Quality properties and adsorption behavior of freeze-dried beef meat from the Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus muscles

Meat Science 121 (2016) 272–277

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Quality properties and adsorption behavior of freeze-dried beef meat from the Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus muscles Elif Aykın, Mustafa Erbaş ⁎ Department of Food Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 5 August 2015 Received in revised form 27 June 2016 Accepted 28 June 2016 Available online 29 June 2016 Keywords: Adsorption isotherm Quality Biceps femoris Semimembranosus BET GAB

a b s t r a c t The aim of this research was to determine the quality properties and adsorption behavior of freeze-dried beef meat from the Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus muscles. Most quality properties of both muscles were similar apart from total fat content. Freeze-dried meat pieces were kept in ten different equilibrium levels of relative humidity (2.0–97.3%) at 5, 15, 25 and 30 °C. The experimental data were evaluated using BET (Brunauer-EmmettTeller) and GAB (Guggenheim, Anderson and deBoer) models. The equilibrium moisture contents of freeze-dried Biceps femoris were lower than those of Semimembranosus at all water activities and temperature. The constants m0 and C of BET and GAB equations were determined to be between 6.27 and 8.07 g/100 g dry matter and 9.32– 13.73, respectively. Constant k was about 0.90 at all temperatures, and the GAB equation exhibited a better fit to the experimental data of both muscles as a result of all %E values being approximately equal to 10%. © 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction Water, found in the living tissue at the rate of 75% and the postmortem tissue at the rate of 65–80% of the muscle weight, is the main component of muscle tissue. A large part of the water content (85%) in the muscle is located in intra-myofibrillar spaces and the remainder (15%) is also situated in the extra-myofibrillar space. In addition, water is the primary component of the extracellular fluid in the muscle (Pearce, Rosenvold, Andersen, & Hopkins, 2011). Therefore, meat is an ideal environment for the growth of microorganisms due to the high water content and activity, and is included in the class of perishable foods. The water activity of a product can be reduced depending on removing water in the product by different drying methods to prevent the growth of microorganisms that cause spoilage (Rahman Mohammad et al., 2005). Sliced or cube-shaped pieces of dried meat are used as ingredients in the convenience food industry (Babić, Cantalejo, & Arroqui, 2009). The pieces of dried meat are especially used in convenience pasta products in order to enhance the nutritional and sensory value of products (Laopoolkit & Suwannaporn, 2011). Dry meat products are generally obtained by hot air drying. However, this drying technique can damage both the physical and quality characteristics such as color and rehydration capability. Therefore, in recent years, manufacturers have shown increased interest in alternative drying technologies to achieve high ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Erbaş).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.06.030 0309-1740/© 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

quality dried meat products that are ready to use (Kondjoyan et al., 2010; Namsanguan, Tia, Devahastin, & Soponronnarit, 2004; Nathakaranakule, Kraiwanichkul, & Soponronnarit, 2007). Food drying is achieved with a combination of different techniques, such as the use of heat or vacuum resources to remove water from the product and the use of mechanical energy to remove water from the surface (Sebastian, Bruneau, Collignan, & Rivier, 2005). Freeze-drying, which prevents the growth of microorganisms and the degradation caused by oxidation, is an effective method with which to extend the shelf life of food. This method is defined as the process of removing frozen water by sublimation. In the method, a high vacuum process is applied to frozen food, and thus, the final moisture content of the product reaches 1–3% because the released water vapor is absorbed by the surface of the condenser at very low temperatures (Chen & Mujumdar, 2009). In the freeze-drying process the flavor, color and appearance characteristics of the product are retained and no changes occurring in heatsensitive nutrients. Moreover, the formation of shrinkage and other structural changes is not performed during freeze-drying and a porous textural structure is formed (Babić et al., 2009; Chen & Mujumdar, 2009). Furthermore, the properties of freeze-dried samples are quite similar to those of fresh products. If meat products obtained by this method were used in the production of soup, meat dishes, Bolognese sauce, etc., the preparation time and energy cost of food would be reduced (Babić et al., 2009). The change in moisture content of meat products which are stable with the reduction of water activity values during the drying process

