciplinary research. Current desalination research topics include the following: • Process modeling and analysis • Fundamental analysis of separation mechanism and development of more accurate and efficient models • Analysis of operational strategies and proposal of more efficient procedures • Process control and instrumentation • Development andtesting of novel desalination processes based on thermal, membrane, or hybrid configurations • Fundamental analysis of mechanisms for scaling, corrosion, and foaming • Development of more efficient chemicals for prevention and control of scaling, corrosion, and foaming
•
•
Study performance of new and inexpensive construction materials in thermal and membrane desalination systems Use of ultra- and microfiltration membranes in pretreatment of intake seawater
The graduate program includes, in addition to the research studies, advanced engineering courses. Examples of such courses include mathematics and numerical analysis and core, advanced, and specialized engineering topics. Topics in the first two categories are well established in graduate programs. The first category, mathematics, may include a minimum of two courses up to a maximum of four courses. As for the engineering topics, they include the core courses of the engineering discipline. For example, the engineering topics in chemical engineering includes chemical engineering thermodynamics, reactor design, transport phenomena, heat transfer, mass transfer, fluid mechanics, and process control. The advanced engineering topics have similar titles to the core engineering topics; however, these courses are more research oriented and include more details for some of the topics given in the core engineering courses. The specialized engineering courses are designed to develop the student capabilities in a specific area, i.e., environment, air pollution, desalination, two-phase flow, process heat transfer, electrochemical engineering, corrosion, etc. The specialized courses in desalination are limited to a small number of graduate programs which include Kuwait University, and in the past, the University of Glasgow [7]. The authors suggest the following pool of courses which can be taken in the desalination program: • Advanced desalination processes • Water treatment processes in desalination industries • Materials selection and corrosion • Engineering management of desalination plants
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
• •
Power plants Wastewater treatment
The contents of the first two courses are coordinated with the two courses given in the undergraduate program. This is necessary to avoid repetition. The contents of the advanced desalination courses remain to include process description and development of fundamental mathematical models. However, such material is given at a rapid pace. Therefore, the advanced course is focused on discussion and development of process details: • Detailed modeling of flashing and evaporation processes • Development o f models for the heat transfer coefficient • Performance analysis of steam jet ejectors • Effect o f non-condensable gases on heat transfer • Design and analysis of flashing stages, evaporation effects, compressors, pumps, and heat exchange units • Performance evaluation of wire mesh mist eliminator • Mathematical and computer models of reverse osmosis membranes • Membrane biofouling and scale formation • Membrane modules, operation, and energy recovery • Cost estimation
Continuing education
The main objective of a continuing education program in desalination is to offer the public means for understanding the elements forming the desalination practice and to get exposed to new technological developments in the industry. The students registering in these classes are selfmotivated and seek education to improve their capabilities and experience. The offering of continuing education classes in desalination can be
63
made on several levels. This includes the introductory level and the more advanced and specialized levels. The introductory level classes would serve the following purposes: • Offer the participating students a comprehensive picture on importance, basics, and fundamentals of desalination. • Provide a realistic view of current desalination technologies and progress achieved in this vital industry during the second half o f this century. • Raise the level of awareness o f the public at large on the pressing needs for conservation of water resources and the strategic importance of the desalination industry. The more advanced and specialized courses in desalination must be offered in a sequential manner to insure ability of the participants to follow the course material. It should be taken into consideration that these classes would serve a diversified pool of participants that may include high school and university students, technicians and engineers in various industries and individuals with a non-technical background.
Cooperative education
The objective of the cooperative education desalination program is to allow the working staff in the industry with a high school or a technical degree to pursue engineering education. The program is sponsored in part by the government, the desalination industry, and universities. Adoption of this program gives the working staff the chance to develop and enhance their professional careers. Granting the engineering degree in a cooperative program includes two steps. The first includes courses in science and basic engineering and the second includes junior and senior courses in engineering and humanities. The first group of courses is registered on part
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H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
time basis and their completion may require a period of 3 years. On the other hand, the junior and senior courses demand enrollment on a fulltime basis and require a period of 2 years. Enrollment in the junior and senior courses is subject to achievement of a satisfactory grade point average in the entry-level courses. Enrollment in the junior and senior courses requires financial support or a paid leave from the workplace.
(B) Engineering training programs Entry-level f i e l d training
The main objective of the entry-level fieldtraining program is to orient and prepare newly hired staff to perform and conduct efficiently their duties and assigned tasks. The elements of the field-training program are shown in Fig. 3.
Features of this program include the following: • The program may extend over a period of 6 months, which includes training in different departments forming the desalination plant as well as formal training classes. • Departmental training includes instructions regarding function, duties, and standard operating procedures. • Formal training classes include a comprehensive survey of various process elements, development of process fundamentals, use of application software, and analysis of practical case studies. • Participants in each training group are of similar background and education. This insures more efficient training and instruction. • The course sequence is designed in a manner that takes the trainee stepwise through different levels of training according to his/her educational background.
Training Programs in Desalination
Training for Graduating Engineers and Technicians
f
Practicing Engineers/Technicians
Process Fundamentals. Process Operation and Control Shut Down and Startup. Water Treatment. Maintenance and Repair. Inspection Instrumentation Construction and Installation RepLs.cement Revamping Safety Security
I
Design, Rating, and Analysis Operation Management and Scheduling. Corrosion, Fouling and Scaling Materials Selection Maintenance and Inspection Process Control Treatment Processes Process Safety J
J Fig. 3. Elements of the training program for qualifying of manpower in the desalination industry.
