Quantitative ethnopharmacological study of the Campidano Valley and Urzulei district, Sardinia, Italy

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97 – 124

Quantitative ethnopharmacological study of the Campidano Valley and Urzulei district, Sardinia, Italy A. Bruni a,*, M. Ballero b, F. Poli b a

Department of Biology, Section of Botany, Uni6ersity of Ferrara, Corso Porta Mare 2, I-44100 Ferrara, Italy b Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden, Uni6ersity of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy Received 27 January 1997; received in revised form 31 March 1997; accepted 20 April 1997

Abstract A new method has been developed for quantitative, phytotherapeutical analysis with a goal to create a general tool suitable for a wide range of research situations. This tool would allow one to gather data in such a format as to facilitate comparison with studies from other areas. The method was applied to data gathered from two sites in Sardinia, Italy (Campidano and Urzulei). Analysis was performed on 2635 responses (a) by plant, (b) by plant part, (c) by medicinal preparation and (d) by therapeutic use. This yielded specificity indexes which proved useful in comparing phytotherapeutic applications in the two geographic areas under study. In Urzulei the original phytotherapeutic heritage is deeply rooted in the local socio-economic history and clearly reflects the area’s geographic isolation. Indeed, in this area, there is little reliance on modern health care. On the other hand, in Campidano, the body of phytotherapeutic application is more extensive. Indeed, due to migration — and to a lesser extent isolation — the latter area has been more affected by technological interference and cultural overlapping. In this area attention is widely focused on such modern ailments as glycemia, hypertension and constipation. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. Keywords: Quantitative ethnopharmacology; Medicinal plants; Traditional phytotherapy; Sardinia

1. Introduction The unique blend of nature, history and social conditions makes Sardinia one of the most unusual ethnic ‘petites mondes’ in Europe (Le Lannou, 1941; Picci, 1980). Recent work in medical * Corresponding author.

ethnobotany of Sardinia (Atzei and DrascichCampazzi, 1988; Atzei et al., 1991; Ballero and Fresu, 1991, 1993) has prompted further research into this field. The aim of the present research has been to determine (a) the plants that are used in popular phytotherapy in the Campidano Valley of Cagliari and the Urzulei district, (b) the origin of

0378-8741/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PII S 0 3 8 - 8 7 4 1 ( 9 7 ) 0 0 0 5 5 - X

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A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

Fig. 1. A map of Sardinia (Italy) showing the study area of Campidano valley and Urzulei district.

these plants (i.e. native or imported) and (c) the reason for their uses. An examination has been made on the traditional Sardinian folk medicine within an anthropological and social framework where the medicinal use of plants is an integral part of the overlying social dynamics. An attempt has also been made to examine how the concept of drugs and the relationship between people and plants have evolved within this social context. The Campidano of Cagliari (Fig. 1) covers a 400 km2 agricultural area in southern Sardinia. To the east it is bordered by the hills of Parteolla

and Marmilla, to the west, it is limited by the Sulcis–Iglesiente mountains. The Urzulei district, on the other hand, is located in east-central Sardinia (Fig. 1). Because of its strong ethnic isolation and shepherd population the latter has preserved many of the traditions and customs rooted in the remote past. Recent years have witnessed an ongoing process of integration, which has affected both Urzulei and Campidano. Nevertheless, the cultural roots of the local herd/farmer populations run remarkably deep, reflecting their strong ethnic consciousness.

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

2. Methodology Several recent papers have focused on methodology and the degree of consensus on the use of a given plant within a specific cultural group (Friedman et al., 1986; Tippo, 1989; Johns et al., 1990; Waller, 1993). The problems inherent in the collection of ethnopharmacological data characteristic for a specific geographic area is dealt with in this paper. The project was undertaken by using the following methodology. 1. A socio-economic evaluation was performed on the Campidano and Urzulei areas based on culture, diffusion of mass media, amount of money spent per capita on drugs and the number of pharmacies and their distribution. 2. Information on plants was obtained through casual conversation (200 interviews in the Campidano Valley and 90 in the Urzulei district); no direct questions were asked in order to prevent biasing the answers and compromising spontaneity. Everything that came out during the interview was subsequently transferred to a structured form. These forms were then used to prepare a list of the ailments treated. Special attention has been paid to the weighting of each individual use and to a uniform, unambiguous classification. All the persons interviewed habitually use plants for medicinal purposes. For the most part, these people were over 50 years of age, had limited formal education and had spent their entire life in the region. The criteria outlined by Johns et al. (1990), Hedberg (1993) and Waller (1993) were followed in conducting the 292 interviews. 3. A fidelity level suggested by Friedman et al. (1986) was used to evaluate the ethnopharmacological data. In the present work the most frequently cited use, namely the main use of the drug, was used as fidelity index and expressed as a percentage of the citation for that drug (%Cm). Two other specialised indices were also used; the first ISu, was used to evaluate the consensus for specific medical uses, including the type of preparation; the second, ISs was used to evaluate the consensus for a given plant species. The ISu, is calculated as follows: the citations obtained for a particular drug are indicated as a percentage of the total citations (%Ct); and this is

99

then multiplied by the main use (%Cm) as indicated above. Finally the total is divided by 100. This can be represented by the following formula: ISu=

%Cm× %Ct 100

In this manner, different parameters (i.e. number of uses, number of total citations per plant and per individual use) are linked and referred to 100. The second index, ISs, is used to compare specialization versus multipurpose uses for the most frequently mentioned plants. This is represented by the following formula: ISs=

%Ct U

where ISs is the Index of Specialization by species, %Ct the percentage of total citations for that plant and U its total number of uses. This index can only be considered reliable when the %Ct is very high. Evaluation ofthe number of medical preparations used and determination of the percentage of plants found in Sardinia that are actually used for medicinal purposes may provide a good indication of the degree of phytotherapeutic exploitation. Hence, the Exploitation Index (EI) was calculated using the formula: EI= %Pm× AMP where %Pm is the percentage of plants used for medicinal purposes and AMP is the average number of medicinal preparations per plant. A database and electronic spreadsheet have been used to calculate the various parameters. This method makes it possible to readily compare the information gathered at the two sites in a mathematical manner. Moreover by applying this approach it would be possible to make an objective comparison of ethnopharmacological data obtained from various sites worldwide. A practical example is given below (Section 3). In the present study voucher herbarium specimens were prepared and deposited in the herbarium of the Institute of Botany, University of Cagliari (CAG). Plant classification and nomenclature follow those of Flora d’Italia (Pignatti, 1982). A complete record of the interviews is also

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A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

on file at the Institute of Botany, University of Cagliari.

3. Results A total of 1623 citations were collected in the Campidano Valley and 1012 in the Urzulei district. Of these, reference to therapeutic uses were, respectively, 1586 and 974. The other uses mentioned include among others, cosmetics, tapestry dyeing, food flavoring and rat poison. Appendix A provides a list of species mentioned by at least four people with the indication of the uses cited at least four separate times in Campidano and three separate times in Urzulei. For each species listed, the following data are given: the Latin binomial; family name; vernacular name (in quotation marks); method of use followed in each case (in parentheses) by the number of times that particular application was cited; and herbarium voucher number (in brackets). Plants used for non-therapeutic purposes (e.g. dyeing) were only included in the list if those same plants are used for medicinal purposes elsewhere in the Mediterranean area. Table 1 summarizes the data collected in Appendix A. It is worth noting that although the number of species used in Campidano is higher, in Urzulei each plant is employed in a greater number of curative preparations. This indicates a better use of the phytotherapeutic resources. Indeed, the more widespread phytotherapeutic knowledge in Urzulei is evidenced by the fact that (a) each individual interviewed mentioned a greater number of uses, (b) each plant is used in more preparations and (c) the average number of therapeutic uses per plant is higher. The ratio between the number of preparations and the number of species available provides the exploitation index (EI) for the available medicinal flora. One can see that, as availability increases, this value tends to decrease; thus the effectiveness/convenience ratio becomes lower as more plants are available for exploitation for more specific uses. Therefore, in Urzulei the EI is higher, since the more marked geographical and cultural isolation have led to a better exploitation of the local flora.

The exploitation index (EI) can be extrapolated from the present data as well as from the data available in the literature (Pignatti, 1982; Gastaldo, 1987). Given that there are approximately 2500 plant species in Sardinia, the EI for Campidano is: (77/2500× 100)× 1.19= 3.66. (The percentage of 77 citations out of 2500 multiplied by 1.19, the percentage of medicinal preparations per species) (see Table 1). For Urzulei, the EI (77/2500× 100)× 1.73= 3.32. Hence the exploitation indexes for Campidano and Urzulei are 3.66 and 3.32, respectively. Although these values are quite similar, they are higher than the European averages which range from 2.0 to 2.5 (data extrapolated from Garnier et al., 1961; BezangerBeauquesne et al., 1980; Lokar-Coassini and Poldini, 1988). Table 2 lists the weighted curative uses. Each individual use was carefully considered in order to achieve unequivocal classification while, at the same time, to reflect as accurately as possible the data collected during the inteviews. The list proTable 1 Comparison of quantitative data collected in Campidano and Urzulei (Sardinia, Italy) Number

Campidano Urzulei

Informants Total citations Average of citation per informant Therapeutic citations Total plants Medicinal plants Medicinal preparations Average of preparations per plant Total citations of therapeutic uses Average of citations of therapeutic uses per plant Average of preparations per therapeutic use Therapeutic uses Exploitation index (El)

203 1623 7.99 1586 88 77 92 1.19 158 2.05

89 1012 11.37 974 49 48 83 1.73 161 3.35

2.01

2.5

44 3.66

33 3.32

The higher degree of phytotherapeutic knowledge in Urzulei with respect to Campidano is demonstrated by the higher average citation per informant, higher number of preparations per plant and higher average of therapeutic uses per plant. The exploitation index (EI) is calculated by the formula EI = %Pm×AMP, where %Pm is the percentage of medicinal plants relative the species in Sardinia and AMP is the average of medicinal preparations per plant.