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is estimated by the equilibrium moisture content (Clemente, Bon, Benedito, & Mulet, 2009). The graph obtained by the water content of the food versus water activity at a certain temperature is called the sorption isotherm (Ahmat, Bruneau, Kuitche, & Aregba, 2014; Erbaş, Aykın, Arslan & Durak, 2016). Several sorption models (GAB, BET, Simit, Halsey, Henderson, Iglesias-Chirife, Langmuir, etc.), which considers the relationship between the water activity and the moisture content of food and the energy of water binding, have been derived from the sorption isotherms of food. One of these models, GAB (Guggenheim-AndersondeBoer), is applicable for an isotherm when there are at least 5 data points for all water activity, while BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) successfully represents the isotherm in cases where the water activity is smaller than 0.5 (Bell & Labuza, 2000). Adsorption isotherms are important in terms of the selection of required storage conditions and the avoidance of quality deterioration. The sorption models have been used in the determination of sorption isotherms of different meat and meat products such as freeze-dried chicken meat (Venturi et al., 2007), fresh lean beef (Trujillo, Yeow, & Pham, 2003), raw goat meat (Singh, Rao, Anjaneyulu, & Patil, 2006), alligator meat (Lopes Filho, Romanelli, Barboza, Gabas, & Telis-Romero, 2002), frozen raw pork meat (Clemente et al., 2009), and pastırma (Aktaş & Gürses, 2005). The aim of this research was to determine the quality properties and sorption isotherms of freeze-dried lean beef meat from the Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus muscles at different temperatures. Furthermore, the sorption isotherms of this meat can be used for prediction of water content in the meat mixed with other dried components in package. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Sample preparation Biceps femoris (internal muscle reference) and Semimembranosus (external muscle reference) which are two characteristic muscles of beef leg from four different carcasses (male calf) were used as samples. The samples were purchased from a well-known butcher and prepared as approximately 1 cm cubes and stored at 2–4 °C, after the muscles had been separated from the carcass and then the bones, fat and connective tissue by a butcher. Cubic pieces were spread in only one layer over lyophilizer trays and frozen at − 80 °C for 24 h. After freezing, the trays were put into a freeze-dryer (Operon fdu & fdb type, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea). Freeze drying was started at −40 °C (shelf temperature) at chamber absolute pressure of 5333 Pa (40 mm Hg) and the process temperature reached to room temperature at the end of freeze drying process in 48 h. The moisture content of meat pieces was b 4% at the end of the 2 day freeze-drying process. Freeze-dried meat cubes were stored in a desiccator containing silica gel at 4 °C. 2.2. Meat quality analysis The moisture contents of fresh meat pieces were determined by drying (Memmert UNB 500, Schwabach, Germany) the samples at 105 °C, the ash contents were determined at 550 °C, the protein contents were determined using the Kjeldahl method, the fat contents were determined using the Soxhlet extraction method and the pH values were measured with a digital pH-meter (Hanna HI 2210, Woonsocket, RI, USA), according to the methods of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2000). The water activities of the freeze-dried samples were measured at 25 °C with a water activity meter (AquaLab 4TE, Decagon Devices Inc., USA). Samples were weighed before and after holding in water for 4 h, and the rehydration capacities of samples were calculated by dividing the difference of the first weight as a fraction of the percent (Babić et al., 2009).