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70 Intensive training
The objectives of intensive training include the following: • Expand the knowledge o f trainees in their area of expertise. • Expose the trainees to other areas of specialization. • Expose the trainees to recent trends and developments in various areas o f desalination. • Stress the theoretical fundamentals of the process which might be overlooked during operation. Understanding the fundamentals is essential to perform efficiently during the execution o f various tasks in the plant. The intensive training courses are divided into two categories (1) general training and (2) specialized training. The general training courses are designed to meet the needs of a wide pool o f trainees that may include newly hired or experienced individuals with various backgrounds, e.g, management, engineering, chemistry, or technical. The make-up of a general training course may include the following elements: • Discussionoffundamentalsofvariousdesalination processes. • Presentation of simple and efficient techniques for evaluation of unit performance. • Discussion o f operational problems and methods for evaluation, prevention, and problem-solving. • Overview o f process economics. • Presentation of software routines for evaluation of system performance. • Presentation of a survey on recent progress and development in various areas in the field desalination practice. Specialized training courses are designed to address in detail a specific area of the desalination practice. Specialized training must be preceded by a general training course to
65
prepare the participants to follow the more advanced nature of the specialized course. To insure smooth operation, a specialized training course should include a homogenous pool of trainees with a similar educational background, years of experience, and area of specialization. The training course should be prepared by the joint efforts of researchers, educators, and engineers with long years of experience in various desalination areas. However, presentation of these training courses should be limited to educators with sufficient years of experience in teaching and research. Their experience will stimulate discussion and will make presentation of the material simple, interesting, and at an appropriate rate. Specialized training in desalination focuses on specific topics o f interest in desalination practice. These topics can be presented in a single course or in a sequence of courses; for example, a series o f corrosion courses can include (1) general corrosion, (2) corrosion chemistry, and (3) corrosion prevention and practice. Some of the proposed topics for the general and advanced training courses are shown in Fig. 3 and are described in Table 4. The authors have compiled class notes, training manuals, case studies, and computer software for various training topics in desalination [8] based on their field experience and courses offered in a number of desalination plants.
(C) Desalination research centers The main objective of desalination research centers is to execute a comprehensive program aimed at reducing product cost. This can be achieved through performing: • Fundamental research • Development and testing of new and novel systems • Field studies in desalination plants • Joint studies with universities
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66
Table 4 Proposed intensive-training courses in desalination Title
Objectives
Contents
Desalination fundamentals
Development of fundamentals, design, rating, and economic evaluation techniques of thermal and membrane desalination processes
Desalination technology
Focus on various elements in desalination technology, which includes design, construction, installation, commissioning, startup, operation, shut-down, maintenance, and replacement; the material is presented through discussion for a number of case studies, previous plant experiences, and standard operating procedures
• • • • • • • • •
Survey of thermal and membrane desalination processes (3 hours) Evaluation of thermal desalination processes (3 hours) Plant design, construction, installation, and commissioning (3 hours) Start-up and shut-down procedures (6 hours) Daily and seasonal operation (4 hours) Maintenance and cleaning (4 hours) Process control and instrumentation (4 hours) Replacement of system units (3 hours) Allied facilities (6 hours) Case studies (9 hours)
Chemical treatment in desalination processes
Review chemical treatment processes in desalination processes; develop fundamentals of scaling, fouling, foaming, and corrosion; mechanisms of formation, prevention, control, and cleaning of scale, fouling, foam, and corrosion
• ° • • • • •
Chemical treatment processes (1 hours) Water chemistry (4 hours) Fundamentals of scaling, fouling, and corrosion (6 hours) Anti-scalants: types and dosing (8 hours) Removal and cleaning of fouling materials (8 hours) Corrosion control (8 hours) Flow sheet of water treatment plants (6 hours) Membrane based water treatment (6 hours) Case studies for plant failure (6 hours)
Power plant fundamentals
Discuss process elements, describe process flow diagram, introduce basics of various physical and chemical processes, and develop simple methods for process evaluation
° ° • • •
Introduction to power generation (2 hours) Combustion basics (2 hours) Boilers (2 hours) Steam/water cycle (4 hours) Plant systems (4 hours) Steam turbines (6 hours) Generators and basic electricity (6 hours) Gas turbines (4 hours) Diesel engines (4 hours) Plant instrumentation and controls (4 hours) Water treatment (4 hours) Cogeneration (3 hours) Pollution control (4 hours) Power plant performance (4 hours) Safety (4 hours)
Historical background (1 hour) Thermal desalination processes (2 hours) Single stage flashing (1 hour) Multi-stage flashing (6 hours) Single-effect evaporation (1 hour) Multiple-effect evaporation (6 hours) Single-effect vapor compression (6 hours) Multiple effect evaporation with vapor compression (6 hours) Reverse osmosis (4 hours) Feed and post-treatment (3 hours) Scale formation (3 hours) Corrosion (3 hours) Process economics (3 hours)
H. El-Dessouky et al./ Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
67
Table 4, continued Title
Objectives
Contents
Wastewater treatment
Survey of various types of domestic and industrial water pollutants; discuss methods for sampling and analytical procedures in waste treated water; develop the fundamentals of physical, chemical, and biological wastewater treatment; water reclamation programs and methods for water and solid waste disposal
• • • • • • • • • •
Pollutants in domestic and industrial wastewater (2 hours) Standards in wastewater treatment (2 hours) Sampling and measurements (6 hours) Layout ofwastewater plants (4 hours) Physical treatment methods (8 hours) Chemical treatment methods (8 hours) Biological treatment methods (8 hours) Treatment of industrial wastewater (6 hours) Treatment of domestic wastewater (6 hours) Water reclamation and solid waste disposal (4 hours)
Industrial boilers