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

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Table 2 List of therapeutic uses of plants in the Campidano Valley (A) and Urzulei (B) (Sardinia, Italy) Therapeutic use

A. Campidano Abortion Anemia Aphrodisia Carminative Constipationa Corn-plaster Cough (catarrhal)b Cough (sedative) Diaphoresis Diarrhea and colitisc Digestion Diuresis Emesis Female disordersd Fever Galactagogue Gout Haematomae Haemolysis Heart and blood circulation Helminthiasis Hepatic Hyperglycemia Hypertension Insecticide Intestinal pain Jaundice Leanness Lung diseasef Mastitis Neuralgia Otorrhea Pain reliever Rachitis Rheumatismh Revulsive Scurvy Sedative (nervous) Skin disease Sore throat Stomach pain Stomatitis Tonic-stimulanti Vulneraryj

Number of citations per use

Percentage of each use per total citations

Number of each species employed for each use

Plant number from Appendix A

4 32 4 19 99 10 101 15 31 105 43 207

0.25 2.01 0.25 1.19 6.24 0.63 6.36 0.94 1.95 6.62 2.71 13.05

1 3 1 2 11 1 9 1 4 9 5 19

9 8 49 9 8 4 4 33

0.56 0.50 3.08 0.56 0.50 0.25 0.25 2.08

2 2 5 2 2 1 1 5

[82] [51,69,81] [84] [59,62] [25,27,28,34,39,45,47,49,61,68,70] [33] [7,12,32,48,50,63,64,66,85] [55] [10,48,60,79] [1,8,20,40,45,63,65,66,84] [24,39,42,46,72] [3,5,10,11,12,13,23,39,47,52,56,57,59,6 7,72,80,84,86,88] [39,61] [39,82] [4,30,37,39,45] [10,84] [33,37] [33] [33] [3,23,52,82,86]

45 20 9 56 26 38 4 4 48 4 22 12 4 4 41 4 47 51 113 50 4 38 70 78

2.83 1.26 0.56 3.53 1.64 2.39 0.25 0.25 3.02 0.25 1.38 0.75 0.25 0.25 2.58 0.25 2.96 3.21 7.12 3.15 0.25 2.39 4.41 4.91

4 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 4 1 3 1 1 1 6 1 3 5 9 2 1 4 8 6

[9,39,45,65] [2,25] [5] [18,19] [25,43] [44,53] [39] [85] [13,34,4l,85] [41] [30,42,83] [73] [31] [39] [33,40,45,69,83,87] [87] [67,69,78] [35,37,54,55,88] [1,14,22,36,39,44,56,58,70] [27,78] [69] [4,31,44,48] [9,15,40,46,53,63,73,76] [2,10,14,31,41,87]

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

102 Table 2 (continued) Therapeutic use

Number of citations per use

B. Urzulei Allergy 8 Anemia 4 Carminative 9 Constipationa 12 Cough (catarrhal)b 75 Cough (sedative) 4 Diarrhea and colitisc 27 Digestion 42 Diuresis 30 Emesis 4 Eye inflammation 22 Female disorderd 32 Fever 38 Haemorrhoids 4 Haematomae 12 Heart and blood circu7 lation Helminthiasis 8 Hepatic 19 Inappetence 10 Intestinal pain 103 Lung diseasef 82 Mastitis 8 15 Myalgiag Neuralgia 25 Pain reliever 4 Rheumatismh 64 Sedative (nervous) 15 Skin disease 102 Stomach pain 47 Stomatitis 8 Tonic-stimulanti 8 Toothache 30 Vulneraryj 96

Percentage of each use per total citations

Number of each species employed for each use

0.82 0.41 0.92 1.23 7 70 0.41 2.77 4.31 3.08 0.41 2.25 3.28 3.90 0.41 1.23 0.71

2 1 2 1 7 1 5 6 6 1 4 6 5 1 3 2

0.82 1.95 1.02 10.57 8.41 0.82 1.54 2.56 0.41 6.57 1.54 10.47 4.82 0.82 0.82 3.08 9.85

2 4 3 8 13 2 4 6 1 14 2 13 9 2 2 4 16

Plant number from Appendix A

[15,47] [35] [37,47] [7] [1,17,22,25,37,38,44] [10] [2,5,9,32,47] [5,13,18,22,23,24] [3,6,28,33,45,49] [5] [2,23,36,37] [2,11,22,23,38,43] [5,13,21,22,44] [21] [21,40,45] [24,47] [24,44] [4,9,35,45] [13,21,35] [4,8,18,20,21,24,27,30] [8,12,14,19,21,22,23,25,35,37,42,43,44] [21,27] [26,41,43,47] [1,14,27,31,37,42] [13] [1,2,6,14,16,26,35,36,39,40,41,44,47,48] [6,23] [1,21,22,26,27,29,33,40,41,43,45,47,48] [1,9,11,20,25,35,36,43,44] [4,21] [35,13] [2,10,43,48] [2,3,4,6,21,26,27,29,30,31,33,38,39,42,43 ,46]

The list refers the total citations per use, the relative percentage with respect to the total citations (1586 for Campidano and 974 for Urzulei), the number of plants acting on a single therapeutic use and the identifying plant number as reported in Appendix A. a Constipation includes all crude drugs that induce the intestinal evacuation. b Catarrhal cough includes catarrhal antitussive. c Diarrhea and colitis include intestinal astringents and intestinal antispasmodics. d Female disorders include all female complaints. e Haematoma includes contusions. f Lung diseases include generic colds, bronchitis, tracheitis. g Myalgia includes muscle pains. h Rheumatism includes joint pains. i Tonic-stimulant includes weakness. j Vulnerary includes burns and hemorrhage of minor wounds.

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

vides the total number of citations for a specific therapeutic use and indicates the percentage of the overall citations for each plant. It is worth noting that, (a) uses implying magic or symbolism are practically absent, (b) the number of therapeutic uses is lower in Urzulei and (c) some of the uses in Campindano appear to reflect the influence of mass media rather than isolation. In Urzulei, the curative uses are more specialized and more concrete; in Campidano they include so many ailments that they appear to displace technological medicine. Indeed, in Campidano folk medicinal plants are used to treat widely differing ailments such as corns, gout, hyperglycemia, hypertension, insect bites, jaundice, leanness, otorrhea, rachitis, scurvy and sore throat. They are also used as diaphoretics, galactogogues, hemolytics and to induce abortion. In Urzulei, uses that are not shared with Campidano are those which are highly specific cures, namely hemorrhoids, eye inflammation, loss of appetite, toothache and myalgia. The use of plants to combat allergies may have modern roots. It is worth noting that, in Urzulei, exploitation as a laxative is not a primary use, since constipation is a problem of areas with a high standard of living. There are also numerous remedies for intestinal pains and lung diseases, an ethnopharmacological legacy of shepherd populations. In Campidano the high percentage of diuretics and tonic-stimulants reflects the concept of purification often encountered in folk medicine of areas with a high standard of living. Table 3 lists plants with a percentage citation value of \2%, based on the index of specialization per species (ISs). The highest values (1.74 for Micromeria graeca and Matricaria chamomilla in Urzulei) indicate a high degree of specialization for a particular disorder while, the lower values (0.33 for Juglans regia in Campidano) indicate a low degree of specialization, and hence multipulpose uses. It appears that knowledge of plant remedies is higher in Urzulei (19 species listed) as compared to Campidano (12 species). The contrast between specialized and multipurpose plants indicates considerable differences in how phytotherapy is employed in the two areas. Finally, Table 4 provides the following data for each plant part used, type of prepartion, total number of citations, percentage of citations for each

103

Table 3 List of plants according to the index of specialization per species (ISs) Campidano

Chelidonium majus Sisymbrium officinale Ficus carica Punica granatum Urginea maritima Raphanus raphanistrum

Pistacia lentiscus Lilium candidum Arundo donax Laurus nobilis

Rumex acetosella

Juglans regia

ISs

Urzulei

1.74

Micromeria graeca, Matricaria chamomilla

1.54 1.45 1.26 1.19 1.16 1.12 1.00 0.98 0.92 0.90 0.86 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.70 0.68 0.61 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.51 0.45 0.41 0.33

Datura stramonium

Opuntia ficus-barbarica Parietaria lusitanica Sambucus nigra Mal6a syl6estris Gentiana lutea

Marrubium 6ulgare Quercus ilex, Smilax aspera Thymus herba-barona Artemisia arborescens Adiantum capillus-6eneris Achillea ligustica Arbutus unedo, Teucrium polium Urtica dioica Rosmarinum officinalis

preparation, number of curative uses, number of citations for the curative use most frequently mentioned, percentage of highest number of citations as compared against total individual citations for each plant, index of specialization by preparation and use (ISu) and primary therapeutic use (Um). The quantitative data are reported by plant, by part and by medicinal preparation. All the important quantitative and qualitative parameters pertinent to phytotherapy in the Campidano Valley and Urzulei may be drawn from these data. (Table 4). For the sake of clarity, an example may be given in reading the quantitative data for Acanthus mollis in Table 4. The first column the scientific name of the plant, namely Acanthus mollis, the