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Color parameters (L*, a*, b*) of fresh and freeze-dried cubic meat pieces were measured at 6 different points on the sample surface by the CIELAB system using a CR-400 Chromameter (Konica Minolta, Japan) (Candogan & Kolsarici, 2003). The texture properties (shear force, work of shearing and hardness) of freeze-dried samples were determined with a TA.XT Plus Texture Analyzer (Stable Microsystems, UK) and the speed of probe, trigger force and load cell were 2 mm/s, 10 g and 50 kg, respectively. The accessories were Blade Set (HDP/BS) (Warner Bratzler, WB), Heavy Duty Platform (HDP/90) and 10 mm cylinder probe (P/10). For analysis, 10 randomly selected pieces of freeze-dried meat were used. The degree of meat tenderness was evaluated with the maximum peak value representing cutting force as Newtons (N) and the area under the peak representing the work of cutting (Ns). The degree of meat hardness was also determined with maximum peak forces (N) with P/10 of cylinder probe (Chen, Chen, Chao, & Lin, 2009; Das, Anjaneyulu, Gadekar, Singh, & Pragati, 2008). 2.3. Determination of moisture adsorption isotherms The adsorption behavior of freeze-dried meat pieces was determined using the isopiestic method (Labuza, Kaanane, & Chen, 1985). Two different freeze-dried meat cubes were kept in nine saturated salt solutions and silica gel provided different relative humidity (silica gel b 2.0%, NaOH 8.2%, KC2H3O2 23.1%, MgCl2 33.1%, K2CO3 43.2%, NaBr 57.6%, KI 68.8%, NaCl 75.5%, BaCl2 90.7% and K2SO4 97.3%) at four different temperatures (5, 15, 25 and 30 °C) for 7 days. In the determination of sorption isotherms, two freeze-dried meat pieces were used as is. Approximately 0.5 g of samples containing small glass dishes were put into desiccators and their weight change was controlled every day to determine equilibrium time. The weight record was kept until there was no alteration in weight, which denotes the point at which the sample is considered to have reached equilibrium. To inhibit mold growth in the samples at relative humidity levels higher than 0.65, a small dish containing 1 mL of toluene was also placed into the desiccators (McMinn & Magee, 1999). The initial moisture contents of samples were determined by drying at 105 °C for 24 h. The moisture contents of Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus were determined to be 1.86 and 2.45 g/100 g dry matter, respectively. Moisture contents that occur during the sorption were determined from the weight change. Obtained data were evaluated with regard to two different sorption models, BET and GAB. Models used to fit the experimental data are given in Table 1. 2.4. Fitting of adsorption data to the BET and GAB models Experimental data were applied to BET and GAB isotherm models. The constants of the models were calculated using data from 2 to 43.2% relative humidity with linear regression for the BET model and data from all relative humidity levels, with non-linear regression for the GAB model. The goodness of fit of the different models was evaluated with the mean relative percentage error (%E) between the experiential (mei) and calculated (mci) values of equilibrium moisture content, where N is the number of observations. %E was calculated according to Eq. (3) (Choudhury, Sahu, & Sharma, 2011).

%E ¼

 N   100 X mei −mci   mei  N i¼1

ð3Þ

2.5. Statistical analysis Two samples were used to determine the moisture content at each measurement point and all the research was replicated three times.

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Table 1 Models used to fit the experimental data (Timmermann, Chirife, & Iglesias, 2001).

Table 3 Color parameters (L*, a*, b* values) for fresh and freeze-dried muscles (means ± standard deviations, n = 12).

Name

Model

BET

m0 Caw m ¼ ð1−aw Þð1−a w þCaw Þ

(1)

GAB

m0 Ckaw m ¼ ð1−kaw Þð1−ka w þCkaw Þ

(2)

m: equilibrium moisture content (g water/100 g dry matter.); aw: water activity; m0: monolayer moisture content (g water/100 g dry matter); C and k: model constant.

The data were analyzed by ANOVA using the SAS statistical software package (v.7.00, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) to compare the effect of different muscles on quality characteristics and the means with respect to the adsorption research factors, temperature and muscle type. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Meat quality properties The chemical composition results of meat samples from the Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus muscles are given in Table 2. Most quality properties of both muscles were similar. The fat contents of the muscles were affected (P b 0.01) by muscle type. Meat color is one of the most important factors for the buying of meat by consumers (Mancini & Hunt, 2005). Color values of both muscles are given in Table 3. In the case of color, L* and b* values of freezedried meat samples were much higher (P b 0.01) than those of fresh ones, showing more brightness and yellowness. However, a* values of freeze-dried meat samples were lower (P b 0.01) than those of fresh samples. Therefore, freeze-dried meat samples were less red than fresh meat; this might be due to three-dimensional structure deformation of the myoglobin protein in muscles during dehydration. It was determined that L* and b* values of Biceps femoris were higher (P b 0.01) than those of Semimembranosus. The reason why high L* and b* values were evaluated in Biceps femoris might be the differences in high fat content (Table 2). These results were in agreement with the literature (Garcı́a-Esteban, Ansorena, Gimeno, & Astiasarán, 2003; Johansson, Tornberg, & Lundström, 1993; Kadim et al., 2013). The moisture contents, water activity and rehydration ability of freeze-dried meat samples are given in Table 4. Except for water activity (P N 0.05), the moisture contents and rehydration ability of the muscles were affected (P b 0.05) by muscle type. During freeze-drying, the moisture contents of Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus muscles were decreased from 76.70% to 1.86% and 76.11% to 2.45%, respectively. The water activities of muscles were about equal after the freeze-drying process. The rehydration ability of freeze-dried Biceps femoris muscle was less (P b 0.05) than that of Semimembranosus muscle. It might be due to the higher fat content in the Biceps femoris muscle because fat keeps water from away itself due to its hydrophobic properties. These rehydration results showed that freeze-dried meat has a water holding capacity similar to its own weight. In some literature, it is reported that rehydration ability is between 87 and 95% in freeze-dried turkey meat (King, Lam, & Sandall, 1968) and 73 and 88% in freeze-dried chicken meat (Babić et al., 2009). The shear force (N), work of shearing (Ns) and firmness (N) values of freeze-dried meat samples are given in Table 4. Except for hardness (P b 0.05), the textural properties of the muscles were not affected (P N 0.05) by muscle type. Textural values of freeze-dried Semimembranosus were slightly higher than those of Biceps femoris.