This course focuses on fundamentals and operations of industrial water tube boilers; it includes a description of the process flow diagram, elements of boiler units, process co~rol, instrumentation, and process support utilities; development includes fundamentals of combustion and heat transfer in boiler operations; procedures for start-up, shut-down, and emergency operation, maintenance, and cleaning
• • • • • • • • •
Elements of boiler plants (3 hours) Basics of combustion processes (3 hours) Heat transfer fundamentals (3 hours) Boilers,, and support equipment (3 hours) Boiler plant operation, maintenance, and cleaning (6 hours) Steam distribution system operation (4 hours) Boiler control and instrumentation (4 hours) Water treatment and chemical additives (4 hours) Inspection and commissioning (4 hours)
Industrial piping
This course is the fundamentals of general practice in piping; it includes a survey of pipe types, pipe fitting, joints, manual valves, control valves, supports, anchors, insulation, fabrication, erection, and maintenance
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Piping layout (3 hours) Pipe flow (3 hours) Measurements in pipe lines (4 hours) Flanges and welding (3 hours) Pipe lining, gasket design and selection (7 hours) Valve selection and design (4 hours) Steam traps (3 hours) Hangers, bellows, and clams (6 hours) Insulation selection and protective coating (1.5 hours) Pipes in heating systems (1.5 hours) Fabrication, erection, and maintenance (6 hours) Piping codes and standards (3 hours)
Desalination research was initiated in the mid1950s by the Office of Saline Water (OSW) established by the US Government. This office led the desalination research and development up to the early 1980s. Since then, desalination research has been supported by industry and has been limited to refinement of existing technologies [9]. It is important to cite that recently the US Congress under the Water Desalination
Act of 1996 authorized a new program for water desalination research and development. The program is funded for a 6-year period beginning October 1997 with $3.7 million for the fiscal year 1998. The program was developed to meet the needs in the US and worldwide for additional sources of potable water. The program funds research in membrane, thermal, and nontraditional desalination as well as water recycling
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and reuse, process economics, pilot systems, and technology transfer. Government agencies, private organizations, universities, and industry should jointly support the research centers. However, efficient performance of research centers necessitates having an independent governing body, budget, and freedom in decision making. The proposed desalination research centers will have a number of divisions: thermal processes, membrane processes, water treatment, energy systems, and construction materials. Each division will be dedicated to conducting research, development, field studies, and testing of new and novel materials or designs in the designated area. The nature and similarities of the research to be conducted require intimate interaction among the various divisions (Fig. 4). Also,joint work with graduate schools should be encouraged to grant MSc and PhD degrees for work in desalination research. This will enhance the research process and will result in the following benefits: • Exchange and development of new ideas and novel concepts • Ability to develop complex and expansive system designs • Sharing of research time on expensive experimental rigs and computer packages • Avoid repetition of work Several research areas and problems in desalination remain to be tackled and investigated. Examples include the following: • Performance of multiple effect evaporators at high top brine temperatures • Pilot plant studies of multiple-effect e v a p o r a t i o n c o m b i n e d with vapor compression heat pumps • Feasibility of combining multi-effect flashing and vapor compression heat pumps • Testing the performance of novel flashing stages
• Development of interactive simulation programs of conventional thermal desalination systems • Field tests of newly developed chemicals for control and prevention of scaling, fouling, foaming, and corrosion • Development of novel RO membranes • Field tests of ultra- and microfiltration membranes for treatment of intake water • Use of light and inexpensive plastic materials in low-temperature thermal desalination plants • Heat transfer augmentation • Better understanding of physical phenomena, e.g., flow in submerged orifices, nonequilibrium allowance
3. Conclusions
The elements of comprehensive education, training, and research programs are proposed in this study. The education ,program includes an engineering subprogram in desalination, a 2-year technical degree in desalination technology, and graduate programs in desalination including a 1-year diploma in desalination, a 2-year MSc degree, and research conducted for MSc and PhD degrees. A continuing education program is also proposed with a focus on the need for water conservation, environmental protection, the strategic nature of the desalination industry, and provision of information to the public. The cooperative education program, sponsored in part by the desalination industry, aims at offering individuals in various sectors in industry the chance to enhance their skills and to pursue professional careers in desalination. The proposed training program includes entry-level and intensive training for engineers and technicians. The proposed training program would result in improving the efficiency of the working staff in executing various tasks. Initiation of the proposed research centers is necessary to find solutions for
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
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H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
design and operational problems in the desalination industry, and to develop and test novel and more efficient desalination processes. [5]
References [1] K. Wangnick, Int. Desalination Wat. Reuse, 8 (1998) 11. [2] H.T. EI-Dessouky, Desalination, 94 (1994) 331. [3] H.T. E1-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Fundamentals of seawater desalination, in press. [4] H.M. Ettouney and H.T. E1-Dessouky, A computer package for design and simulation of MSF, SEE, and MEE thermal desalination processes, Int. Workshop
[6]
[7] [8]
[9]
on Desalination Technologies for Small- and Medium-Size Plants with Limited Environmental Impact, Rome, 1998. H.T. EI-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Thermal Desalination, web site, http://www.waterdesalination.com", 1998. K.S. Spiegler and Y.M. EI-Sayed, A Desalination Primer, Balaban Desalination Publications, Italy, 1994. R.S. Silver and W.T. Hanbury, Proc., 4th Int. Symp. on Fresh Water from the Sea, 2 (1973) 413. H.T. EI-Dessouky et al., Training courses for practicing engineers and technicians, Office of Career and Development, Kuwait University, 1999. L. Herbranson and S.H. Suemoto, Desalination, 96 (1994) 239.
