Race as a limiting factor in organizational life: A South African study

OMEGA lnt J of Mgmt Scl, Vol 17, No 4, pp 355-362, 1989

0305-0483/89 $3 00 + 0 00 Copyright ~ 1989 Maxwell Pergamon Mac:milan pie

Printed m Great Britain All rights reserved

Race as a Limiting Factor in Organizational Life: A South African Study M CARR P HUMAN University of Cape Town, South Africa (Recewed August 1988, m remsed form December 1988) The purpose of this paper is to investigate the nature of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in a South African manufacturing concern. Special attention is paid to the role played by race in Influencing and determ|ning job satisfaction and organizational commitment patterns. It was found that race articulates strongly with job satisfaction and organizational commitment, a finding which supports the propmition that industry and community are highly interrelated and interdependent. It is suggested that organizational life, even in the most progressive South African companies cannot be normalized until such time as race, as a formally and legally institutionalized organizing principle of society, is eliminated.

Key ~ords--race, orgamzaUon, South African, job sausfactlon, job commttmcnt, society

INTRODUCTION ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE reflects and articulates many of the forces and patterns present in society as a whole. The organization is, as Drucker, [5] states, an 'organ' of society and is, as such, systemically part of it. It can thus be expected that the complex nature of South African society will consequently find expression within the South African organization. It follows that organizational analysis of South Africa will never be complete without due consideration of the societal context within which the organization operates. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the nature of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in a South African manufacturing concern. Special attention is paid to the role played by race in influencing and determining job satisfaction and organizational commitment patterns. Race is a fundamental variable in shaping and affecting life in South Africa. South African society is unique in so far as it is the only society in the modern world where almost all spheres of life are legally ordered and administered in

terms of racial criteria. Education, social relationships, career opportunities, income, political participation, housing, mobility--the hst is endless--are all racially ordered by law. Furthermore, race articulates closely with class, status, economic opportunities and political groupings. Whites are relatively wealthy, politically powerful, and middle and upper class, whilst blacks are generally poor, politically disenfranchised and working class. The institutionalizauon of race has created a society which consists of a complex of neatly coinciding cleavages. The primary structuring principle in South African society is race; consistently and almost wtthout exception. The obvious danger in any attempt to understand South African society is to absolutize race at the expense of class, culture, politics or other variables. The 'visibility' of race rather than other factors can obfuscate the influence and importance of other factors. This 'warning' does not mean, however, that one should not take race into account but merely that race should be understood as an important element v,Sthin a complex dynamic.

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Cart, Human--Race as a Ltmttmg Factor m Orgamzatwnal Ltfe

Our understanding of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in South Africa should thus take cogmsance of the societal context of the organization--which is, as we have argued above, a complex one. In th~s study we attempt to highlight the particular influence of race upon job satisfaction and organizational commitment without necessardy implying that such an explanation rejects alternative class or political arguments. This study would, hopefully, supplement a far broader debate. JOB SATISFACTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

tional goals rather than the satisfaction of individual needs (goals). Buchanan [2] distinguishes three dimensions of organizational commitment: identification, involvement and loyalty. The extent of organizational commitment thus provides an indication of the level of acquiescence to corporate goals whilst job satisfaction is indicative of individual goal achievement. MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

A shortened version of the job descriptive index developed by Cook et al. [3, pp. 48-59] was used in this study to measure job satisfaction. The continued testing across many different sample types ensures the validity and reliability of this index. This index which consists of 72 items, was considered too large, however, for the purpose of this study and the shortened version of this index developed by Warr et al. [13] was used. This 15 item questionnaire is robust and has been found to show good internal rehability, is factorially discrete and reveals satisfactory construct validity. The items distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction (see Table 2). A 7-point Likert Scale ranging from extremely satisfied to extremely dissatisfied was used. This index was well suited for the South African situation as it was originally developed to measure job satisfaction for blue-collar workers of modest educational level. A previously tested questionnaire was also used for measuring organizational commitment. This 6 item index developed by Cook and Wall [4] was also devised for use amongst blue-collar workers. The items measure the three dimensions of commitment namely identification (pride in the organization and feeling part of the organization), involvement (willingness to help the organization and contributing to the good of the organization) and loyalty (propensity to stay).