Sample

Muscles

Fresh

Biceps femoris Semimembranosus Freeze-dried Biceps femoris Semimembranosus

L* (brightness)

a* (redness)

b* (yellowness)

50.76 ± 0.02c 40.42 ± 0.06d 67.24 ± 0.03a 60.79 ± 0.06b

28.11 ± 0.55a 26.83 ± 0.15b 19.64 ± 0.11d 20.50 ± 0.02c

15.43 ± 0.05c 12.80 ± 0.21d 17.55 ± 0.25a 16.68 ± 0.16b

a,b,c,d

Means with different letters within the column indicate differences (P b 0.05).

This might be a result of the lower fat content (2.25%) and higher protein content (19.93%) of Semimembranosus compare to Biceps femoris. The freeze-dried muscles could be considered “very tender” (WB shear force b32.96 N) according to classification of beef tenderness (Destefanis, Brugiapaglia, Barge, & Dal Molin, 2008). In another study, shear force values for muscles of fresh beef chuck and knuckle were in the range of 27.4–49.0 N (Bratcher, Johnson, Littell, & Gwartney, 2005). Variation in shear force and work might be due to differences in other important factors such as connective tissue structure, size of the muscle bundles, rigidity and water holding capacity (Kadim et al., 2013). 3.2. Moisture adsorption isotherms In Table 5, the mean values of the equilibrium moisture content (m; g/100 g dry matter) are presented for each relative humidity at four different temperatures (5, 15, 25 and 35 °C) for freezedried Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus. The equilibrium moisture content of the meat samples were affected (P b 0.01) by both the temperature and the muscle type, according to analysis of variance. Also, moisture adsorption isotherms of freeze-dried muscles dependent on temperature and muscle type are given Fig. 1. The equilibrium moisture contents of freeze-dried samples increased with an increase of water activity at a constant temperature and decreased with an increase of temperature at a constant water activity. These findings are generally in accordance with the literature (Clemente et al., 2009; Spada, Noreña, Marczak, & Tessaro, 2013). The low moisture contents at high temperatures might be related to a higher kinetic energy of water molecules. Water molecules are bound with hydrogen bond to polar sites (OH, NH2) of the food components such as proteins (Bell & Labuza, 2000). The formation of hydrogen bonds decreases as the temperature increases. So, increasing excitation states of water molecules that increases their distance decreases the attractive forces between them and consequently reduces the water sorption (Erbaș, Ertugay, & Certel, 2005). It was determined that the equilibrium moisture contents of freezedried Biceps femoris were lower than those of Semimembranosus at all water activity and temperature levels. This result might be why the high hydrophobicity of freeze-dried Biceps femoris because of its high fat content (Table 2). In addition, this difference between moisture sorption curves of freeze-dried muscles at the same temperature might have originated from textural structure and the chemical composition of samples. In these sorption isotherms, the equilibrium moisture content of freeze-dried samples increased and slight curling was shown when water activity approached 0.25; then, a second slight curling was observed in these sorption isotherms with water activity up to 0.75.

Table 2 Chemical properties of Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus (means ± standard deviations, n = 4). Muscle

Moisture (%, wet base)

Ash (%)

Fat (%)

Protein (%)

pH

Biceps femoris Semimembranosus

76.70 ± 0.18a 76.11 ± 0.51a

1.09 ± 0.06a 0.95 ± 0.05a

4.51 ± 0.08a 2.25 ± 0.05b

17.46 ± 0.04a 19.93 ± 0.43a

5.84 ± 0.01a 5.82 ± 0.00a

a,b

Means with different letters within the column indicate differences (P b 0.05).