ELSEVIER
www,elsevier.com/locate/desal
Qualifying of manpower for the desalination industry Hisham EI-Dessouky*, Hisham Ettouney, Imad Alatiqi Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Petroleum, Kuwait University, Safat, Kuwait Tel. +965 481-1188; Fax +965 483-9498; email: [email protected] Received 27 September 1998; accepted 9 May 1999
Abstract
Rapid expansion and growth expected to occur in the desalination industry in the next two decades necessitates preplanning of a comprehensive program for education, research, and training. The proposed education programs include an engineering subprogram in desalination, a two-year technical degree in desalination technology, graduate programs, and continuing and cooperative education. The graduate education programs include research studies leading to a one-year diploma in desalination as well as MSc and PhD degrees in desalination research. The continuing education courses include introductory to more advanced level topics. Such classes would provide the general public with a realistic view of the industry, needs for water conservation, environmental impact, and the strategic importance of the desalination industry. The proposed cooperative engineering studies would be supported in part by the desalination industry. Field training programs are proposed for entry-level and practicing engineers and technicians. Desalination research centers should be established to address design and operational problems of the industry and to develop novel and more efficient desalination systems. Keywords: Desalination; Training; Education; Research; Technology
1. Introduction Water desalination is the branch of engineering concerned with the development, design, construction, and safe and economic operation of the processes in which seawater is split into fresh water and highly concentrated brine. The desalination industry is the lifeline to several countries and regions around the world *Corresponding author.
with limited supplies of fresh water. Water desalination is becoming common practice to solve the problem of the poor distribution of natural fresh water resources across the globe. In some regions, massive amounts of flood rain cause loss of life, destruction o f property, and flooding of crops and countryside homes. Simultaneously, severe droughts plague other regions and result in starvation and eventual death of human beings, cattle herds, and wildlife.
0011-9164/99/$- See front matter © 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved PII: S 0 0 1 1 - 9 1 6 4 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 5 9 - 4
56
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
The desalination industry has progressed rapidly since its inception on an industrial scale in the middle of this century. The number of desalination plants in 1960 was five units with a total production rate of 5000 m3/d. Today the world production capacity stands at 22.8>(106 m3/d, with more than 12,500 operating desalination units. Desalination is used for fresh water supply in more than 120 countries around the world, and its market value exceeds $5 x 109/y [ 1]. It is expected that the industry will double during the next two decades to meet the increasing demand due to growing population, progress, changes in life style, and increase in industrial and urban activities. To reduce the cost of desalinated water, irrespective of the process type, specialists are required at each stage of the desalination industry for process and plant design, development, planning, and plant operation. Despite the large production capacity, there are a limited number of specialized and developed programs for education and training of the necessary manpower to actively participate in the industry. This places a burden on the industry to cope with the many drawbacks and inefficiencies of on-thejob training. Efficient and active programs are needed for qualifying the necessary manpower in different areas of the water desalination industry. Initiating and supporting active specialized centers for desalination research is a must to improve and to develop new technologies capable of lowering the unit production cost, conserving limited energy and water resources, and protecting the environment. Presently, the majority of the technical undergraduate programs in the region are focused on specializations in machining, welding, electronics, air conditioning, automotive, etc. A limited number of programs can be found in study areas close to desalination such as chemical technology. In general, the graduate student from these programs does not have the necessary background or education to undertake an efficient
role in the desalination industry. Therefore, the graduates must go through lengthy field training to be capable of performing their duties in the plant. Unfortunately, such training programs are not available or sufficient in most of the desalination plants. A compulsory undergraduate course in desalination is offered at the Chemical Engineering Department of Kuwait University. Other mechanical or chemical engineering departments offer a water desalination course as an elective. Examples are the Mechanical Engineering Department at Kuwait University and Chemical Engineering Departments at universities in Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. As for the graduate research programs in various schools, all are geared towards applications in the field of petroleum and petrochemical industries. Desalination research is heavily dependent on the background and interest of the faculty member. Training programs in desalination for practicing engineers and technicians are not fully defined or well developed. Elements and duration of field training for starting engineers/technicians differ considerably from one plant to another. In some instances, training is considered a luxury and it is the employee's responsibility to learn and develop on the job. The same picture applies to intensive training programs for practicing engineers and technicians. Intensive training is non-existent or at the best is infrequent. It is unplanned and depends on personal relations (engineer, department head, and administration). The training budget is often limited to a meager fraction of the company operating cost where engineers and technicians are offered a single training course per year. Such a course is commonly in desalination, corrosion, or power plants. However, the course contents and trainee's background may not be quite compatible. The pool of trainees may include experienced technicians, seniors as well as entrylevel engineers. The situation has motivated this
57
1t. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
study on a comprehensive program for education, research, and training in desalination at different levels.
2. Elements of the q u a l i f y i n g p r o g r a m The qualifying program is executed on several levels (Fig. 1) and is dedicated to provide c o m p r e h e n s i v e theoretical and practical education in desalination with the following objectives: • Prepare manpower at all levels required to design, develop, construct, and operate different desalination processes efficiently and safely. • Reduce the time and cost for training of newly hired staff. • Provide manpower with the necessary theoretical basis for better understanding of different aspects of water desalination.
/ % t / ~ Desalination J
A.LI
Engineering Subprogram in
~ A.1.2Two years Technical Degree in Desailnat/on /
A.4Cooperative
~.~lOneye*Diploma in
•
Expose the trainee to elements of other related industries, which include wastewater treatment, power plants, and air pollution. • Exchange of ideas among trainees of different backgrounds. • Introduce the trainees to recent trends in desalination. • Reduce the gap between the industry, research centers, and universities. The proposed qualifying programs in desalination include: (A) Education, (B) Training, and (C) Research. These must be reviewed on a frequent basis to meet the needs of the changing job market, technological developments, trends in research and development, and progress in the industry. The following sections describe the proposed program.
%/ ) [ A.2.2Two ~ -'earsM.Sc. Degree
~
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C)Desalination Research Institutions
Education
QualifyingMan Power in the Desalination Industry
~B) Trammg~ . ~ B.I EntryL e v e l ~ ~ F i e l d Training J
Fig. 1. Elements of the proposed program for qualifying manpower in the desalination industry.