11. Asparagus acutifolius 12. A6ena sati6a 13. Borago officinalis 14. Chelidonium majus 15. Cistus incanus 16. Citrus sinensis

8. Arbutus unedo 9. Artemisia arborescens 10. Arundo donax

A. Campidano 1. Acanthus mollis 2. Achillea millefolium 3. Adonis annua 4. Ajuga i6a 5. Allium cepa 6. Alnus glutinosa 7. Althea rosea

No. and species

Cataplasm Decoction Decoction Infusion — Infusion

Aerial parts Stems Aerial parts Leaves Juice Leaves —

Decoction

Infusion

Leaves

Aerial parts

Cataplasm

Roots

Decoction

Decoction —

Whole plant Bulb —

Leaves

Infusion

Leaves

Decoction

Infusion

Leaves

Leaves

Cataplasm

Preparations

Leaves

Part used

Table 4 List of plants used in Campidano and Urzulei

10

49

22

14

21 25

27

19

23

4

4

10 31

15

20

18

Total citations per preparation (Ct)

0.63

3.08

1.38

0.88

1.32 1.57

1.70

1.19

1.45

0.25

0.25

0.63 1.95

0.94

1.26

1.13

Percentage of Ct over total (1586) citations per preparation (%Ct)

1

2

2

2

1 1

3

2

1

1

1

1 2

2

2

2

Number of therapeutic uses (U)

10

25

12

10

21 25

18

12

23

4

4

10 22

10

16

10

Highest no. of citations per use (Cm)

51.0

54.5

71.4

100.0 100.0

66.6

63.1

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0 70.9

66.6

80.0

55.5

Percentage of Cm per species (%Cm)

0.63

1.57

0.75

0.62

1.32 1.57

1.13

0.75

1.45

0.25

0.25

0.63 1.38

0.62

1.00

0.62

Tonic-stimulant

Cicatrizant

Lung diseases

Diuresis

Cicatrizant Diuresis

Diuresis

Helminthiasis

Catarrhal cough Diarrhea

Stomatitis

Febrifuge Diuresis

Diuresis

Hepatic

Skin diseases

Index of spe- Main therapeucialization per tic use (Um) prepartion and use (ISu)

104 A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

34. Hordeum 6ulgare 35. Humulus lupulus

31. Geranium rotundifolium 32. Glycyrrhiza glabra 33. Hedera helix

26. Euphorbia characias 27. Ficus carica 28. Fraxinus ornus 29. Galium lucidum 30. Gentiana lutea

25. Euonymus europaeus

17. Chrozophora tinctoria 18. Crataegus oxyacantha 19. Crepis 6esicaria 20. Cupressus semper6irens 21. Daphne gnidium 22. Dianthus siculus 23. Digitalis purpurea 24. Dipsacus fullonum Decoction Decoction

Whole plant Cones

Decoction

Decoction

Leaves Roots Seeds

Decoction

Bark

Decoction Cataplasm Decoction Decoction

Infusion Cataplasm Decoction Infusion

Roots Roots Leaves Roots

Leaves Leaves Fruits Flower heads

—

—

Fruits

Decoction

Infusion

Leaves

Leaves —

Infusion

Leaves

—

Decoction

Leaves

—

18

10 20

17

6

10 22

15

23

40

4

8

4

9

12

4

26

30

1.13

0.63 1.26

1.07

0.37

0.63 1.38

0.94

1.45

2.52

0.25

0.50

0.25

0.56

0.75

0.25

1.63

1.89

1

1 2

4

1

1 3

1

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

18

10 12

5

6

10 10

15

23

20

4

4

4

5

12

4

26

30

100.0

100.0 60.0

29.4

100.0

100.0 45.4

100.0

100.0

50.0

100.0

50.0

100.0

55.5

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

1.13

0.63 0.75

0.31

0.37

0.63 0.62

0.94

1.45

1.26

0.25

0.25

0.25

0.31

0.75

0.25

1.63

1.89

Sedative

Callus reducer Lung diseases

Rheumatism

Catarrhal cough

Neuralgia Cicatrizant

Febrifuge

Sore throat/ constipation Constipation

Hepatic/constipation Insecticide

Digestive

Heart disorders

Skin diseases

Diarrhea

Hypertension

Hypertension

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124 105

22

25 16 30 27 25 8 28

Infusion Cataplasm Ointment Decoction Infusion Infusion Infusion

20

—

Decoction

Bulb

8 9 9 34

14 4 17

Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction

Fruits Bark Roots Leaves

32

14

9

Total citations per preparation (Ct)

Wine Ointment Infusion

Infusion

Leaves

Flower heads Flower heads 42. Lippia cit- Leaves riodora 43. Lycopersi- Juice con esculentum 44. Mal6a Leaves syl6estris Leaves Leaves 45. Melia Seeds azedarach 46. Mentha Leaves sp. 47. MercuriLeaves alis annua 48. Microme- Leaves ria graeca

40. Laurus nobilis 41. Lilium candidum

Decoction

Leaves —

Cataplasm

Leaves

36. Hyoscyamus albus and H. niger 37. Ilex aquifolium 38. Iris pseudoacorus 39. Juglans regia

Preparations

Part used

No. and species

Table 4 (continued)

1.76

0.50

1.57

1.00 1.89 1.70

1.57

1.38

0.88 0.25 1.07

1.26

0.50 0.56 0.56 2.14

2.01

0.88

0.56

Percentage of Ct over total (1586) citations per preparation (%Ct)

3

2

2

1 1 5

1

1

1 1 2

1

2 2 2 3

5

3

1

Number of therapeutic uses (U)

12

4

13

16 30 8

25

22

14 4 10

20

4 5 5 15

10

6

9

Highest no. of citations per use (Cm)

42.8

50.0

52.0

100.0 100.0 29.6

100.0

100.0

100.0 100.0 58.8

100.0

100.0 55.5 55.5 44.1

31.2

42.8

100.0

Percentage of Cm per species (%Cm)

0.75

0.25

0.81

1.00 1.89 0.50

1.57

1.38

0.88 0.25 0.63

1.26

0.50 0.31 0.31 0.94

0.63

0.37

0.56

Diuresis/constipation Catarrhal cough

Tonic-stimulant

Stomatitis Skin diseases Febrifuge

Intestinal pains

Insecticide

Cicatrizant Mastitis Digestive

Skin diseases Emesis Constipation Diarrhea/ rheumatism Lung diseases

Helminthiasis

Febrifuge

Skin diseases

Index of spe- Main therapeucialization per tic use (Um) prepartion and use (ISu)

106 A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

60. Phragmites australis 61. Phytolacca decandra 62. Pimpinella anisum 63. Pistacia lentiscus 64. Pistacia therebinthus 65. Punica granatum 66. Quercus pubescens 67. Raphanus raphanistrum

49. Morus nigra 50. Myrtus communis 51. Nasturtium officinale 52. Nerium oleander 53. Ocimum basilicum 54. Papa6er rhoeas 55. Papa6er somniferum 56. Parietaria judaica 57. Paronychia argentea 58. Pelargonium peltatum 59. Petroselinum sati6um

— Infusion —

Infusion Infusion Infusion Infusion Decoction Infusion

Cataplasm

Infusion

Decoction Decoction

Wine Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction Infusion

Fruits Leaves Juice

Leaves Leaves Flower heads Fruits Leaves Aerial parts

Leaves

Leaves

Seeds Aerial parts

Leaves Fruits Fruits Leaves Fruits Bark Leaves

32

10

38

16

39

4

8

15 4

10

4

6

16

23

7

26

8

15

30

10

2.01

0.63

2.39

1.00

2.45

0.25

0.50

0.94 0.25

0.63

0.25

0.37

1.00

1.45

0.44

1.63

0.50

0.94

1.89

0.63

2

2

2

1

3

1

2

1 1

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

1

16

5

19

16

20

4

4

15 4

10

4

6

9

15

7

12

4

15

30

10

50.0

50.0

50.0

100.0

51.3

100.0

50.0

100.0 100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

56.2

65.2

100.0

46.1

50.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

1.00

0.31

1.19

1.00

1.25

0.25

0.25

0.94 0.25

0.63

0.25

0.37

0.56

0.94

0.44

0.75

0.25

0.94

1.89

0.63

Emesis/constipation Carminative wine Catarrhal cough Catarrhal cough Diarrhea/ helminthiasis Catarrhal cough/diarrhea Diuresis/antiscorbutic

Carminative Diaphoresis

Diuresis

Skin diseases

Diuresis

Diuresis

Cough sedative

Sedative

Diuresis/cardiotonic Intestinal pains

Catarrhal cough Anemia

Constipation

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124 107

Infusion

Leaves

83. Thapsia garganica

74. Salix alba 75. Salsola soda 76. Sal6ia sclarea 77. Schinus molle 78. Sisymbrium officinale 79. Smilax aspera 80. Sonchus oleraceus 81. Spinacea oleracea 82. Taxus baccata

Decoction

Leaves

Decoction

Branches -

— — Decoction

Whole plant Leaves Branches

Cataplasm

Decoction

Leaves

Leaves

Decoction

Leaves

-

Infusion

Decoction

Leaves

Leaves

Decoction

Aerial parts

-

Infusion

Leaves

68. Rumex acetosa 69. Rumex acetosella 70. Rumex crispus 71. Rumex tyrsoides 72. Ruscus aculeatus 73. Ruta chalepensis

Preparations

Part used

No. and species

Table 4 (continued)