Job satisfaction can be defined as the degree to which a person derives satisfaction from his or her work. Herzberg et al. [7] argue that satisfaction is related to the fulfillment of human needs. These authors differentiate between two sets of human needs, i.e. hygiene needs which relate to Maslow's [10] lower order needs and motivator needs which relate to Maslow's higher order needs. The former concern the physical and social context of work such as co-workers, supervision, working conditions and company policy; whilst the latter relate to the nature of the work itself. A distinction is thus made between extrinsic and intrinsic need factors. The degree of satisfaction derived from the workplace is therefore a function of the extent to which individual needs are fulfilled. Job satisfaction is, in this sense, a consequence of the extent to which an organization succeeds in fulfilling individual goals as derivations of individual needs. Some of these needs are intrinsically informed (by doing the job itself) and others extrinsically (by the context of the job). The importance of job satisfaction, as a consequence of the way in which work is organized and managed, is underscored by the relationships found between high job satisfaction and high levels of productivity; the decrease in absenteeism and labour turnover in organizations where job satisfaction is increased; and the positive correlation between morale and job satisfaction. THE PLANT Organizational commitment is similar to, and, as found in other studies, highly correlated The company in question is a large textile with, job satisfaction [4]. It is however conceptu- plant situated in the Western Cape region of ally different from job satisfaction since organ- South Africa. The company is involved in the izational commitment is concerned with the production of nylon and polyester. The comindividual's feelings of attachment to organiza- pany forms part of a large group of companies

Omega, Vol 17, No 4

which subscribes to progressive group values. The plant employs 1817 people; 6.2 per cent managers and supervisors; 21.6 per cent staff and 72.0 per cent labourers. Of the total staff complement, 31.4 per cent are white and 68.6 per cent 'coloured'. The plant is a leader in its field in terms of its human resources and industrial relations policies. One union is recognised by management. No stnkes have taken place recently at the plant and the plant has experienced a relatively peaceful industrial relations history. RESEARCH METHOD

Questionnaire The questionnaire included demographic, work-related, job satisfaction and organizational commitment sections. Demographic vanables included age, sex, educational standard and ethnic group. Work-related variables were: job level, department, years worked for the company, years in present job (as a surrogate variable for individuals who change jobs frequently) and trade union membership.

Sample A stratified random sample of employees was selected for questionnaire surveying. The required sample size was determined by breaking down the plant into sub-units based on the job levels of manager, supervisor, staff and labour and the vertical divisions of plant, technostructure and support functions. This produced a 15 cell matrix. To achieve suitable statistical coverage, a minimum sample size in each cell was determined. This resulted in a theoretical sample size of 300 (16.5 per cent) for the whole plant. Survey

The survey was conducted using two different methods for managers, supervisors and staff, and labour. This was necessary as managers, supervisors and staff could not be released from their jobs to complete the questionnaire, whereas labour could be released. The survey was carried out in the following way: (a) The managers, supervisors and staff sample was selected from staff files provided by the company and a systematic

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sample was taken for each category. The questionnaire was delivered personally to the selected employees, who were asked to return completed questionnaires to a central collection point. This resulted in a 55 per cent response rate.

(b) The labor sample was selected using a different procedure. Only those workers on shift who were not busy and whose absence would not disrupt the production process could be released from work to complete the questionnaire. However, the available labourers were not predictable and so the requirements of randomness were fulfilled. Questionnaire completion by the labour category involved group sessions timed to correspond with different shifts. This method resulted in a 100 per cent response rate. The achieved sample was 224, or a 12 per cent sample of the whole plant.

Sample characteristics All of the respondents were full-time employees of whom 23 per cent were management and supervisors, 22 per cent staff and 55 per cent were labour. The mean age of the sample was 36.6 years and the mean years employed 9.7 years. 31 per cent of the sample was white and 69 per cent 'coloured'. Half of the sample were members of the trade union. From Table 1, it is clear that race and job level, education and trade union membership are highly correlated. Race did not correlate significantly with any of the other demographic or work-related variables.