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
58 (A) Education
Undergraduate programs • Engineering subprogram in desalination • Two-year technical degree in desalination technology Graduate programs • One-year graduate diploma in desalination • Two-year graduate Master's degree in desalination • MSc thesis research in desalination • PhD thesis research in desalination Continuing education Cooperative education (B) Engineering training programs
Entry level field training Intensive training (C) Desalination research centers
(A) Education
Undergraduate programs Engineering subprogram in desalination (12 credit hours) The objectives of the proposed subprogram (Fig. 2) include the following: • Understanding of desalination processes. • Development of basic tools for process design and evaluation. • Field training in local desalination plants with focus on system operation, maintenance, supervision, and performance evaluation. • Introduction to research and development in desalination. The program is composed of four courses. The first two courses are compulsory and contain desalination topics: desalination fundamentals [2] and water treatment in desalination processes. The other two courses are selected from the
following: • Power plants • Environmental pollution • Wastewater treatment • Industrial waste management • Safety • Material selection and corrosion • Advanced engineering thermodynamics • Process heat transfer • Physical chemistry • Turbo machinery All of the above courses have general engineering aspects in addition to special focus on applications in desalination industries. Implementation of the above subprogram in desalination is simple since many of the elective courses are commonly taught in most o f the engineering faculties. As for the two desalination courses, the first course on desalination fundamentals of thermal and membrane desalination processes has been taught at Kuwait University since 1984 and has been through dramatic developments and modifications since 1991. The outlines for the two compulsory courses in desalination are given in Table 1. Currently, the authors are in the process of completing a textbook on fundamentals of seawater desalination [3]. The book includes process classification, description, design, practice, and a large number of examples and problems. The book includes a comprehensive computer package for design and rating of thermal desalination processes [4] and is supported by a web site, which is updated frequently [5]. Other subprograms in engineering degrees are common in several engineering programs in the region. They may include a minimum of two electives or a maximum of four. Examples for these subprograms include polymers, environmental pollution, corrosion, physical metallurgy, air conditioning, and power plants.
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
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H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
Table 1 Description of compulsory courses in the engineering subprogram in desalination processes Course
Contents
Desalination fundamentals
• • • •
Chemical treatment in desalination processes
Two-year technical degree technology
• •
Introduction to thermal desalination processes (3 hours) Single and multistage flash desalination (12 hours) Single and multiple effect evaporation desalination (12 hours) Vapor compression in single and multiple effect evaporation desalination (6 hours) Membrane desalination processes (9 hours) Elements of process economics (3 hours)
• • • • • • • • • • •
Materials of construction (3 hours) Chemical treatment processes (2 hour) Water chemistry (4 hours) Scale formation and antiscalent design (6 hours) Fouling materials and methods of removal (5 hours) Corrosion prevention and control (6 hours) Foaming and control methods (4 hours) Membrane based water pretreatment (3 hours) Flow sheet of water treatment plants (3 hours) Case studies for plant failure (6 hours) Post treatment of product water (3 hours)
in desalination
The objectives o f the technical degree in desalination are to: • introduce the student to different desalination processes, • provide graduates with proper background and capabilities to participate and perform efficiently in desalination plants. The program includes elementary courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, and courses in general education, engineering sciences, and engineering technology (Fig. 2). The program of 70 credit hours is outlined in Table 2. The proposed program introduces the student to the necessary courses in humanities, science, engineering, and desalination and industrial
technology. Inspection o f the above program shows that technology courses constitute 46.7%, engineering courses 23.3%, and the remaining 30% includes the humanities and science courses. This enables the graduates to join the workforce in desalination plants with pre-knowledge on process terminology, process elements, and process flow sheet, which includes pumping, treatment plants, power station, desalination system, process control, safety, inspection, operation, maintenance, and environmental pollution. A description of the desalination technology course is given in Table 3. The course is 3 credit hours (or 45 contact hours), and it can be taught in a half or a quarter-year semester. Success in teaching of this course, as well as other technical courses, relies on having a well-prepared and
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
Table 2 Two-year technical program in desalination
Table 3 Description of the desalination technology course
Category
Courses
Course
Contents
Basic sciences (10 credits)
• •
Desalination technology
•
General education (9 credits)
Engineering sciences (15 credits)
•
General chemistry (4 hours) General mathematics (3 hours) Physics (3 hours)
• • •
Communications (3 hours) Behavioral science (3 hours) Technical writing (3 hours)
•
Material and energy balances (3 hours) Fluid mechanics and machinery (3 hours) Heat and mass transfer (3 hours) Unit operations (3 hours) Application software (3 hours)
• • • •
Engineering technology (36 credits)
• •
• • • • • • • • •
Orientation to industrial applications (3 hours) Operation, inspections and maintenance of desalination plants (3 hours) Plant safety and security (3 hours) Plant engineering management (3 hours) Desalination technology (3 hours) Power generation (3 hours) Environmental considerations (3 hours) Material selection (3 hours) Waste water treatment (3 hours) Instrumentation and control (3 hours) Workshop (3 hours)
•
• •
• • • • • • • • • Chemical treatment in desalination processes
• • • • • ° ° •
• • •
61
Survey of desalination methods (1 hour) Conventional thermal and membrane desalination processes (2 hours) Evaluation of thermal desalination processes (6 hours) Start-up and shut-down procedures (6 hours) Operation (6 hours) Maintenance and cleaning (6 hours) Process control (3 hours) Instrumentation (3 hours) Water chemical treatment processes (3 hours) Materials of construction (3 hours) Pumping stations (3 hours) Cogeneration plants (2 hours) Environmental impact (1 hour) Materials of construction (3 hours) Chemical treatment processes (2 hours) Water chemistry (4 hours) Scale formation and anti-scalant design (6 hours) Fouling materials and methods of removal (5 hours) Corrosion prevention and control (6 hours) Foaming and control methods (4 hours) Membrane-based water pretreatment (3 hours) Flow sheet of water treatment plants (3 hours) Case studies for plant failure (6 hours) Post-treatment of product water (3 hours)
62
t-£ El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
comprehensive textbook that covers various elements of the course. Fortunately, text material is available for many of the technical courses such as safety, environmental polluticn, and instrumentation. Also, the textbook by Spicg!er and EI-Sayed [6] includes several of the technica', aspects of the desalination industry.