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Table 4 Moisture, water activity, rehydration and texture properties of freeze-dried Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus (means ± standard deviations, n = 4). Freeze-dried muscle

Moisture (%, dry base)

Water activity

Rehydration (%)

Shear force (N)

Shear work (Ns)

Hardness (N)

Biceps femoris Semimembranosus

1.86 ± 0.15b 2.45 ± 0.08a

0.05 ± 0.00a 0.07 ± 0.00a

89.54 ± 0.88b 96.02 ± 0.46a

31.19 ± 0.87a 31.36 ± 0.65a

49.54 ± 0.66a 51.00 ± 0.02a

233.64 ± 2.14b 249.97 ± 0.56a

a,b

Means with different letters within the column indicate differences (P b 0.05).

These moisture sorption isotherms are typical Type-II sigmoid according to the BET classification of Van der Waal adsorption isotherms (Brunauer, Emmett, & Teller, 1938). This isotherm behavior was found for similar products that become susceptible to the water because of the richness of them in protein and textural structure, such as capillary systems and pores on their surface (Spada et al., 2013).

3.3. Fitting of adsorption data to the BET and GAB models The monolayer water content (m0), model constants C and k, regression coefficients (R2) and mean relative percentage error (%E) regarding the BET model, which was determined with linear regression, and the GAB model, which was determined with non-linear regression of the second degree, are given in Table 6. When the values of m0 for muscles are compared at the same temperatures, m0 values of freeze-dried Semimembranosus were higher than those of Biceps femoris. It was mentioned above that this might be due to the hydrophobicity of Biceps femoris. Both samples showed similar values for m0, which were within the range presented for dried meat products (Rahman, Sablani, Al-Ruzeiqi, & Guizani, 2002; Sablani, Kasapis, Rahman, Al-Jabri, & Al-Habsi, 2004; Venturi et al., 2007). Deterioration reactions arise at the values of moisture content higher than the m0 value. For that reason, food may be kept for a long time with minimum quality loss at a given temperature and aw value, which corresponds to m0 or lower values (Shi, Zhao, Chen, Li, & Xue, 2009), except for oxidation. The m0 value provides the least quality loss with respect to lipid oxidation in dry food because the rate of oxidation increases below or above the m0 value (Bell & Labuza, 2000). The m0 values of Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus are between 6 and 8 g/100 g dry matter; thus, freeze-dried muscles should be stored at a relative humidity of about 40% in order to prevent deterioration such as oxidation. In the BET and GAB models, the reason why the monolayer was reduced with an increase in temperature is the fact that the formation of hydrogen bonds decreased. This is also probable for freeze-dried samples which adsorbed less water at high temperatures than at low temperatures (Iglesias & Chirife, 1976). It was determined that m0 values of both samples obtained from the GAB model were greater than those obtained from the BET model at each operating temperature. This is because capillary saturation as well as surface saturation is taken

into account in the GAB model (Ahmat et al., 2014; Timmermann et al., 2001). The values of C constant in both models, relating to the monolayer water and substrate interaction energy, were almost similar in the samples (Table 6). It was determined that C values calculated from BET and GAB models were in the range of 9.32–13.73 in both samples. Also, this result indicates that adsorption isotherms were Type II (Hazaveh, Mohammadi Nafchi, & Abbaspour, 2015). It was reported that the C constants of freeze-dried chicken breast meat were 4.6 for the GAB model and 1.7 for the BET model at 24 °C (Venturi et al., 2007). In another study, it was reported that C constants of pastırma were 35.1, 25.7 and 16.6 according to the BET model at 15, 20 and 30 °C, respectively (Aktaş & Gürses, 2005). The values of k constant, determined by the GAB model for freezedried Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus, were about 0.90 at all temperatures (Table 6). The k value is an energy constant representing the temperature dependence of the multilayer water content and ranges from 0 to 1. The k constant ideally changes between 0.7 and 1.0 for many food materials, so it was shown that the use of the GAB model for the evaluation of experimental data was convenient. If this constant is higher than 1, the model must not be applicable for modelling of data (Timmermann et al., 2001). Similar results were reported by different authors for beef loin meat (Trujillo et al., 2003), freeze-dried tuna meat (Rahman et al., 2002), and frozen pork muscles (Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus) (Clemente et al., 2009). The fit of the experimental adsorption isotherms of muscles to the sorption models realized average %E values for all temperatures and muscle types. It was reported that %E values below 10% indicate a good fit of the developed relationship between the predicted and experimental data (Choudhury et al., 2011). Rather than the BET model, the GAB model could be used as a suitable sorption model for freeze-dried muscles adsorption as a result of all %E values for all temperatures and muscles that were approximately equal to 10%. Also, the goodness of fit to the GAB model indicates that the adsorption isotherms of muscles were type II, because the GAB model in particular presents Type II isotherms. The GAB model was also successfully applied to several meat and meat products such as frozen pork muscles (Clemente et al., 2009), fresh beef (Ahmat et al., 2014), lean beef (Trujillo et al., 2003), chicken meat (Delgado & Sun, 2002), raw goat meat (Singh et al., 2006) and alligator meat (Lopes Filho et al., 2002).