13

12

4

18

17

46

10

10

12

20

18

36

4

Total citations per preparation (Ct)

0.81

0.75

0.25

1.13

1.07

2.90

0.63

0.63

0.75

1.26

1.13

2.27

0.25

Percentage of Ct over total (1586) citations per preparation (%Ct)

2

3

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

2

4

1

Number of therapeutic uses (U)

8

4

4

18

17

30

10

10

12

13

10

15

4

Highest no. of citations per use (Cm)

61.5

33.3

100.0

100.0

100.0

65.2

100.0

100.0

100.0

65.0

55.5

41.6

100.0

Percentage of Cm per species (%Cm)

0.49

0.25

0.25

1.13

1.07

1.89

0.63

0.63

0.75

0.82

0.62

0.94

0.25

Rheumatism

Abortion inducer/female disorders/car-

Anemia

Diuresis

Diaphoresis

Sore throat

Tonic-stimulant

Tonic-stimulant

Otorrhea

Digestive

Skin diseases

Scurvy

Constipation

Index of spe- Main therapeucialization per tic use (Um) prepartion and use (ISu)

108 A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

3 4 16 23 4

4 8

Infusion Cataplasm Decoction Decoction Cataplasm

Cataplasm Decoction

4 4 5

Cataplasm

Leaves

26

8 8

11

13 18

37

8

4

24

Cataplasm Infusion

Decoction

Stems Cataplasm

Leaves Leaves Leaves

Infusion

Leaves

Decoction Infusion

Leaves Stigmas and styles

Cataplasm

Seeds

Decoction

—

Seeds

Bulb

Decoction

Aerial parts

Roots 3. Alnus gluti- Bark nosa Leaves 4. Arbutus Fruits unedo Roots 5. Artemisia Aerial parts arborescens 6. Arum Fruits italicum and A. pictum Tuber Leaves

2. Adiantum capillus6eneris

B. Urzulei 1. Achillea ligustica

86. Urginea maritima 87. Urtica sp. 88. Zea mays

84. Tribulus terrestris 85. Trigonella foenumgraecum

0.41 0.82

0.41

1.64 2.36

0.30 0.41

0.41 0.51

0.41

2.66

0.82 0.82

1.13

0.81 1.13

2.33

0.50

0.25

1.51

1 2

1

3 4

1 1

1 1

1

4

2 2

1

3 2

2

2

1

4

4 5

4

7 11

3 4

4 5

4

14

5 4

11

5 14

22

4

4

12

100.0 62.5

100.0

43.7 47.8

100.0 100.0

100.0 100.0

100.0

53.8

62.5 50.0

100.0

38.4 77.7

59.4

50.0

100.0

50.0

0.41 0.51

0.41

0.72 1.12

0.30 0.41

0.41 0.51

0.41

1.43

0.51 0.41

1.13

0.31 0.87

1.38

0.25

0.25

0.75

Cicatrizant Diuresis

Rheumatism

Hepatic Intestinal pains

Diuresis Cicatrizant

Eye inflammation Cicatrizant Cicatrizant

Neuralgia Rheumatism/ skin diseases Female pains

Gastralgia

Rheumatism Sedative

Catarrhal cough/lung diseases Diuresis

Fattener

Diarrhea

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124 109

13

Infusion

8

4

Decoction

Infusion

4

Wine

8

8 4

Cataplasm Infusion

Cataplasm

4 4

37

Decoction Decoction Vaporization

5 4

4

Infusion Syrup

Vaporization

Leaves

12

18 3

Decoction

Roots

8

12

Total citations per preparation (Ct)

Cataplasm Decoction

Syrup

Fruits

Leaves 11. Dryopteris Leaves filix-mas Leaves 12. Ficus car- Fruits ica 13. Gentiana Roots lutea Leaves 14. Hedera Leaves helix Leaves 15. HelicryWhole plant sum italicum 16. Juniperus Cones oxycedrus 17. Lamium Leaves album 18. Laurus Leaves nobilis 19. Linum Stems usitatissimum 20. Lonicera Leaves implexa

Infusion

Leaves

7. Cichorium intybus 8. Cydonia oblonga 9. Cynodon dactylon 10. Datura stramonium

Preparations

Part used

No. and species

Table 4 (continued)

0.82

0.82

1.33

0.41

0.41

0.82 0.41

0.41 0.41

3.79

0.51 0.41

1.84 0.30

0.41

1.23

0.82

1.23

Percentage of Ct over total (1586) citations per preparation (%Ct)

2

1

2

1

1

2 1

1 1

4

1 1

1 1

1

3

2

1

Number of therapeutic uses (U)

4

8

9

4

4

5 4

4 4

21

5 4

18 3

4

5

4

12

Highest no. of citations per use (Cm)

50.0

100.0

69.2

100.0

100.0

62.5 100.0

100.0 100.0

56.7

100.0 100.0

100.0 100.0

100.0

41.6

50.0

100.0

Percentage of Cm per species (%Cm)

0.41

0.82

0.92

0.41

0.41

0.51 0.41

0.41 0.41

2.14

0.51 0.41

1.84 0.30

0.41

0.51

0.41

1.23

Gastralgia/intestinal pains

Lung diseases

Catarrhal cough Intestinal pains

Rheumatism

Rheumatism Allergy

Pain relief Lung diseases

Febrifuge

Toothache Female disorders Gastralgia Lung diseases

Cough sedative

Bronchitis/intestinal pains Gastralgia

Laxative

Index of spe- Main therapeucialization per tic use (Um) prepartion and use (ISu)

110 A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

34. Rhamnus alaternus

28. Petroselinum crispum 29. Pistacia lentiscus 30. Plantago lanceolata 31. Plantago major 32. Punica granatum 33. Quercus ilex

27. Parietaria lusitanica

23. Matricaria chamomilla 24. Mentha aquatica 25. Micromeria graeca 26. Opuntia ficus-barbarica

22. Marrubium 6ulgare

21. Mal6a syl6estris

20 12 20 4 10

Cataplasm

Roasted stems Cataplasm Leaves Cataplasm Decoction Vaporization Decoction

Topical use Cataplasm Cataplasm Decoction Cataplasm Decoction

Stems

Leaves Leaves Leaves

Resin Leaves Flower heads Bark Wood Bark -

28

Decoction

Whole plant

8

12

4

10

12

8

51

17

Infusion

28

4 8

Leaves

Decoction Wine

Whole plant Whole plant

15 29 9 21 29

Infusion

Cataplasm Infusion Cataplasm Infusion Decoction

Roots Leaves Flower heads Leaves Roots

35

Flower heads

Decoction

Roots

0.82

1.23

0.41

1.02

1.23

0.82

2.05 0.41 1.02

2.05 1.23

2.87

5.23

1.74

2.87

0.41 0.82

1.54 2.97 0.92 2.15 2.97

3.59

2

1

1

2

1

2

1 1 1

4 3

1

3

4

5

1 1

3 4 2 3 4

1

4

12

4

8

8

4

20 4 10

8 4

28

39

5

12

4 8

7 17 5 13 17

35

50.0

100.0

100.0

80.0

66.6

50.0

100.0 100.0 100.0

40.0 33.3

100.0

76.4

29.4

42.8

100.0 100.0

46.6 58.6 55.5 61.9 58.6

100.0

0.41

1.23

0.41

0.81

0.81

0.41

2.05 0.41 1.02

0.82 0.40

2.87

3.99

0.51

1.22

0.41 0.82

0.71 1.74 0.51 1.33 1.74

3.59

Diuresis/skin diseases

Cicatrizant

Diarrhea

Cicatrizant

Cicatrizant/skin diseases Cicatrizant

Cicatrizant Cicatrizant/skin diseases Intestinal pains Neuralgia Diuresis

Digestive/intestinal pains Catarrhal cough Skin diseases

Skin diseases Catarrhal cough Sedative

Skin diseases Lung diseases Cicatrizant Intestinal pains Digestive

Intestinal pains

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124 111

44. Thymus herbabarona

39. Scrophularia trifoliata 40. Smilax aspera 41. Tamus communis 42. Teucrium marum 43. Teucrium polium

38. Sanguisorba minor

37. Sambucus nigra

13 19

Cataplasm Cataplasm

Ointment Ointment Infusion Cataplasm Decoction Infusion Infusion

Flowers Flower heads

Fruits Fruits Flowers, leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant

12 4 8

15

20

5 12

26 8 8

Decoction Infusion Decoction

10

3 4

Fruits Fruits Aerial parts

Cataplasm Vaporization

Flower heads Leaves

4 5

Cataplasm

Vaporization Decoction

Leaves Leaves

8

16

Total citations per preparation (Ct)

Fresh flowers

Infusion

Aerial parts

36. Ruta gra6eolens

Decoction

Aerial parts

35. Rosmarinus officinalis

Preparations

Part used

No. and species

Table 4 (continued)

1.23 0.41 0.82

1.95

1.33

1.54

2.05

0.51 1.23

2.66 0.82 0.82

1.02

0.30 0.41

0.41 0.51

0.82

1.64

Percentage of Ct over total (1586) citations per preparation (%Ct)

3 1 2

3

3

3

3

1 2

2 2 2

1

1 1

1 1

2

4

Number of therapeutic uses (U)

