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Rainfall interception and plant community in young forest restorations
Ecological Indicators 109 (2020) 105779
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Rainfall interception and plant community in young forest restorations a,b,⁎
Fernando Ravanini Gardon Rozely Ferreira dos Santosb
b
, Renato Miazaki de Toledo , Bruno Melo Brentan
T
a,1
,
a
Department of Water Resources, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, State University of Campinas, Rua Saturnino de Brito, 224 Cidade Universitária “Zeferino Vaz”, Campinas, São Paulo CEP: 13083-889, Brazil Department of Ecology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, Rua do Matão, Travessa 14, 321, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo CEP: 05508-900, Brazil
b
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Forest restoration Plant community Rainfall interception Ecosystem services Monitoring Tropical forest
The conversion of tropical forests to human land-use threatens biodiversity conservation and the delivery of many ecosystem services, especially water-related ecosystem services. In these landscapes, many investments have been made to restore native forests and recover hydrological processes lost by deforestation. Rainfall interception is a key hydrological process for water-related ecosystem services’ maintenance, which plays an important role in runoff, infiltration, erosion control, and flood regulation. We evaluated rainfall interception over a 1-year period in eight restoration sites within the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We used the interception function as an indicator of water dynamics recovery in actively restored forests. Monthly rainfall interception was measured by 80 interceptometers distributed within the sites (10/site), and 24 pluviometers were installed in open fields (3/site) close to the restoration sites to collect total precipitation (P) incidents over the sites. We also measured plant community attributes involved in the interception process (density, basal area, tree species richness, and the ratio of deciduous plants). The average rainfall interception reached 21.4 ± 3.9%, but a significant variability was observed among sites. Results showed that 65% of the monthly interception collected is below 30 mm.month−1. Basal area and species richness were forest attributes positively correlated to each other and the most important in the interception process. The results show that actively restored forests can reestablish rainfall interception rates similar to those of mature tropical forests in the short term (10 years). In addition, more time or complementary interventions are needed for plant communities to reach expected attributes’ values. Self-organized maps analysis showed a negative relationship between interception and the proportion of deciduous plant individuals. We present information to support land-use policy decisions, as the results revealed insights regarding the effects on the water cycle that may result from increasing forest cover. We argue that restoring ecosystem services should be the main goal of restoration programs and determining if hydrological processes are being effectively recovered by restoration actions is crucial for achieving water sustainability.
1. Introduction
ecological functions and processes (Ferraz et al., 2014; Hackbart et al., 2017; Tambosi et al., 2015). In these landscapes with heavy precipitation, where deforestation and soil degradation are commonly observed, precipitation reaches the unprotected soil directly and a small portion infiltrates, but most of it flows quickly to the rivers. This dynamic contributes to the erosive processes, flood events, and alterations in the physicochemical properties of freshwater (Defries and Eshleman, 2004; Tambosi et al., 2015). In addition, continued deforestation in the tropics will increase climate change through reducing evapotranspiration and precipitation rates, and elevating global temperature (Lawrence and Vandecar, 2015).
The conversion of tropical forests to human land-use leads to the degradation of these natural ecosystems, threatening biodiversity, ecological integrity, landscapes sustainability, and ecosystem services maintenance (Cardinale et al., 2012; MEA, 2005; Naeem et al., 2012; Wu, 2013). Studies have shown that in tropical regions, the water cycle and the consequent delivery of water-related ecosystem services (WES) such as water flows regulation and water quality for human well-being, are closely related to forest extension, structure, composition, and
⁎
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (F.R. Gardon). 1 Centre de Recherche en Controle et Automatique de Nancy, Université de Lorraine, 2 rue Jean Lamour, Vandoeuvres-les-Nancy 54500, France. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105779 Received 6 June 2018; Received in revised form 24 June 2019; Accepted 27 September 2019 1470-160X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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(Section 2.2.2) in each site. Each plot was subdivided into a 2 × 2 m grid resulting in 20 possible positions of which five were randomly selected as interceptometer positions (see Section 2 of the Supplementary material for detailed information). Data were collected monthly for a year. The amount of water stored in each collector was quantified with a 5 ml precision plastic measuring cylinder. We did not measure stemflow given the low amount of water involved in this process (1–3% of Pmm) (Shinzato et al., 2011). Thus, to calculate Imm we directly subtracted the amount of Thmm from Pmm. We collected 1248 samples from 104 collectors during the period of study. We used Eqs. (1)–(3) to calculate the monthly average of Pmm, Thmm, and Imm, respectively, at each site. We also calculated the ratio of Imm related to Pmm (I(%), Eq. (4)).