Graduate p r o g r a m s in desalination
The main objective of the graduate programs is to conduct desalination research aiming at reduction of product cost. This is achieved by: • Developing better understanding of unit and process performance. • Finding solutions for operational problems. • Improving system and unit efficiency. • Developing new and novel desalination processes. Graduate research in desalination is conducted in several engineering departments such as chemical, mechanical, and materials. Research is normally performed on a departmental level, and in some instances it is necessary to conduct interdepartmental multi-disciplinary research. Current desalination research topics include the following: • Process modeling and analysis • Fundamental analysis of separation mechanism and development of more accurate and efficient models • Analysis of operational strategies and proposal of more efficient procedures • Process control and instrumentation • Development andtesting of novel desalination processes based on thermal, membrane, or hybrid configurations • Fundamental analysis of mechanisms for scaling, corrosion, and foaming • Development of more efficient chemicals for prevention and control of scaling, corrosion, and foaming
•
•
Study performance of new and inexpensive construction materials in thermal and membrane desalination systems Use of ultra- and microfiltration membranes in pretreatment of intake seawater
The graduate program includes, in addition to the research studies, advanced engineering courses. Examples of such courses include mathematics and numerical analysis and core, advanced, and specialized engineering topics. Topics in the first two categories are well established in graduate programs. The first category, mathematics, may include a minimum of two courses up to a maximum of four courses. As for the engineering topics, they include the core courses of the engineering discipline. For example, the engineering topics in chemical engineering includes chemical engineering thermodynamics, reactor design, transport phenomena, heat transfer, mass transfer, fluid mechanics, and process control. The advanced engineering topics have similar titles to the core engineering topics; however, these courses are more research oriented and include more details for some of the topics given in the core engineering courses. The specialized engineering courses are designed to develop the student capabilities in a specific area, i.e., environment, air pollution, desalination, two-phase flow, process heat transfer, electrochemical engineering, corrosion, etc. The specialized courses in desalination are limited to a small number of graduate programs which include Kuwait University, and in the past, the University of Glasgow [7]. The authors suggest the following pool of courses which can be taken in the desalination program: • Advanced desalination processes • Water treatment processes in desalination industries • Materials selection and corrosion • Engineering management of desalination plants
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
• •
Power plants Wastewater treatment
The contents of the first two courses are coordinated with the two courses given in the undergraduate program. This is necessary to avoid repetition. The contents of the advanced desalination courses remain to include process description and development of fundamental mathematical models. However, such material is given at a rapid pace. Therefore, the advanced course is focused on discussion and development of process details: • Detailed modeling of flashing and evaporation processes • Development o f models for the heat transfer coefficient • Performance analysis of steam jet ejectors • Effect o f non-condensable gases on heat transfer • Design and analysis of flashing stages, evaporation effects, compressors, pumps, and heat exchange units • Performance evaluation of wire mesh mist eliminator • Mathematical and computer models of reverse osmosis membranes • Membrane biofouling and scale formation • Membrane modules, operation, and energy recovery • Cost estimation
Continuing education
The main objective of a continuing education program in desalination is to offer the public means for understanding the elements forming the desalination practice and to get exposed to new technological developments in the industry. The students registering in these classes are selfmotivated and seek education to improve their capabilities and experience. The offering of continuing education classes in desalination can be
63
made on several levels. This includes the introductory level and the more advanced and specialized levels. The introductory level classes would serve the following purposes: • Offer the participating students a comprehensive picture on importance, basics, and fundamentals of desalination. • Provide a realistic view of current desalination technologies and progress achieved in this vital industry during the second half o f this century. • Raise the level of awareness o f the public at large on the pressing needs for conservation of water resources and the strategic importance of the desalination industry. The more advanced and specialized courses in desalination must be offered in a sequential manner to insure ability of the participants to follow the course material. It should be taken into consideration that these classes would serve a diversified pool of participants that may include high school and university students, technicians and engineers in various industries and individuals with a non-technical background.
Cooperative education
The objective of the cooperative education desalination program is to allow the working staff in the industry with a high school or a technical degree to pursue engineering education. The program is sponsored in part by the government, the desalination industry, and universities. Adoption of this program gives the working staff the chance to develop and enhance their professional careers. Granting the engineering degree in a cooperative program includes two steps. The first includes courses in science and basic engineering and the second includes junior and senior courses in engineering and humanities. The first group of courses is registered on part
64
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
time basis and their completion may require a period of 3 years. On the other hand, the junior and senior courses demand enrollment on a fulltime basis and require a period of 2 years. Enrollment in the junior and senior courses is subject to achievement of a satisfactory grade point average in the entry-level courses. Enrollment in the junior and senior courses requires financial support or a paid leave from the workplace.
(B) Engineering training programs Entry-level f i e l d training
The main objective of the entry-level fieldtraining program is to orient and prepare newly hired staff to perform and conduct efficiently their duties and assigned tasks. The elements of the field-training program are shown in Fig. 3.
Features of this program include the following: • The program may extend over a period of 6 months, which includes training in different departments forming the desalination plant as well as formal training classes. • Departmental training includes instructions regarding function, duties, and standard operating procedures. • Formal training classes include a comprehensive survey of various process elements, development of process fundamentals, use of application software, and analysis of practical case studies. • Participants in each training group are of similar background and education. This insures more efficient training and instruction. • The course sequence is designed in a manner that takes the trainee stepwise through different levels of training according to his/her educational background.