5 4 4

7

5

7

8

5 8

14 5 4

10

3 4

4 5

5

5

Highest no. of citations per use (Cm)

41.6 100.0 50.0

36.8

38.4

46.6

40.0

100.0 66.6

53.8 62.5 50.0

100.0

100.0 100.0

100.0 100.0

62.5

31.2

Percentage of Cm per species (%Cm)

0.51 0.41 0.41

0.71

0.51

0.71

0.82

0.51 0.82

1.43 0.51 0.41

1.02

0.30 0.41

0.41 0.51

0.51

0.51

Gastralgia Toothache Helminthiasis/ gastralgia

Skin diseases

Neuralgia

Rheumatism/ skin diseases Rheumatism

Rheumatism Eye inflammations Eye inflammations Lung diseases Carminative Catarrhal cough/female disorders Cicatrizant Cicatrizant

Tonic-stimulant/anemia Lung diseases Gastralgia

Hepatic

Index of spe- Main therapeucialization per tic use (Um) prepartion and use (ISu)

112 A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

0.41

2.36 1.23

0.82

0.92 0.82

0.82

0.41 0.41 0.82

1

5 3

2

2 1

2

1 1 2

4

7 8

4

5 8

4

4 4 5

100.0

30.4 50.0

50.0

55.5 100.0

50.0

100.0 100.0 62.5

0.41

0.71 0.61

0.41

0.51 0.82

0.41

0.41 0.41 0.51

Diuresis

Carminative/ colitis Skin diseases Skin diseases

Rheumatism Lung diseases Catarrhal cough Diuresis/hepatic Skin diseases Cicatrizant

D, plant part employed; P, type of preparation; Ct, number of total citations; %Ct, percentual value of the total citations per preparation; U, number of curative uses; Cm, highest number of citations for individual curative uses; %Cm, percentual value of the maximum citation with respect to the total of the individual citations for the single plant employed; ISu, index of specialization for preparation and use; Um, main therapeutic use. The data are reported for each plant, for each part employed and for the medicinal preparation employed.

4

8

Infusion

Decoction

Roots

9 8

23 16

Cataplasm Cataplasm

Flower heads Bulb

8

4 4 8

Cataplasm Cataplasm

Decoction

Cataplasm Vaporization Wine

Leaves, stems

Leaves 48. Verbascum Leaves pul6erulentum 49. Zea mays Stigmas and styles

46. Urginea maritima 47. Urtica dioica

45. Umbelicus rupestris

Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124 113

114

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

second column indicates the part of the plant employed, the third its medicinal preparation, the fourth the total number of citations (Ct) for A. mollis, the percentage of Ct over the total citations (18/1586) expressed as a percentage (1.13%). The next column U indicates the number of therapeutic uses (two) mentioned for the plant, followed by the number of times (ten) the main use (Cm) was mentioned. By dividing the percentage of Cm (10) over the total number of citations (Ct) (18; column 4) one can appreciate the importance of the main use namely 55.5% (ten citations for the main use of the total 18 citations for the species). Finally the index or degree of specialization may be computed by multiplying the %Ct by %Cm divided by 100 (1.13 ×55.5/100 = 0.62). The higher the value of this index, the higher the degree of specialization of the use. An index of specialization of 0.62 for Acanthus mollis is not particularly high.

4. Discussion and conclusions The data show that some of the therapeutic uses found are either strictly local or not frequently reported in the Mediterranean area. On the one hand, in Sardinia the peculiarities of phytotherapy may be attributed to cultural stratification resulting from several waves of colonization. One example of this is the use of the stigma and styles of Zea mays as a diuretic. This use is not popular in continental Italy and is only found in areas where Spanish influence was strong, namely, Campania, Lombardia and western Veneto. In these localities, the plant is used in the same way as in Catalonia and Castile (Capasso et al., 1982; Lokar-Coassini and Poldini, 1988; Alcazar et al., 1990; Leporatti and Pavesi, 1990; Seoane et al., 1991; Bonet et al., 1992). On the other hand, in Campidano Ajuga i6a is used as a remedy for malarial fever, a therapeutic use not recorded in the literature. Other localised use for the Campidano Valley that may be cited are Melia azedarach as an anthelminitic and antipyretic, Crepis 6esicaria as a hypotensive and Cistus incanus as a tonic. It is worth noting that Salix alba, used in the Mediterranean basin as an antipyretic is here employed as a wool dye.

In Urzulei original uses have been found for Optuntia ficus-barbarica (as a cataplasm) for rheumatism and muscle cramps, Quercus ilex (thin slices of the wood) as a haemostatic, Achillea ligustica (in many preparations) for rheumatism, gastralgia and neuralgia, Micromeria graeca as a remedy for respiratory diseases, Arum italicum and A. pictum as an antirheumatic and Scrophularia trifoliata as a vulnerary and antirheumatic. As defined in Section 2, an index of consensus, ISs, may be used to compare the consensus of use between species. In comparing Campidano and Urzulei, in Campidano the ISs is low (1.89 max) while in Urzulei is generally higher (3.99 max). One can also compare the mean of medicinal preapartions and weighted therapeutic uses between these two areas with other geographic areas. In Campidano the mean of medicinal preparations and weighted therapeutic uses (Campidano 99/44= 2.1; Urzulei 83/33= 2.5) is higher compared to other settled temperate zones in continental Europe (Lokar-Coassini and Poldini, 1988; Novaretti and Lemordant, 1990; Bonet et al., 1992; De Feo and Senatore, 1993), but lower than other Mediterranean islands and Asia or Africa (Boulos, 1983; Dafni et al., 1984; Bouket, 1986; Friedman et al., 1986; Goodman and Hobbs, 1988; Onayade et al., 1990; Bellakhdar et al., 1991; Sezik et al., 1991). It can, therefore, be inferred that popular phytotherapy in Campidano and Urzulei falls somewhere between what is typical of the North and the South as well as between highly industrialized and agricultural economies. The quantitative analysis presented here has focused on the number of citations (a) per plant, (b) per preparation and (c) per curative use. An adjusted list of curative uses has been compiled in an attempt to compare the ethnobotanical data. Then indices were derived, validating the tendency toward either specialization or generic use of the plants and/or preparations. A plant or preparation with a high has a high degree of validation. Such medicinal validation is a gradual, ongoing social process based on

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

familiarity with the plant and the historic – social background of the population (Trotter and Logan, 1986; Etkin, 1988; Fuller, 1988; Lett, 1991; Bruni, 1993, 1995). In conclusion the data presented provide two parameters for observation. First, the plant or its preparation which have a high number of citations for a specific curative use. In this case the ongoing social-historical validation, establishing the relationship between plant and disorder, is more advanced. Hence one sees the remedy’s cultural transition from popular phytotherapy into modern drug. Second the plant or its preparation which have a high number of citations for more than one pathology; this reflects the process by which a plant’s curative properties are validated. These two parameters must be taken together whenever an ethnopharmacological study deals with a community such as those in Sardinia or in any other Mediterranean country, which has a well-established written culture and where significant technological advances have taken place. In Urzulei there was significant reference to first-aid treatment, while in Campidano more attention was paid to the expression of modern ailments, such as glycemia, hypertension and constipation. Current popular phytotherapy in Sardinia reflects a transition toward alternative forms of health care seen as ‘natural’. Indeed folk medicine, which once reflected a population’s ethnical-cultural roots, is now being focused on ‘natural’ remedies for the ailments typical of technological cultures. Gradually the cultural and ethnic explanation for the use of a particular plant are falling by the wayside, while reasons for such displacement are to be sought in the mass media. This process has not empirically worked its way from individual case to large-scale application; rather, it has moved from the mass-promoted ‘health’ into the individual (Berger and Luckman, 1967; Garfinkel, 1967; Bernardi, 1980; Souria, 1982; Dousset, 1988; Bruni, 1991, 1992; Baigre and Hattiangadi, 1992; De Smet, 1993; Young, 1993; Bruni, 1995). The method described here should provide quantitative insights that could lead ethnopharmacology to innovative horizons in dealing with the complex questions, which have always brought man, medicine and illness together.

115

Acknowledgements This research was supported by grants from CNR (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche), MURST (Ministero dell’Universita` e della Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica) and INTERREG of Italy. The authors thank Dr. Eileen Cartoon for English correction.

Appendix A. Major uses of medicinal plants in the Campidano Valley (A) and Urzulei (B) (Sardinia, Italy) The data was noted by more than four informants and with more than four citations (for Urzulei three citations) for a single use: Scientific name/family/‘common name’/uses (number of citations for use)[number of voucher specimen] A. Campidano 1. Acanthus mollis L./Schrophulariaceae/ ‘folla’e Santu giorgi’/poultices of the boiled leaves are employed as a skin emollient (10) and against diarrhea and colitis (8) [988 CAG]. 2. Achillea millefolium L./Compositae/ ‘balleriana mascu’/leaf infusion is drunk as an hepatic depurative (16) and topically employed as a haemostatic in minor wounds (4) [754 CAG]. 3. Adonis annua L./Ranuculaceae/‘ogu ’e boi’/leaf infusion is taken as a diuretic (10) and to strengthen the heart (5) [8 CAG]. 4. Ajuga i6a Schreber/Labiatae/‘erba pesa callentura’/the entire plant is boiled to make a decoction, which is drunk to relieve malarial fever (10) [1113 CAG]. 5. Allium cepa L./Liliaceae/‘cibudda’/the raw bulb is used as a diuretic (22) and to treat diabetes (9) [1394/a CAG]. 6. Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertner/Betulaceae/‘mura burda’/the bark is used to dye wool (10) [6/7 CAG].