In this scenario, forests can mitigate the effects of water scarcity and global warming (Ellison et al., 2017). In tropical landscapes, restoration has been encouraged as a path to recovery of hydrological processes and a strategic tool to ensure water sustainability and safeguard WES (De Groot et al., 2010; Keeler et al., 2012; Seifert- Dähnn et al., 2015). However, evaluations of hydrological indicators and benefits are still scarce (Amatya et al., 2016) and it is difficult to predict WES recovery. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the recovery of the rainfall interception function by restored forests as an indicator of hydrological functioning as it is first hydrological process in the reestablishment of a forest ecosystem’s water cycle (Loescher et al., 2002; Pike and Scherer, 2003). Some authors describe it as a key process in the water cycle, which ensures water redistribution and contributes to regulating WES through soil protection and air humidity increase (Arcova et al., 2003; Geißler et al., 2013; Goebes et al., 2015; Zimmermann et al., 2013). Interception rates depend on the structure and composition of forests (Crockford and Richardson, 2000); therefore, we also selected possible indicators of rainfall interception based on plant community attributes. We expect to offer useful information on evaluations of restoration success thereby contributing to decisions related to forest and water management, which are key components to WES maintenance in human-modified landscapes.
3
Pmm =
( ∑i = 1
Vtot ) A
n 10
Thmm =
Vi ) A
n
10
(1)
(2)
Imm = Pmm − Thmm
(3)
I I% = ⎛ mm ⎞ ∗ 100 P ⎝ mm ⎠
(4)
⎜
2. Methodology
( ∑i = 1
10
⎟
where Pmm is monthly observed precipitation in the open field (mm); Thmm is monthly observed throughfall in the interceptometers (mm); Imm is monthly observed rainfall interception (mm); n is the number of collectors (pluviometers and interceptometers) used at each site to collect total rainfall (n = 3) and throughfall (n = 10); Vtot is the total amount of monthly rainfall collected in each pluviometer (ml); Vi is the total amount of monthly throughfall collected in each interceptometer (ml); A is the catchment area of each collector (cm2); and I(%) is the monthly ratio of Imm related to Pmm.
2.1. Study area Our study was conducted in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a tropical biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000), with only 12–16% of its original cover remaining (Ribeiro et al., 2009; SOS Mata Atlântica, 2017). We selected eight actively restored riparian forests, located in the eastern part of São Paulo state, Brazil (Fig. A.1; Table A.1), totaling 10 ha of land under restoration. The restorations were implemented by a program for large-scale forest restoration – Projeto de Recuperação de Matas Ciliares (PRMC, 2005) that aimed to restore forests and recover ecosystems services in relevant regions to safeguard the water supply of São Paulo state, with a population of about 46 million people (IBGE, 2010) which has recently faced a water crisis (Coutinho et al., 2015). The plantations were started in 2007 with a seedling planting density of 1666 individuals per hectare and at least 80 native species, as suggested by the law (SMA – 8/2008). The original vegetation of the region is Seasonal Semideciduous Forest – SSF (PRMC, 2005). Sites are characterized by a granite-gneiss lithology and comprise two mountain-ranges with crystalline parent material. Restoration sizes ranged from 0.3 to 4.4 ha, with elevation from 640 to 930 m above sea level, and annual precipitation from 1231.4 to 1662.1 mm with an average variation of 198.8 ± 20 mm between the wettest and driest months DAEE, 2011). The rainy season occurs from October to March. Early agricultural use of these lands began during the 19th century (Dean, 1997), while cattle grazing continues to be practiced on high slopes and under heavy precipitation (Machado et al., 2014). Previous land-use at the sites included the cultivation of exotic grasses for grazing (Brachiaria sp., Panicum maximum, and Melinis sp.).