Training Programs in Desalination
Training for Graduating Engineers and Technicians
f
Practicing Engineers/Technicians
Process Fundamentals. Process Operation and Control Shut Down and Startup. Water Treatment. Maintenance and Repair. Inspection Instrumentation Construction and Installation RepLs.cement Revamping Safety Security
I
Design, Rating, and Analysis Operation Management and Scheduling. Corrosion, Fouling and Scaling Materials Selection Maintenance and Inspection Process Control Treatment Processes Process Safety J
J Fig. 3. Elements of the training program for qualifying of manpower in the desalination industry.
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70 Intensive training
The objectives of intensive training include the following: • Expand the knowledge o f trainees in their area of expertise. • Expose the trainees to other areas of specialization. • Expose the trainees to recent trends and developments in various areas o f desalination. • Stress the theoretical fundamentals of the process which might be overlooked during operation. Understanding the fundamentals is essential to perform efficiently during the execution o f various tasks in the plant. The intensive training courses are divided into two categories (1) general training and (2) specialized training. The general training courses are designed to meet the needs of a wide pool o f trainees that may include newly hired or experienced individuals with various backgrounds, e.g, management, engineering, chemistry, or technical. The make-up of a general training course may include the following elements: • Discussionoffundamentalsofvariousdesalination processes. • Presentation of simple and efficient techniques for evaluation of unit performance. • Discussion o f operational problems and methods for evaluation, prevention, and problem-solving. • Overview o f process economics. • Presentation of software routines for evaluation of system performance. • Presentation of a survey on recent progress and development in various areas in the field desalination practice. Specialized training courses are designed to address in detail a specific area of the desalination practice. Specialized training must be preceded by a general training course to
65
prepare the participants to follow the more advanced nature of the specialized course. To insure smooth operation, a specialized training course should include a homogenous pool of trainees with a similar educational background, years of experience, and area of specialization. The training course should be prepared by the joint efforts of researchers, educators, and engineers with long years of experience in various desalination areas. However, presentation of these training courses should be limited to educators with sufficient years of experience in teaching and research. Their experience will stimulate discussion and will make presentation of the material simple, interesting, and at an appropriate rate. Specialized training in desalination focuses on specific topics o f interest in desalination practice. These topics can be presented in a single course or in a sequence of courses; for example, a series o f corrosion courses can include (1) general corrosion, (2) corrosion chemistry, and (3) corrosion prevention and practice. Some of the proposed topics for the general and advanced training courses are shown in Fig. 3 and are described in Table 4. The authors have compiled class notes, training manuals, case studies, and computer software for various training topics in desalination [8] based on their field experience and courses offered in a number of desalination plants.
(C) Desalination research centers The main objective of desalination research centers is to execute a comprehensive program aimed at reducing product cost. This can be achieved through performing: • Fundamental research • Development and testing of new and novel systems • Field studies in desalination plants • Joint studies with universities
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
66
Table 4 Proposed intensive-training courses in desalination Title
Objectives
Contents
Desalination fundamentals
Development of fundamentals, design, rating, and economic evaluation techniques of thermal and membrane desalination processes
Desalination technology
Focus on various elements in desalination technology, which includes design, construction, installation, commissioning, startup, operation, shut-down, maintenance, and replacement; the material is presented through discussion for a number of case studies, previous plant experiences, and standard operating procedures
• • • • • • • • •
Survey of thermal and membrane desalination processes (3 hours) Evaluation of thermal desalination processes (3 hours) Plant design, construction, installation, and commissioning (3 hours) Start-up and shut-down procedures (6 hours) Daily and seasonal operation (4 hours) Maintenance and cleaning (4 hours) Process control and instrumentation (4 hours) Replacement of system units (3 hours) Allied facilities (6 hours) Case studies (9 hours)
Chemical treatment in desalination processes
Review chemical treatment processes in desalination processes; develop fundamentals of scaling, fouling, foaming, and corrosion; mechanisms of formation, prevention, control, and cleaning of scale, fouling, foam, and corrosion
• ° • • • • •
Chemical treatment processes (1 hours) Water chemistry (4 hours) Fundamentals of scaling, fouling, and corrosion (6 hours) Anti-scalants: types and dosing (8 hours) Removal and cleaning of fouling materials (8 hours) Corrosion control (8 hours) Flow sheet of water treatment plants (6 hours) Membrane based water treatment (6 hours) Case studies for plant failure (6 hours)
Power plant fundamentals
Discuss process elements, describe process flow diagram, introduce basics of various physical and chemical processes, and develop simple methods for process evaluation
° ° • • •
Introduction to power generation (2 hours) Combustion basics (2 hours) Boilers (2 hours) Steam/water cycle (4 hours) Plant systems (4 hours) Steam turbines (6 hours) Generators and basic electricity (6 hours) Gas turbines (4 hours) Diesel engines (4 hours) Plant instrumentation and controls (4 hours) Water treatment (4 hours) Cogeneration (3 hours) Pollution control (4 hours) Power plant performance (4 hours) Safety (4 hours)
Historical background (1 hour) Thermal desalination processes (2 hours) Single stage flashing (1 hour) Multi-stage flashing (6 hours) Single-effect evaporation (1 hour) Multiple-effect evaporation (6 hours) Single-effect vapor compression (6 hours) Multiple effect evaporation with vapor compression (6 hours) Reverse osmosis (4 hours) Feed and post-treatment (3 hours) Scale formation (3 hours) Corrosion (3 hours) Process economics (3 hours)
H. El-Dessouky et al./ Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
67
Table 4, continued Title
Objectives
Contents
Wastewater treatment
Survey of various types of domestic and industrial water pollutants; discuss methods for sampling and analytical procedures in waste treated water; develop the fundamentals of physical, chemical, and biological wastewater treatment; water reclamation programs and methods for water and solid waste disposal
• • • • • • • • • •