116

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

Althaea rosea L./Malvaceae/‘bastoni ’e Santu Giuseppe’/sliced roots (fresh) are used as a cataplasm against dental abscesses (4); the leaf infusion is used to relieve catarrhal cough (4) [230 CAG]. Arbutus unedo L./Ericaceae/‘olioni’/ leaf decoction is used as an intestinal antiseptic in cases of diarrhea (23) [878 CAG]. Artemisia arborescens L./Compositae/ ‘sentzu’/leaf decoction is drunk as a tonic-stimulant (7) and to treat nematodes and flatworms (12) [734 CAG]. Arundo donax L./Gramineae/‘canna’/ decoction of the culms is used as a diaphoretic (4), diuretic (18) and galactogogue (5); tender culms are moistened with saliva and used as a haemostatic cataplasm (21) [1530 CAG]. Asparagus acutifolius L./Liliaceae/‘sparau’/decoction of the shoots is used as a diuretic to treat kidney problems (25) [1409 CAG]. A6ena sati6a L./Gramineae/‘ena’/decoction of the culms is drunk as a remedy for catarrhal cough (4) and as a diuretic (10) [1531 CAG]. Borago officinalis L./Boraginaceae/‘lingua arada’/leaf infusion is drunk as a diuretic (10) and as a pectoral emollient in the treatment of influenza (12) [979 CAG]. Chelidonium majus L./Papaveraceae/ ‘erba ’e intzerras’/the juice of the plant is used as a cicatrizant (25), in case of parasitic skin irritations and skin eruptions (24) [52 CAG]. Cistus incanus L./Cistaceae/‘murdegu’/ leaf infusion is taken as a tonic energizer (10) [132 CAG]. Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck/Rutaceae/ ‘arangiu’/infusion of the flower is used as a flavouring (34) [271/c CAG].

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Juss./Euphorbiaceae/‘erba ’e soli’/the fruit is used as a blue dye for fabrics (4) [1225 CAG]. Crataegus oxyacantha L./Rosaceae/ ‘tavigu’/leaf and flower decoction is used as a hypotensive (30) [489 CAG]. Crepis 6esicaria L./Compositae/‘cicoria’/decoction of the entire plant is drunk as a hypotensive (26) [843/a CAG]. Cupressus semper6irens L./Cupressaceae/‘cipressu’/a decoction is prepared from cones and used as an astringent to treat diarrhea (4) [4/4 CAG]. Daphne gnidium L./Thymelaeaceae/ ‘truiscu’/the soaked stem and roots are used to dye wool black (19) and the soaked fruit to dye wool yellow (l0); ground stem is employed as a fish poison (4) [1186 CAG]. Dianthus siculus Presl/Caryophyllaceae/‘gravellu’/leaf infusion is used as a tonic lotion in skin diseases (12) [156 CAG]. Digitalis purpurea L./Schrophulariaceae/‘digitali’/leaf infusion is used internally as a diuretic (4) and as a cardiotonic (5) [1035 CAG]. Dipsacus fullonum L./Dipsacaceae/ ‘cardu aresti’/leaf and root decoction is used to stimulate digestion (4) [676 CAG]. Euonymus europaeus L./Celastraceae/ ‘cafe burdu’/seed decoction is used as a laxative (4) and in cases of hepatic problems (4) while leaf decoction is used as an insecticide (4) [274/a CAG]. Euphorbia characias L./Euphorbiaceae/ ‘lua’/the branches are used as a fish poison (20) [1216 CAG]. Ficus carica L./Moraceae/‘figu’/the fruit is eaten as a remedy sore throat (20) and as a laxative (20) [46/ 32 CAG].

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

Fraxinus ornus L./Oleaceae/‘frassu’/ bark decoction is taken as a laxative (23) [885 CAG]. Galium lucidum All./Rubiaceae/‘piga piga’/the stem and leaves are employed to curdle milk (4) [662/b CAG]. Gentiana lutea L./Gentianaceae/ ‘gentziana’/an antipyretic decoction is obtained from the roots (15); the masticated fresh roots are used as a cataplasm to relieve neuralgia (10) [938 CAG]. Geranium rotundifolium L./Geraniaceae/‘geraniu’/leaf decoction is taken as a vulnerary (10), against stomatitis (8) and as a general pain reliever (4) [245 CAG]. Glycyrrhiza glabra L./Leguminosae/‘regolitzia’/root decoction is used to induce expectoration (6) [392 CAG]. Hedera helix L./Araliaceae/‘folla ’era’/ leaf infusion is used as an antirheumatic (5) and as a remedy for gout (4); the infusion, employed a lotion, is used to remove the coagula in minor wounds (4) and to cure haematomas (4); the soaked leaves are used as a cataplasm to remove callosities (10) [635 CAG]. Hordeum 6ulgare L./Gramineae/‘forrani’/decoction of the caryopses is drunk as a pectoral emollient (12) and as a mild laxative (8) [1635 CAG]. Humulus lupulus L./Cannabaceae/ ‘lupulu’/infusion of flowering tops is used as a sedative (18) [12 CAG]. Hyoscyamus albus L. and H. niger L./ Solanaceae/‘folla ’e opus’/poultices prepared with fresh leaves are used to relieve epidermal irritation and furunculosis (9) [997 and 996 CAG]. Ilex aquifolium L./Aquifoliaceae/‘lau spinosu’/leaf decoction is used as an antipyretic (6), a nervous sedative (4) and a remedy for gout (4) [879 CAG]. Iris pseudo-acorus L./Iridaceae/‘lillu grogu’/seeds are used as a sternutatory (4) [1350 CAG].

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

117

Juglans regia L./Juglandaceae/‘nuxi’/ leaf infusion is employed as an emmenagogue (4), antipyretic (10), anthelmintic (10), skin astringent and antiscrofulotic (8); decoction of nut shells is used as an antirachitic (4) and for digestive problems (4); bark decoction is used in cases of jaundice (4) and as an emetic (5); decoction of the roots is used as a diuretic (4) and a laxative (5) [1256 CAG]. Laurus nobilis L./Lauraceae/‘lau’/decoction obtained from the leaves is used as an astringent in diarrhea (15), a tonic-stimulant (4) and an antirheumatic agent (15) [1192 CAG]. Lilium candidum L./Liliaceae/‘lilliu ’e Santu Aleni’/petals and bulbs decoction prepared in milk is used as a pectoral emollient poultices (20). Petals soaked in spirit are used as a haemostatic for wounds and superficial abrasions (14). The oil prepared from the flowers is used as a remedy for pueperal mastitis (4) [1367 CAG]. Lippia citriodora Kunth/Verbenaceae/ ‘marialuisa’/leaf infusion is drunk as a remedy for neuralgia (7) and as a digestive (10) [13/24 CAG]. Lycopersicon esculentum Miller/ Solanaceae/‘tomata’/leaves are squeezed to prepare a juice used as an insecticide (22) [998 CAG]. Mal6a syl6estris L./Malvaceae/ ‘narbedda’/leaf infusion is drunk as a remedy for intestinal disorders (25). Boiled leaves are used in poultices for stomatitis (16) or to prepare an ointment for forunculosis (30) by adding oil and flour [219 CAG]. Melia azedarach L./Meliaceae/‘linna furistera’/seed decoction is used as an anthelmintic (4), a laxative (7), an antipyretic (8), in cases of diarrhea (4) and rheumatisms (4) [5/41 CAG]. Mentha sp./Labiatae/‘mentastru’/leaf infusion is used as a digestive (12) and a tonic stimulant (13) [1069 CAG].

118

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

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Mercurialis annua L./Euphorbiaceae/ ‘cadoni burdu’/the whole plant is used to dye wool violet (4) and leaf infusion is employed as a laxative (4) and as a diuretic for kidney problems (4) [1226 CAG]. Micromeria graeca (L.) Benth./Labiatae/‘isopu’/leaf infusion is used as a diaphoretic (6) and anticatarrhal (12), and to treat stomatitis (10) [1080 CAG]. Morus nigra L./Moraceae/‘gessa niedda’/fruit is taken as a laxative (10) [46/26 CAG]. Myrtus communis L./Myrtaceae/‘murtaucci’/leaves are used to tan leather (4); leaf infusion is drunk as an antitussive in cases of catarrhal cough (30) [514 CAG]. Nasturtium officinale R. Br./Cruciferae/‘mattutzu’/plant juice is administered to children in cases of anemias (15) [94 CAG]. Nerium oleander L./Apocynaceae/‘launaxi’/a very diluted leaf infusion is drunk as a cardiotonic (4) and diuretic (4) [926 CAG]. Ocimum basilicum L./Labiatae/‘affabica’/leaf infusion are used to prepare a stimulating beverage (12). It is also used as an antiseptic and antispasmodic in intestinal disorders (14) [331/g CAG]. Papa6er rhoeas L./Papaveraceae/‘pabaoli’/petal decoction is used as a sedative for children (7) [48 CAG]. Papa6er somniferum L./Papaveraceae/ ‘pabaoli furesteri’/fresh capsule is used to prepare an infusion, which is taken as a general sedative (8) and as a cough sedative (15) [47/a CAG]. Parietaria judaica L./Urticaceae/‘erba ’e bentu’/leaf decoction is used as a skin emollient (7) and diuretic (9) [1246/b CAG]. Paronychia argentea Lam./Caryophyllaceae/‘erba impatriada’/infusion of aerial part is used as a diuretic (6) [522 CAG].