2.2.2. Forest attributes We measured four parameters of the plant community closely involved with the interception function: (i) Density (individuals/ha), (ii) Basal Area (BA – m2/ha), (iii) Species richness, and (iv) Ratio of deciduous trees. These data were obtained by surveys conducted in four 4 × 50 m transects randomly established within each site, where trees with diameter at breast height (1.30 m height) ≥ 5 cm were identified and the diameter at breast height recorded. When required, leaf/floral samples of the plants were collected for further identification at the Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESA herbarium; USP). We also collected data related to site condition: (v) Canopy continuity, (vi) Vertical stratification, (vii) Cattle presence, and (viii) Grass cover. A full description of the attributes and site condition evaluations is available in the Supplementary material (Table A.2). 2.3. Data analysis All data were analyzed n R 3.2.4 (R Core Team, 2016). ANOVA was used to test for differences in interception data among sites and to select the model that best fit Imm and Pmm. Outliers were removed. We used the Student’s t-test to compare average I(%) between rainy and dry seasons. We performed a self-organized maps (SOM) analysis, an artificial neural network based on the topological distribution of the data of each variable (Fig. A.3), allowing variables to cluster according to the similarity of this distribution (Kohonen, 2013; Kohonen and Hari, 1999). SOM is a similarity analysis, based on a non-parametric and recursive regression process, applicable to discrete or continuous data (Kohonen, 1998) and without assuming any relations among variables. To perform the analysis, the values of monthly I(%) and Pmm and the four vegetation parameters were normalized by the standard score method – Z-score normalization. Parameters related to site condition were measured as binary values (Table 1; Table A.2). More information about SOM is
2.2. Study design 2.2.1. Rainfall interception During a 1-year period, we measured monthly rainfall interception (Imm) in restored forests using 80 interceptometers distributed below the forest canopy (10/site) to collect the water that goes through the forest structure and would reach the ground (throughfall – Thmm). We used 24 pluviometers in open fields (3/site) close to the restoration sites to collect incidents of total precipitation (Pmm). Interceptometers were distributed in two plots (10 × 10 m) randomly allocated along four transects (4 × 50 m) previously established to obtain forest attributes 2
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Table 1 Annual interception (% of annual Pmm), forest attributes and site condition evaluated in each site. Site
Annual interception (%)
Tree density/ ha
BA (m2/ ha)
Species richness
Deciduous trees (%)
Canopy continuity
Vertical stratification
Cattle presence
Grass cover
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
26.4 21.4 21.8 23.5 22.6 14.9 22.8 15.6
1438 125 625 975 588 813 513 675
25.9 0.4 7.3 23.7 15.6 7.4 4.9 4.5
24 6 17 24 21 21 11 21
71.0 71 81.0 57.6 61 31.6 40.5 43.4
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
available in the Supplementary material (Section 3).
3. Results 3.1. Precipitation and interception patterns Restoration planting showed an average I(%) of 21.4 ± 3.9% (minimum 14%, maximum 27%) of the annual Pmm, an amount equivalent to 396 mm returning to the atmosphere. We found significant differences in annual Imm among sites (ANOVA – p < 0.05). About 65% of Imm collected monthly was concentrated at low values, ranging from 3.1 to 30 mm. The model that best fit the data (Imm–Pmm) was a linear model (ANOVA – p < 0.05, R2 = 0.8254, Residual Standard Error = 12.1) (Fig. 1). We found no statistical difference in average I(%) between the rainy and dry seasons (t-test – p > 0.05). In the rainy season (October to March) an average of 22.4% of Pmm was intercepted by the plant community, corresponding to a ratio of 77% of annual Imm. The dry season (April to September) showed an average interception of 18.3%, corresponding to 23% of the amount of water annually intercepted (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. TIF. (1.5 column). Average and standard deviation of Pmm, Imm, and Ratio of interception (%) related to Pmm monthly observed among sites.
3.3. Effects of forest attributes on rainfall interception SOM analysis revealed that BA and species richness are forest attributes most positively correlated to each other and to I(%), observed by the similarity of the maps (Fig. 3). Tree density was also correlated with these variables and I(%) but at a lower intensity. A negative correlation of Pmm and deciduous trees with I(%) could be observed. Canopy continuity and vertical stratification were negatively correlated with cattle presence and grass cover. Positive correlations were observed for canopy continuity and vertical stratification and between cattle presence and grass cover.
3.2. Forest attributes We identified 460 individuals belonging to 72 species and 22 families. Only 14 species accounted for 65% of the total plants identified (Table A.3). The families Anacardiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, and Verbenaceae were the most frequent, representing 78% of the plants identified. Data related to forest attributes and site condition were disparate and presented different sets of conditions (Table 1).