Table 1 Race by education, job level and trade umon

membership % Race

Education -Std 7 Std 8 and 9 Std 10 and lugher Job/efel Low Middle High 7nlde morn membership Yes

No

Coloured

Wlute

38 3 38 9 22 8

!5 I19 86 6

80 4

00

I18 78

44 9 55 I

73 4 26 6

98 6

I 4

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Cart, Human--Race as a Lzmztmg Factor m Orgamzatwnal Ltfe Table 3 Job satssfactlon mean score"

THE FINDINGS

Present study Sample Labour

Job satisfaction

Although the sample consists of a range of respondents in terms of race, level and educational level, it was felt that an overall view of levels of satisfaction was worth investigating. This is reflected in Table 2. What is of interest is the relatively low satisfaction with rate of pay, industrial relations and the immediate boss in the case of extnnsic satisfaction. The highest degree of satisfaction was derived from fellow workers, job security and the way the firm is managed. Turning to intrinsic satisfaction, it is clear that chances of promotion, recognition and attention to suggestions made were experienced with fairly low levels of satisfaction. The respondents were relatively more satisfied with responsibility given, the freedom to choose and variety in the job. The latter three items relate more strongly to the circumscribed sphere of the job itself whilst the former concern the social aspects (mobility and participation). The summary Table 3 below compares the results of this study w~th those of Warr et al. [13]. The latter study was conducted amongst male, full-time blue-collar workers in a manufacturing plant in Britain. The results of the current study include management and staff who, as can be seen below, tend to report higher levels of job satisfaction. Few significant differences appear to exist between the two studies although the South African scores are consistently lower. The scores of the labour group in South Africa are however Table 2 Job sattsfactlon Means Mean t

£xtrinuc satisfaction Rate of pay Industrial relations Immediate boss Hours of work Physical working condtUons Way firm is managed Job secunty Fellow workers

3 61 4 22 4.74 4 81 4.83 5 10 5 40 5 48

Intrinsic satisfaction Chance of promouon Recogmtzon Attention to suggesUons Opportumty to use abdlty Vanety In job Freedom of choice Responslbthty $qven

3 59 3 93 4 45 4 5I 4 68 4 74 4 77

• Where 1 .= extremely dsssattsfied and extremely satisfied

7=

Intnsnlc Extnnstc Overall

30 31 37 85 68 17

27 30 36 81 64 17

Bntash study (Labour) 32 74 38.22 70 86

• These are the means of the summed scores for each of the mdsces

considerably lower, especially m the case of intrinsic satisfaction, than those of their counterparts in Britain. Slgmficant (p <0.01) chi-square statistics were also established between job levels (management, staff and labour) and job satisfaction. The higher the job level the higher the level of satisfaction tends to be. Overall and intrinsic job satisfaction were also positwely related to education. No relationship appears to exist between educational level and extrinsic job satisfaction. 'Coloureds' reported significantly lower levels of job satisfaction than whites as did trade union members. Organizational commitment Overall organizational commitment would appear to be highly correlated with overall job satisfaction (r = 0.58). This finding is supported by Cook and Wall [4] who also found a significant direct relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction (r = 0.62). This means that the satisfaction of personal needs is highly related to the extent to which employees support organizational goals. It is apparent from Table 5 that the overall loyalty of the respondents is relatively lower than involvement and identification. The overall organizational commitment score of 30.65 is also not significantly lower than the score of 32.74 from the British industry study by Warr et al. [13]. Job level and organizational commitment are related; the organizational commitment score of managers being 34.2; staff 31.3 and labourer 28.5. White employees and non-umon members are also significantly more committed than 'coloured' employees and trade union members. Table 4 Slgmficance levels for relauonslups between btographlcal vanables and job sat:sfactton based on clu-square Job level Educauon Race group Trade umon membershtp

Inmnstc

ExmnsJc

Overall

0 000 0 010 0017 0 000

0 001 0 107 0003 0 003

0 000 0 004 0000 0 000

Omega, Voi 17, No 4 Table 5 0 r g a m z a u o n a l comrmtment, means Items

Means"

Never feel like leaving (L) b More money to change job (L) Feel part of the orgamzatmn (ID) Wdhng to help the orgamzatlon (IN) Proud to say who I work for (ID) Pleased to contnbute to the orgamzauon (IN)

4 47 4 71 ~189 5 06 5 89 6 05

* Where I i. strongly chsagree and 7 ,. strongly agree b L i Loyalty ID i ldentlficauon IN = Involvement