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

Pelargonium peltatum (L.) Ait./Geraniaceae/‘geraniu’/fresh leaves are employed as a skin emollient cataplasm (4) [335 CAG]. Petroselinum sati6um Hoffm./Umbelliferae/‘perdusemini’/an infusion of leaves is used as a diuretic (10); seed infusion is drunk to treat digestive flatulence (‘for wind’) (15) [615 CAG]. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin./ Gramineae/‘cannisoni’/decoction of the culms is used as a diaphoretic (4) [1531 CAG]. Phytolacca decandra L./Phytolaccaceae/‘axina ’e margiani’/fruit is used to dye wool purple (9); alcoholic tincture or leaf decoction in wine is employed as a emetic (4) and drastic purgative (4) [1233/b CAG]. Pimpinella anisum L./Umbelliferae/ ‘mattafaula’/decoction of the fruits in wine or in ‘grappa’ (a distillate of wine-pomace) is used as a carminative in cases of digestive flatulence (4) [578 CAG]. Pistacia lentiscus L./Anacardiaceae/ ‘modditzi’/decoction obtained from the fruit is drunk as an internal astringent to treat dysentery (15), as a general tonic (4) and to induce expectoration (20) [280 CAG]. Pistacia terebinthus L./Anacardiaceae/ ‘modditzi ’e monti’/leaf decoction is used as an anticatarrhal (16) [279 CAG]. Punica granatum L./Punicaceae/‘arenada’/rind of the pomegranate (fruit) is used as a yellow dye (19) and to prepare a decoction used as an internal astringent (19) and antihelminthic (19) [9/111 CAG]. Quercus pubescens Willd./Fagaceae/‘ruulu’/bark is used to tan leather (4), and to make a decoction as an anticatarrhal (5) and as an internal astringent in cases of dysentery (5) [11251 CAG].

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

Raphanus raphanistrum L./Cruciferae/ ‘arrovanellu’/infusion is obtained from the leaves and used as a diuretic for urinary tract discomfort (16) and as an antiscorbutic (16) [60 CAG]. Rumex acetosa L./Polygonaceae/‘acetosa’/leaves are used to dye wool pink and yellow 15), while leaf infusion is drunk as a mild laxative (4) [1172/b CAG]. Rumex acetosella L./Polygonaceae/ ‘acetosa minori’/leaf decoction is used as an antiscorbutic (15), antianaemic (13), antirheumatic (4) and as an antacid for stomach disorders (4) [1165 CAG]. Rumex crispus L./Polygonaceae/‘lampatzu’/leaf infusion is used as a laxative (10) and externally as a astringent (8) [1165 CAG]. Rumex tyrsoides Desf./Polygonaceae/ ‘romice acetosa’/aerial part of the plant is immersed in milk to facilitate the protein precipitation (4) [1171 CAG]. Ruscus aculeatus L./Liliaceae/‘pungiropi’/a digestive (13) and diuretic (7) decoction is obtained from the aerial parts of the plant [1423 CAG]. Ruta chalepensis L./Rutaceae/‘arruda’/ a decoction of branches is used as a tonic stimulant (10), while the decoction of fresh leaves in olive oil is poured warm in the ear as a pain killer in otorrhea (12) [272 CAG]. Salix alba L./Salicaceae/‘salixi’/bark is used to dye wool yellow (10) [1256 CAG]. Salsola soda L./Chenopodiaceae/‘erba ’e cristallu’/the entire plant, boiled with fat and talc, is used to make soap (16) [1128 CAG]. Sal6ia sclarea L./Labiatae/‘luccaja’/leaf infusion is drunk as a tonic-stimulant (10) [1086 CAG]. Schinus molle L. /Anacardiaceae/‘pibiri burdu’/Seeds are often used as a pepper substitute (4) [1/31 CAG].

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

119

Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop./ Cruciferae/‘alaussa’/decocted leaves are used as an anti-inflammatory (30) of the larynx and trachea as well as an antiscorbutic (16); local singers of folk music use to drink the decoction to clear out their throat. [108 CAG]. Smilax aspera L./Liliaceae/‘titioni’/leaf decoction is drunk as a sudorific and blood cleanser (17) [1414 CAG]. Sonchus oleraceus L./Compositae/ ‘camingioni’/plant is eaten raw as a diuretic (18) (850 CAG). Spinacea oleracea L./Chenopodiaceae/ ‘spinaciu’/boiled leaves are taken against anemia (4) [1127/b CAG]. Taxus baccata L./Taxaceae/‘linna arrubia’/decoction of soft, new branches is utilized as an emmenagogue (4), abortifacient (4) and cardiotonic (4) [1654 CAG]. Thapsia garganica L./Umbelliferae/ ‘feuredda’/leaves are used in poultices as a remedy for neuralgia (5), lumbago and rheumatism (8) [615 CAG]. Tribulus terrestris L./Zygophyllaceae/ ‘basapeis’/decoction of the aerial parts is taken orally as an astringent (12), galactogogue (4), diuretic (4) and aphrodisiac (4) [271 CAG]. Trigonella foenum-graecum L./Leguminosae/‘pisu molentinu’/seeds are eaten as a fattening agent (4); a cataplasm is prepared from the boiled seeds to induce expectoration (4) and as a pectoral emollient (4) [335 CAG]. Urginea maritima (L.) Baker/Liliaceae/ ‘cibudda marina’/bulb is used as ratpoison (36); decoction of the bulb is drunk as a diuretic (22) and cardiotonic (15) [1380 CAG]. Urtica sp./Urticaceae/‘otziau’/leaf decoction is as an antirheumatic (5) and haemostatic (4); fresh leaves are used as a revulsive (4) [1239 CAG].

120

88.

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Zea mays L./Gramineae/‘cixiarlianu’/a diuretic (4) and sedative (14) infusion is prepared from styles and stigmes [1475,CAG].

B. Urzulei 1. Achillea ligustica All./Compositae/ ‘sensu burdu’/boiled leaves are used as a cataplasm for rheumatic pains (4) and against furunculosis (4); leaf infusion is used against stomach pains (11), and the vapor prepared with a hot leaf infusion is used against headache and cold pains (5) and as an anticatarrhal in cases of bronchitis (3) [755 CAG]. 2. Adiantum capillus-6eneris L./Adiantaceae/‘fargia’/the leaf decoction is used as a sedative in cases of dysmenorrhea (14), toothache (4), rheumatism (4) and intestinal spasms in the diarrheic colitis (4); poultices of boiled leaves are employed in cases of eye inflammation (4), while poultices of roasted leaves induce cicatrization (4) [1688 CAG]. 3. Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertner/Betulaceae/‘alinu’/bark infusion is used to induce cicatrization (5) and to dye textiles black (4); the leaf infusion is used as a diuretic affections with excessive accumulation of serous fluid (dropsy) (3) [1264 CAG]. 4. Arbutus unedo L./Ericaceae/‘olidone’/ fresh peeled roots are used as a haemostatic in minor wounds (4); decoction of the roots and fruits respectively, is used to treat intestinal disorders (5), as a hepatic to treat biliousness (7) and as a mouthwash in stomatitis (4) [878 CAG]. 5. Artemisia arborescens L./Compositae/ ‘sensu’/decoction of aerial parts used as an emetic (4), antipyretic (4), digestive (4) and against intestinal pains due to spasmodic colitis (11) [734 CAG].

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Arum italicum Miller and A. pictum/ Araceae/‘pissalettu’/massages with berries reduced to pulp are made against rheumatism (4); the fresh tuber is used as a cataplasm to heal minor wounds (4), while decoction of the leaves is used as a diuretic (5) and sedative (3) [1530 and 991 CAG]. Cichorium intybus L./Compositae/‘lattiedda’/infusion of the leaves is used against constipation and as an intestinal depurative (12) [826 CAG]. Cydonia oblonga Miller/Rosaceae/ ‘mela chidongia’/a syrup made with quinces (main component), apples, pears and figs is used against catarrhal bronchitis (4) and as an intestinal decongestant (4) [496 CAG]. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers./ Gramineae/‘allasu’/decoction of the roots (main component), together with nettles and onions, is used as a remedy against stomach pains (5), as a mild laxative (softening agent) in chronic colitis (4), and as an hepatic depurative (3) [1532 CAG]. Datura stramonium L./Solanaceae/ ‘erba ’e dente’/vapor of leaves in hot water is used as a cough sedative (4); cataplasm of fresh leaves is employed against toothache (18) [994 CAG]. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott/Aspidiaceae/‘filiche cherbinu’/leaf infusion is used in stomach pains (5), while decoction of the leaves is employed to treat female disorders (emmenagogue) (3) [1675/a CAG]. Ficus carica L./Moraceae/‘ficu’/syrup of fruits and branches is used as a pectoral emollient in case of colds (4); in the dairy industry, a branchlet is used as a substitute for rennet [1702 CAG]. Gentiana lutea L./Gentianaceae/‘sensiana’/root is used as a bitter digestive (8), a tonic-stimulant (4) and for inappetence (4); decoction is