4. Discussion After a decade, restoration planting can intercept on average 21% of total Pmm, a value similar to that of pristine and advanced stage tropical forests in Brazil, 22.6% and 20.6%, respectively (Cuartas et al., 2007; Alves et al., 2007). This highlights the potential of actively restored forest in recovering the interception function in the short term. However, there was high variability of I(%) among sites (14% to 27%) and values of individual sites were similar to those of secondary forests at initial, intermediary, or even advanced stages of regeneration (Ghimire et al., 2017; Lorenzon et al., 2013). We observed that monthly I(%) did not change significantly in response to increased monthly Pmm (Fig. 1). The amount of water intercepted by forests that returns to the atmosphere contributes to the maintenance of the water cycle at both the regional and global scales (Oliveira et al., 2008). The control of erosion processes may also result from interception reestablishment owing to a decrease in the kinetic energy of water drips that reaches the soil, promoting soil conservation (Geißler et al., 2013; Goebes et al., 2015). These positive effects of interception are important regulating ecosystem services provided by restoration (Alamgir et al., 2016; Locatelli et al., 2017; Viglizzo et al., 2016). Increasing forest cover can also diminish the amount of water available, as the plant community, aside from rainfall interception, also uses groundwater for biomass accumulation (photosynthesis process)
Fig. 1. TIF. (1.5 column). Models built with Precipitation (mm) and Interception (mm), and Precipitation (mm) and Interception (%) values monthly collected. The light shaded line and letters “w” (data collected in the wet season) and “d” (data collected in the dry season) represent the linear model Imm-Pmm; The dark shaded line and black circles represent the linear model I(%)-Pmm. 3
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Fig. 3. TIF. (1.5 column). Self-Organized Maps obtained for each variable sampled within the sites. Axes are the position of the neurons distributed in the Kohonen’s layer (20 × 20 neurons). Similar colors represent positive correlations, and inverse colors negative correlation. (color version in the Supplementary material – Fig. A.4).
positive relation with I(%). Studies in natural forests (Geißler et al., 2013; Goebes et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2003; Tang et al., 2007; Wang and Duan, 2010) have found different responses of hydrological processes to the increase in species richness, such as decreased runoff and erosion and improved infiltration. Heterogeneous forests (high diversity) are systems more vertically and horizontally stratified, where species with different characteristics (canopy, leaf dimensions, foliage, and branches density) inhabit different sites and niches (Wang and Duan, 2010). According to our results, it may be suggested that species richness is important to better understand ecological processes in the water-plant interface. The negative relation between canopy continuity and stratification with cattle presence and grass cover was as expected (Fig. 3). Grazing leads to sapling damage and death, which in turn compromises canopy closing and provides more radiation benefit for grasses that compete with tree saplings for resources (Brancalion et al., 2009; Holl et al., 2000; Ignácio et al., 2007; Parrotta et al., 1997; Sampaio and Guarino, 2007). We observed that a planted community in sites without degradation factors may present more structured vegetation and consequently a higher interception (Table 1). For this reason, implementing adequate monitoring actions is crucial to ensure success of restoration over time. It is known that canopy continuity and stratification are determining factors in the interception processes (Crockford and Richardson, 2000), but maybe SOM did not identify relations between these parameters and I(%) because they were measured as binary values. SOM analysis demonstrated that better-structured forests – higher tree density, BA, species richness, canopy continuity, and vertical stratification present higher rainfall interception. Thus, our study corroborates Crockford and Richardson (2000); the variability of interception can be a consequence of different conditions observed among the plant community, including every attribute mentioned earlier. Restoration is a slow and vulnerable process in which it takes a long time for attributes such as biodiversity and carbon stocks to reach values similar to those of mature forests (Wheeler et al., 2016); however, our results indicated that the interception function can be quickly