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Table 7. Measures of assocmtlon between dependent and mdepen. dent variables Dependent vanabtes O~era//samp/¢ Job level Educatmn Intnnstc sausfactmn lntnnslc sausfactton Comm:tment

Independent variables Ethmc" Job level b Education b 0 794 0 665 0 389 0 290 0 231

--0 455 0 319 0 334

0 604 -0 230 0 174 0 166

----

0 368 0 158 0 423

0 126 0 167 0 205

----

0 297 0 192 0 233

- 0 062 - 0 047 - 0 014

Wkite sampl~ lntnnszc satisfaction Extnnuc sausfactlon Commttment

'CaioNred' sample

There appears to be no significant relationship between education and organizational commitment.

Intrmslc satlsfactmn Extnnstc sausfactmn CommRment • Eta b Beta

FURTHER ANALYSIS We found, as elsewhere [4, 8, 13], that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are explained by job level and, to some extent, by educational level. We have also established that the absolute level of job satisfaction and commitment of our labour sample are comparable with, though slightly lower than, those of a British sample of labour [13]. Where our study, and organizational life in South Africa in general, deviate from European or North American experience is the pervasive influence of race. In Table 7, we have determined the strength of association between our variables as set out in the path analysis diagram (Fig. 1). Path analysis is a regression procedure primarily used as a method by means of which assumed causal linkages between a set of variables can be ordered into a plausible structure. "Path analysis Is useful in making exphcit the raUonale of conventional regression calculations. It may also have special usefulness m sociology in problems involving the decomposition of a dependent variable or those in which successive experiences of a cohort are measured. Path analysis focuses on the problem of interpretation and does not purport to be a method for discovenng causes. It may, nevertheless, be invaluable in renderTable 6 Significance levels for relaUonshlps between biographical variables and organizational commRment based on ch~-square O r p n i z a t l o n a l commitment Job level EducaUon Ethnic group Trade umon memhershtp

0 000 0 098 0 002 0 000

mg interpretations explicit, self-consistent, and suscepuble to rejection by subsequent research." [6, p 1] We have used Eta and Beta as path coefficients to determine the strength of association between dependent and independent variables as defined in our path diagram. The statistic Eta differs from Rho m the sense that it is a measure of associauon which is used when the independent variable is discrete (m our case race) and the dependent variable is continuous (m our case job level, educational level, and the job sausfaction and commitment variables) whereas Rho is used when both variables are continuous. An Eta of 0 indicates no association whilst an Eta of I indicates a perfect association. When Eta is squared, it can be used as a rough indication of the vanance in the dependent variable explained by the independent variable. Standardized Beta's were used as path coefficients to determine the strength of association between the continuous variables (satisfaction, commencement, .lob and educational levels). 63 per cent (eta of 0.794 squared) of variance in job level is explained by race whdst education explains 36 per cent of variance in job level. It is thus clear that race, as an external political and collective factor, plays a far greater role in determining occupational position than education, as an individual and less obviously political factor. Educational level itself is however determined by race (44 per cent of variance in education is explained by race.) Education thus amplifies rather than rectifies the racial determination of occupational position.

360

Carr, Huraan--Race as a Ltmmng Factor m Orgamzational Ltfe

Race

/

Job Level

I n t r i n s i c 2ob S a t i s f a c t i o n E x t r i n s i c Job S a t i s f a c t i o n Organization Conaitment

Education Fig 1 Path diagram of job satisfaction and orgamzauonal comm,tment by blographtc vanables.

It is also apparent from Table 7 that job level plays a far more important role in determining job satisfaction and commitment than education. Just over 20 per cent of variance in mtrinsic job satisfaction is explained by job level, whereas education explains only 5.7 per cent of the variance in intrinsic job satisfaction. The same pattern is found in the case of extrinsic job satisfaction and commitment. Race itself strongly influences satisfaction and commitment levels; its real influence is however transmitted through its interaction with job level in particular and also education. When we compared the white and the 'eoloured' samples, we found that the associations on our path diagram for whites were consistently stronger than for 'coloureds'. The reason for this finding is that 'coloured' respondents are also found in higher job levels whilst no whites are found in lower job levels (see Table 1). What is of particular interest is the negative (though very weak) associations between education and satisfaction and commitment variables found in the case of the 'coloured' sample. A possible explanation for this inverse association between education and satisfaction and commitment in the case of 'coloured' employees may lie in the frustrations experienced by this group as a result of the influence of race rather than education in determining occupational position. Some proportion of this group may be, or may perceive themselves to be, 'underemployed'. DISCUSSION