Pollutants in domestic and industrial wastewater (2 hours) Standards in wastewater treatment (2 hours) Sampling and measurements (6 hours) Layout ofwastewater plants (4 hours) Physical treatment methods (8 hours) Chemical treatment methods (8 hours) Biological treatment methods (8 hours) Treatment of industrial wastewater (6 hours) Treatment of domestic wastewater (6 hours) Water reclamation and solid waste disposal (4 hours)
Industrial boilers
This course focuses on fundamentals and operations of industrial water tube boilers; it includes a description of the process flow diagram, elements of boiler units, process co~rol, instrumentation, and process support utilities; development includes fundamentals of combustion and heat transfer in boiler operations; procedures for start-up, shut-down, and emergency operation, maintenance, and cleaning
• • • • • • • • •
Elements of boiler plants (3 hours) Basics of combustion processes (3 hours) Heat transfer fundamentals (3 hours) Boilers,, and support equipment (3 hours) Boiler plant operation, maintenance, and cleaning (6 hours) Steam distribution system operation (4 hours) Boiler control and instrumentation (4 hours) Water treatment and chemical additives (4 hours) Inspection and commissioning (4 hours)
Industrial piping
This course is the fundamentals of general practice in piping; it includes a survey of pipe types, pipe fitting, joints, manual valves, control valves, supports, anchors, insulation, fabrication, erection, and maintenance
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Piping layout (3 hours) Pipe flow (3 hours) Measurements in pipe lines (4 hours) Flanges and welding (3 hours) Pipe lining, gasket design and selection (7 hours) Valve selection and design (4 hours) Steam traps (3 hours) Hangers, bellows, and clams (6 hours) Insulation selection and protective coating (1.5 hours) Pipes in heating systems (1.5 hours) Fabrication, erection, and maintenance (6 hours) Piping codes and standards (3 hours)
Desalination research was initiated in the mid1950s by the Office of Saline Water (OSW) established by the US Government. This office led the desalination research and development up to the early 1980s. Since then, desalination research has been supported by industry and has been limited to refinement of existing technologies [9]. It is important to cite that recently the US Congress under the Water Desalination
Act of 1996 authorized a new program for water desalination research and development. The program is funded for a 6-year period beginning October 1997 with $3.7 million for the fiscal year 1998. The program was developed to meet the needs in the US and worldwide for additional sources of potable water. The program funds research in membrane, thermal, and nontraditional desalination as well as water recycling
68
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
and reuse, process economics, pilot systems, and technology transfer. Government agencies, private organizations, universities, and industry should jointly support the research centers. However, efficient performance of research centers necessitates having an independent governing body, budget, and freedom in decision making. The proposed desalination research centers will have a number of divisions: thermal processes, membrane processes, water treatment, energy systems, and construction materials. Each division will be dedicated to conducting research, development, field studies, and testing of new and novel materials or designs in the designated area. The nature and similarities of the research to be conducted require intimate interaction among the various divisions (Fig. 4). Also,joint work with graduate schools should be encouraged to grant MSc and PhD degrees for work in desalination research. This will enhance the research process and will result in the following benefits: • Exchange and development of new ideas and novel concepts • Ability to develop complex and expansive system designs • Sharing of research time on expensive experimental rigs and computer packages • Avoid repetition of work Several research areas and problems in desalination remain to be tackled and investigated. Examples include the following: • Performance of multiple effect evaporators at high top brine temperatures • Pilot plant studies of multiple-effect e v a p o r a t i o n c o m b i n e d with vapor compression heat pumps • Feasibility of combining multi-effect flashing and vapor compression heat pumps • Testing the performance of novel flashing stages
• Development of interactive simulation programs of conventional thermal desalination systems • Field tests of newly developed chemicals for control and prevention of scaling, fouling, foaming, and corrosion • Development of novel RO membranes • Field tests of ultra- and microfiltration membranes for treatment of intake water • Use of light and inexpensive plastic materials in low-temperature thermal desalination plants • Heat transfer augmentation • Better understanding of physical phenomena, e.g., flow in submerged orifices, nonequilibrium allowance
3. Conclusions
The elements of comprehensive education, training, and research programs are proposed in this study. The education ,program includes an engineering subprogram in desalination, a 2-year technical degree in desalination technology, and graduate programs in desalination including a 1-year diploma in desalination, a 2-year MSc degree, and research conducted for MSc and PhD degrees. A continuing education program is also proposed with a focus on the need for water conservation, environmental protection, the strategic nature of the desalination industry, and provision of information to the public. The cooperative education program, sponsored in part by the desalination industry, aims at offering individuals in various sectors in industry the chance to enhance their skills and to pursue professional careers in desalination. The proposed training program includes entry-level and intensive training for engineers and technicians. The proposed training program would result in improving the efficiency of the working staff in executing various tasks. Initiation of the proposed research centers is necessary to find solutions for
H. El-Dessouky et al. / Desalination 123 (1999) 55-70
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design and operational problems in the desalination industry, and to develop and test novel and more efficient desalination processes. [5]
References [1] K. Wangnick, Int. Desalination Wat. Reuse, 8 (1998) 11. [2] H.T. EI-Dessouky, Desalination, 94 (1994) 331. [3] H.T. E1-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Fundamentals of seawater desalination, in press. [4] H.M. Ettouney and H.T. E1-Dessouky, A computer package for design and simulation of MSF, SEE, and MEE thermal desalination processes, Int. Workshop
[6]
[7] [8]
[9]
on Desalination Technologies for Small- and Medium-Size Plants with Limited Environmental Impact, Rome, 1998. H.T. EI-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Thermal Desalination, web site, http://www.waterdesalination.com", 1998. K.S. Spiegler and Y.M. EI-Sayed, A Desalination Primer, Balaban Desalination Publications, Italy, 1994. R.S. Silver and W.T. Hanbury, Proc., 4th Int. Symp. on Fresh Water from the Sea, 2 (1973) 413. H.T. EI-Dessouky et al., Training courses for practicing engineers and technicians, Office of Career and Development, Kuwait University, 1999. L. Herbranson and S.H. Suemoto, Desalination, 96 (1994) 239.