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

also used against fever in general (7) and against malarial fever (14) leaf decoction is used as a pain reliever [938 CAG]. Hedera helix L./Araliaceae/‘eredade’/ vapor of the leaves in hot water is used against colds (tracheitis and bronchitis) (4); a cataplasm of the leaves is used as an antirheumatic (5) and as an antineuralgic (3); the leaves are also used to dye textiles black (4) [635 CAG]. Helichrysum italicum (Roth) Don ssp. microphyllum (Willd.) Nyman/Compositae/‘erba ’e Santa Maria’/infusion of the whole plant is used as an antiallergic for children by means of immersion (4) [729 CAG]. Juniperus oxycedrus L. spp. oxycedrus /Cupressaceae/‘tinneberu’/the cones are soaked in ‘grappa’ (a distillate of wine-pomace) and used as antirheumatic massages (4); in veterinary medicine the wood resin is used to dress abrasions ofthe limbs of sheep (4) [1652 CAG]. Linium album L./Labiatae/‘folla dunda’/decoction of the leaves are used as an anticatarrhal (4) [1102/b CAG]. Laurus nobilis L./Lauraceae/‘laru’/leaf infusion is used as a digestive (4) and an intestinal decongestant and sedative (9) [1192 CAG]. Linum usitatissimum L./Linaceae/‘linu’/ poultices of seeds are used as a lung decongestant (8) [265 CAG]. Lonicera implexa Aiton/Caprifoliaceae/ ‘mamma ’e linna’/leaf infusions are employed as a sedative in stomach (4) and intestinal pains (4) [641 CAG]. Mal6a syl6estris L./Malvaceae/‘marmaredda’/decoction of the roots is used as a decongestive in cases of intestinal pains (35); cataplasm of the roots is used against furunculosis (7) mastitis (4) and haematomas (4); leafinfusion is used as an intestinal

22.

23.

24.

25.

121

(17) and lung (17) decongestant in cases of haemorrhoids (4) and as a mouthwash in cases of stomatitis (4); the leaves prepared in infusion are used also as an antipyretic (5) and against inappetence (3); fresh leaves are used as a topical anti-inflammatory (4); cataplasm of the fresh leaves is used as a cicatrization (5) [219 CAG]. Marrubium 6ulgare L./Labiatae/‘marrupiu’/decoction of the roots is used in disorders of the digestion (17) as an antipyretic (5) in female disorders (dysmenorrhea) (4) and against colds (3); poultices obtained from decocting the entire plant is used against furunculosis (4); the plant soaked in ‘grappa’ is used to treat catarrh (8) [1105 CAG]. Matricaria chamomilla L./Compositae/ ‘camamilla’/infusion of flower heads are used as a general sedative (12) (in particular against insomnia and intestinal pain) and as a sedative in cases of painful menstruation (4); it is also used as a digestant (4) and in cases of eye inflammation (4); decoction of flower heads of Matricaria chamomilla (main component), hyssop and quince is used against catarrhal bronchitis (4); it is also used against intestinal disorders of animals (4) [745 CAG]. Mentha aquatica L./Labiatae/‘menta’/ leaf infusion is used as an intestinal decongestant (5); also as a digestant (5) and as a stimulator ofthe blood circulation (3); leaves soaked in wine with garlic are used as an antihelmintic (4) [1071 CAG]. Micromeria graeca (L.) Benth./Labiatae/‘lsopo’/decoction of the entire plant used as a catarrhal antitussive (39), a lung decongestive (8) and against stomach pains (4) [1080 CAG].

122

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

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Opuntia ficus-barbarica (L.) Miller/ Cactaceae/‘ficu ’e moros’/cataplasm of the fresh stems (cladodes) without the outer part is used as a skin anti-inflammatory for pustules and furunculosis (28) while cataplasm of the cladodes cooked over embers are used against pains of the joints (4) and of the muscles (4); it is also used as a cicatrizant in case of burns (8) and in general against skin inflammations (4) [827/b CAG]. Parietaria lusitanica L./Urticaceae/ ‘erba entu’/cataplasm of the boiled leaves is used as a vulnerary (4) against furunculosis (4) and mastitis (4); decoction of the leaves is used as a decongestant in intestinal disorders (20); vapor prepared with a hot leaf infusion is used against neuralgic pains (4) [1245 CAG]. Petroselinum crispum A.W. Hill/Umbelliferae/‘predusemene’/decoction of the leaves is used as a diuretic (10) [256/12 CAG]. Pistacia lentiscus L./Anacardiaceae/ ‘olistincu’/fresh resin is used to induce cictrization in minor wounds (4) and it is used as an emollient of the skin (4) [280 CAG]. Plantago lanceolata L./Plantaginaceae/ ‘limba ’e cane’/leaf decoction is used as an intestinal decongestant (4); cataplasm of the boiled leaves is applied as a cicatrizant for abrasions and scalds (8) [918 CAG]. Plantago major L./Plantaginaceae/ ‘erba ’e musca’/fresh leaves are used to induce the cicatrization of minor wounds (6) and to relieve neuralgic pains (4) [916 CAG]. Punica granatum L./Punicaceae/‘arenada’/decoction of the rind is used as an intestinal astringent (4) and for dyeing textiles (8) [514/a CAG]. Quercus ilex L./Fagaceae/‘iliche’/very thin layers of wood are used as a topical haemostatic (12); decoction of the

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

bark is used as topical disinfectant (4) and diuretic (4) and for dyeing wool (4) [1250 CAG]. Rhamnus alaternus L./Rhamnaceae/ ‘tasaru’/infusion of the leaves is used to dye textiles black (6) [275 CAG]. Rosmarinus officinalis L./Labiatae/ ‘thippiri’/decoction of the aerial parts of the plant together with the leaves of Eucalyptus is used as an analgesic in joint pains (4); infusion prepared with the leaves is used as a tonic-stimulant (4) and antianaemic (4); leaf decoction is used for stomach pains (4) hepatic disorders (5) and inappetence (3); vapor prepared with rosemary sage and thyme in hot water is inhaled in cases of colds (4) [1091 CAG] Ruta gra6eolens L./Rutaceae/‘orude’/ decoction of leaves is used to treat stomach pains (5); poultice prepared with the fresh plant is used as an antirheumatic (3); vapor prepared with hot leaf infusion is used for eye inflammations (4) [272 CAG] Sambucus nigra L./Caprifoliaceae/ ‘sammucu’/poultice of fresh flowers is used against eye inflammations (10); decoction of flowers is used in colds for their catarrhal antitussive action (12) and as a lung decongestant (14); infusion of flower is used as a carminative (5) and against neuralgias (3) [637 CAG]. Sanguisorba minor L./Rosaceae/‘pimpirinella’/decoction of the aerial part of the plant is used against catarrhal cough (4) and for amenorrhea (4); the chopped plant induces cicatrization (5) [480 CAG]. Scrophularia trifoliata L./Scrophulariaceae/‘erba ’e tottu cura’/poultice of fresh leaves with olive oil is used as a cicatrizant (8) and against rheumatism [1011 CAG].

A. Bruni et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57 (1997) 97–124

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

Smilax aspera L./Liliaceae/‘teti’/ pounded berries are rubbed as an antirheumatic (8) a skin antiinflammatory (8) and as a softening agent in haematomas (4) [1414 CAG]. Tamus communis L./Dioscoreaceae/‘isparau crapa’/massages with pounded fresh berries soaked in ‘grappa’ are used against furunculosis (4) and rheumatic pains (7); fresh berries and roots are used against muscle pains (4) [l415 CAG]. Teucrium marum L./Labiatae/‘erba pudida’/infusion of flowers and leaves is used as a sedative against neuralgia (5), to induce the cicatrization (4) and as a lung decongestant for colds (4) [1115 CAG]. Teucrium polium L./Labiatae/‘grametica’/poultice of boiled leaves is used as a softening agent against insect bites (7), in myalgias (4) and as a vulnerary (8); decoction of the leaves is used for stomach pains (5), cold (4) and as an adjuvant in menopause disorders (3); leaf infusion is used as a mouthwash sedative for toothache (4) [1123 CAG]. Thymus herba-barona Lois./Labiatae/ ‘erbiola’/infusion is used as an antihelmintic (4) and in stomach pains (4); poultice prepared with the boiled plant is used as an antirheumatic (4); vapor of its infusion (main component) together with malva, rosemary and sage is inhaled as a decongestant of the upper respiratory tract (4); the plant soaked in ‘grappa’ is used against catarrahal cough (5) and as an antipyretic (3) [1077 CAG]. Umbelicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy/ Crassulaceae/‘tippula ’e muru’/decoction of the leaves and stems is used as a diuretic (4) and as an hepatic depurative (4); the poultice of the fresh leaves is used against furunculosis (5) and against contusions (4) [547 CAG].

46.

47.

48.

49.

123

Urginea marittima (L.) Baker/Liliaceae/‘ascridda’/fresh bulb is applied externally as cicitrizant (8) [1380 CAG]. Urtica dioica L./Urticaceae/‘orciada’/ decoction of the roots is used as a carminative (4); cataplasm of boiled leaves is used as a tonic for swollen legs (4), allergies (4), rheumatism (5), for the scalp (7), and against myalgias (3); decoction together with the roots of couch grass and onions is taken in cases of colitis (4); in veterinary medicine it is used to stimulate ovulation in hens (4) [1239 CAG]. Verbascum pul6erulentum Vill./Scrophulariaceae/‘tumbaru’/cataplasm prepared with boiled leaves and smeared with olive oil is used as a softening agent in local skin inflammations (8), for rheumatic pains (4) and for dental pains (4) [1004 CAG]. Zea mays L./Gramineae/‘tricuingias’/ infusion of the stigmas and styles, is used as a diuretic for renal colics (4) [1473 CAG].

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