This study establishes that race articulates strongly with job satisfaction and organizational commitment. This finding differs from the findings of Landy and Trumbo [9] who found no relationship between job satisfaction and ethnic group in their study of a North American

sample of employees. Satisfaction and commitment in South Africa would thus appear to be strongly influenced by race. Race, at the same time, coincides with job and educational level; race, in fact, determines job and life opportunities in the South African system. Our principal research finding is thus that race, as an external socio-political factor, is a predominant factor in organizational life in South Africa. It is apparent that not even this particular progressive company can escape from the firm grip that the racial policies of South Africa have on organizational life. This finding supports the propomtion that " . . . industry and community are lughly interrelated and ,nterdependent" [11, p 73]. The fundamental characteristics of society would thus appear to be reflected in, and if this is too passive a term, to have enforced themselves upon organizational life. The relationship between industry and community may be described in two ways: (1) how the commumty shapes orgamzational life and (2) how the organization shapes the community. The fact that race was found to be a predominent determining factor of organizational life suggest that the principal flow of determination would be that of option (1) above. The company studied is, as was mentioned above, a progressive company which subscribes both formally and in practice to the liberal values the group espouses. Race is however the pervasive factor despite the liberal orientation of the company. This would support the proposition that managerial power in South Africa is severely limited and constrained by the external environ-

Omega, Vol 17, No 4

ment and, to use a well known dictum, that 'normal organizational life is not possible in an abnormal society'. This finding holds several implications for management in South Africa. Managerial attempts to 'normalize' human relations within the organization are limited. The pervasiveness of the South African socio-political system of apartheid is an inescapable reality. Consequently, management cannot hope to achieve a great deal in terms of 'normal' human relations within the organization. The influence of race as an 'external' factor upon the internal affairs of the organization not only affects the quality of human relations but also affects the performance levels of the organization. If we accept that job satisfacuon and organizational commitment are directly related to productivity levels and that these two variables are to a large extent determined by the racial factor, then the ~mplication ~s that the racial factor would negatively affect productivity. The significant correlation between job satisfaction and organizational commitment is indicative of the alignment between organizational goals and individual goals. Low commitment to organizational goals would thus also imply low levels of satisfaction and vice versa. Trade union members (who are mostly 'coloured' (98.6%)), reported relatively low levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction. It would appear that the loyalty of trade union members lies primarily with the trade union rather than the organization, thus further exacerbating low productivity levels m the lower echelons of the organization. The trade union movement in South Africa understands its purpose in far broader terms than merely organizing for better working conditions; as Elijah Barayi, President of the Congress of South African Trade Unions (Cosatu) states succinctly: "...Cosatu was formed to concentrate on the broader political issues. Of course, I do believe this should start with the workers on the factory floor... But Cosatu is going to involve ttself politically in the struggle." [12] The role of the trade union as a political instrument in South Africa is, given the nature of the socio-political context, understandable. However, this role both further complicates