Table 5 Equilibrium moisture content (m, g/100 g dry matter) of freeze-dried Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus depend on water activity and temperature (means ± standard deviation, n = 3). aw

0.02 0.08 0.23 0.33 0.43 0.58 0.69 0.76 0.91 0.97 a,b

Freeze-dried Biceps femoris

Freeze-dried Semimembranosus

5 °C

15 °C

25 °C

35 °C

5 °C

15 °C

25 °C

35 °C

1.97 ± 0.02b 3.63 ± 0.28ab 6.79 ± 0.22ab 7.78 ± 0.32b 11.52 ± 0.31abc 16.46 ± 4.32a 19.58 ± 0.22b 24.68 ± 0.24ab 44.79 ± 6.17a 50.83 ± 3.75ab

1.51 ± 0.10c 3.56 ± 0.11ab 6.64 ± 0.31bc 7.66 ± 0.10b 11.11 ± 0.05bc 15.41 ± 1.37a 19.45 ± 0.27b 23.52 ± 0.53bc 44.28 ± 0.57a 48.36 ± 1.97bcd

1.44 ± 0.05c 3.25 ± 0.08bc 5.51 ± 0.17d 7.15 ± 0.10c 10.80 ± 0.24c 13.52 ± 0.51a 16.53 ± 0.02d 22.01 ± 0.24de 34.13 ± 0.94bc 47.18 ± 2.03bcd

1.35 ± 0.43c 2.96 ± 0.10c 5.51 ± 0.33d 6.88 ± 0.29c 10.76 ± 0.39c 13.29 ± 0.31a 15.80 ± 0.68d 21.70 ± 1.65de 31.26 ± 0.19c 44.00 ± 0.44d

2.63 ± 0.05a 3.80 ± 0.14a 7.27 ± 0.41a 9.19 ± 0.29a 12.27 ± 0.22a 16.45 ± 0.60a 21.09 ± 0.60a 25.97 ± 0.39a 48.13 ± 5.53a 54.45 ± 3.81a

2.29 ± 0.13b 3.64 ± 0.15ab 6.84 ± 0.28ab 8.79 ± 0.02a 12.19 ± 0.38a 15.73 ± 0.29a 20.67 ± 0.34a 25.51 ± 0.27a 46.95 ± 2.06a 50.63 ± 4.17ab

2.11 ± 0.09b 3.54 ± 0.39ab 6.44 ± 0.11bc 7.78 ± 0.20b 11.70 ± 0.17ab 14.77 ± 0.57a 17.83 ± 0.30c 22.94 ± 0.43cd 37.79 ± 0.62b 49.25 ± 2.28bc

2.08 ± 0.25b 3.25 ± 0.49bc 6.25 ± 0.32c 7.63 ± 0.36b 10.77 ± 0.98c 13.64 ± 0.42a 16.45 ± 1.01d 21.41 ± 0.82e 33.04 ± 2.06bc 44.67 ± 0.67cd

Means with different letters within the line indicate differences (P b 0.05).

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Fig. 1. Moisture adsorption isotherms of freeze-dried muscles depend on temperature (n = 60) and muscle type (n = 120).

Table 6 BET and GAB parameters for moisture sorption isotherms for freeze-dried Biceps femoris and Semimembranosus (m0, g water/100 g dry matter). Freeze-dried muscle

Biceps femoris

Semimembranosus

Temperature (°C)

5 15 25 35 5 15 25 35

BET model

GAB model

m0

C

R2

%E

m0

C

k

R2

%E

6.65 6.60 6.27 6.27 7.27 7.19 6.68 6.31

13.66 11.84 10.35 9.32 14.47 12.76 12.91 13.44

0.96 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.97

13.31 7.69 13.12 14.36 17.93 17.62 17.83 17.37

8.07 7.94 7.25 6.90 7.62 7.55 6.81 6.87

11.80 10.53 10.81 9.82 13.58 12.28 13.32 13.73

0.90 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.88

0.90 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.93 0.91 0.92 0.93

11.57 8.40 8.80 9.79 12.78 12.85 10.77 10.64

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