361

organizational life and undermines managenal discretion. Comparing the different average scores on our intrinsic (4.33), extrinsic (4.73) and organizational commitment (5.10) indices, it appears that the employees are relatively more satisfied with the collective and contextual aspects of work than with the inherent (intrinsic job satisfaction). The employees reported themselves as most sausfied with fellow workers, job security, the way the firm is managed and physical working conditions (all extrinsic). Dissatisfaction arises from pay, chances of promotion, recogniUon and industrial relations. Employees would thus seem to respond relatively more favourably to the contextual rather than the inherent aspects of work. It must be noted that management also have far greater discretion over the contextual--the physical working environment and company pohcy--than over the Inherent aspects of work. Intrinsic job sausfactton cannot normally be directly influenced by management since it is strongly related to higher order needs such as self-actuahzation and consequently much more elusive and subtle than lower order needs. Intrinsic job satisfaction is, moreover, exacerbated in South Africa by the influence of the external environment upon the work context. It is sensible to expect that employees in the lower job categories will not be able to gain much satisfaction from their jobs given the menial nature of their work, and will thus tend to seek satisfaction from the contextual: thus the significant correlauon between job level and intrinsic job satisfaction (r = 0.45), and the weaker although still stgnificant, correlaUon with extrinsic .lob satisfaction (r =0.31). It would appear that higher level employees derive sign~ficandy more intrinsic satisfacuon from their work than lower level employees. The same pattern is found for ethnic group and educational level, variables which are highly correlated with job level. The contextual (or to use Herzberg's term, the hygiene factors) the literature tells us does not contribute to satisfaction but merely ehminates dissatisfaction. The real challenge to management is to find ways of increasing levels of sausfaction, attempts which, in South Africa, are frustrated by the pervasive influence of racial pohcies. The racial issues encapsulates primarily issues of human dignity, fairness and

362

Cart, Human--Race as a Lomting Factor m Organ~ataonal L~fe

justice and the attempts of the organization to 'solve' these issues within the organization are bound to have little effect in the face of the pervasiveness of race as an external variable. Our findings correspond, except for the racial factor, with those found elsewhere [4, 8, 13]. It can thus be said, in conclusion, that organizational life in South Africa will not be 'normal' until such time as race as a formally and legally institutionalized organizing principle of society is eliminated. It would appear that this kind of change would not only remove many of the barriers to an improvement in the quality of human relations, but also, by logical deduction, that employee performance levels would increase. This does not mean that the attempts of some South African companies to 'normalize' organizational life are futile but merely that they are limited and may not produce the expected results. Thus, the commendable actions by South African and multi-national companies to involve themselves in politics by civil disobedience, by the visible support of black groups and by attempts to get closer to the life-worlds of black workers [1], will have little direct shortterm impact upon organization life. The reality is, as expressed by a black worker, "Whites, think they can be nice and helpful in the workplace and everything is fine... But when we leave this factory, we have to get on a train or a bus that has separate white and black coaches; we have to be careful about not going into a toilet reserved for whites only; we are told that we can't drink in a bar

reserved for whites only; we must eat in separate restaurants These things make us angry and suspicious about what whites say and do. When apartheid laws are torn down so that we can mix freely outside our factory, only then will we rmx freely inside the factory" [1, p. 100] REFERENCES 1. Beaty DT and Harari O (1987) South Africa. White managers, black votces Harv. Bus. Rev. 65(4), 98-105 2. Buchanan B (1974) Buddmg orgamzattonal comrmtment: The socializatton of managers tn work organizaUons. Admve Sci. Q. 19(1), 533-546. 3. Cook JD, Hepworth J, Wall TD and Wart PB (1981) The experience of work. A compendtum and revtew of 249 measures and thew use. Academtc Press, London 4 Cook JD and Wall TD (1980) New work attitude measures of trust, orgamzattonal comrmtment and personal need non-fulfilment. J. Occupanonal Psychol 53(1), 39-52. 5 Drucker F (1977) Management. Pan Books, London 6. Duncan OD (1966) Path analysts: Socmlobqcal examples Am. J. Socml 72(1), 1-16 7. Herzberg F, Mausner B and Snyderman BB (1959) Motwation to work. Wiley, New York 8 Hoppock R (1935) Job Satisfacnon Harper & Row, New York. 9 Landy FJ and Trumbo DA (1980) Psychology of work behav:our. Irwm-Dorsey, Ontario. 10. Maslow AH (1954) Motwanon and Personahty Harper & Row, London. 11. Mdler DC and Form WH (1964) Industrtal Sociology, 2nd edn Harper & Row, New York 12. Van Ntekerk P (1986) Elija Barays. Leadership 5(I), 81-82. 13. Warr PB, Cook J and Wall TD (1979) Scales for the measurement of some work attttudes and aspects of psychological well-bemg J. Occupanonal Psychoi 52(2), 129--148. ADDRE,.qSFOR CORRESPONDENCE:Dr P Human, Graduate School of Busmess, Unwerszty of Cape Town, Prwate Bag, Rondebasch, 7700, Cape, South Africa.