thereby reducing soil saturation (Calder, 1998; Liu et al., 2003; Tang et al., 2007). Thus, rainfall interception can be an ecosystem disservice, representing a loss of water that returns to the atmosphere by evaporation, instead of flowing into the ground and contributing to water storage (Honda and Durigan, 2016). The dual nature of the interpretation of rainfall interception is evident, and to define if this ecological function leads to the loss or gain of water to the watershed depends on the WES that is the focus of the evaluation. Regarding seasonality, in perennial forests such as the Brazilian Amazon “terra firme” forests, a marked difference in interception rates between seasons can be observed, where interception (%) values increase from the wet to the dry season because there is less precipitation but the same biomass (Oliveira et al., 2011). However, we found no difference in interception rates between seasons in the SSF, but SOM analysis was sensitive enough to indicate a negative correlation of I(%) and the ratio of deciduous species recorded. This could be explained by the existence of many deciduous species in the studied sites; species which lose their leaves in the dry season, resulting in a lower available foliar area (Da Costa et al., 2014) capable of rainfall interception. This supports the principle that restoration actions should rigorously select the set of species to be planted to restore the native plant community and recover the original rates of interception. SOM results indicate that BA and species richness are attributes closely related to I(%) (Fig. 3). BA is recognized as an attribute that governs interception and can be managed to control water dynamics in forested watersheds. An increase of 1 m2/ha in the BA of forests can decrease the amount of water reaching the soil by 0.8% to 1%, and is the attribute most indicated in interception modelling (Del Campo et al., 2014; Dietz et al., 2006; Honda and Durigan, 2016; Molina and del Campo, 2012; Suganuma and Durigan, 2015). Consistent with these studies, we assume that managing this attribute could help the re-establishment of expected interception values and most of the ecosystem services related to canopy cover. Despite our average species richness (18 species) being substantially lower than that in the reference ecosystem (i.e., SSF remnants) (Freitas and Magalhães, 2014; Sartori et al., 2015), SOM analysis showed a 4
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recovered if monitoring actions succeeded in avoiding degradation factors. As active restoration is an expensive investment, we urgently need to determine if WES and plant community are being effectively recovered by these actions, justifying the costs of implementation.
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5. Conclusions We present early ecological outcomes related to the reestablishment of an important hydrological process by restoration forest sites. Our study provides evidence that young actively restored forests (10 years) can play an important role in water cycle maintenance in tropical landscapes and through rainfall interception return to the atmosphere an amount of water similar to that returned by pristine and advanced secondary forests. Seasonality affects interception efficiency and the magnitude of the recovery of the interception function depends on the attributes of the vegetation. Additionally, while basal area has been recognized as a determinant of rainfall interception, species richness also influences the recovery of interception rates. However, achieving the goals of restoration and ensuring success depends on effective monitoring actions. Our findings demonstrate the synergistic outcomes of restorations that extend beyond recovering a focal ecosystem service contributing to the increment in plant diversity in degraded tropical landscapes. Acknowledgment We would like to register our sincere appreciation to each landowner, to the Environmental Agency of the State of São Paulo and to the School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design of the State University of Campinas for collaborating with the study. This study was supported by CAPES – Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior [grant number: 01P03428/2014] and PROAP – Programa de Apoio a Pós-Graduação. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105779. References Alamgir, M., Turton, S.M., Macgregor, C.J., Pert, P.L., 2016. Assessing regulating and provisioning ecosystem services in a contrasting tropical forest landscape. Ecol. Ind. 64, 319–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.016. Alves, R.F., Dias, H.C.T., Oliveira Junior, J.C., Garcia, F.N.M., 2007. Avaliação da precipitação efetiva de um fragmento de Mata Atlântica em diferentes estágios de regeneração no município de Viçosa, MG. Ambi-Água, Taubaté, v.2, n.1, p. 83–93. Amatya, D.M., Williams, T.M., Bren, L., de Jong, C., 2016. Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management and Assessment. CAB International, Boston. Arcova, F.C.S., De Cicco, V., Rocha, P.A.B., 2003. Precipitação efetiva e interceptação das chuvas por floresta de Mata Atlântica em uma microbacia experimental em Cunha – São Paulo. Rev. Árvore 27, 257–262. https://doi.org/10.1590/S010067622003000200014. Brancalion, P.H.S., Isernhagen, I., Gandolfi, S., Rodrigues, R.R., 2009. Plantio de árvores nativas brasileiras fundamentado na sucessão florestal. In: Rodrigues, R.R., Brancalion, P.H.S., Isernhagen, I. (Eds.), Pacto para a restauração da Mata Atlântica: referencial dos conceitos e ações de restauração florestal, first ed. Instituto BioAtlântica, São Paulo, pp. 14–23. Calder, I.R., 1998. Water use by forests, limits and controls. Tree Physiol. 18, 625–631. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/18.8-9.625. Cardinale, B.J., Duffy, J.E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D.U., Perrings, C., Venail, P., Narwani, A., Mace, G.M., Tilman, D., Wardle, A.D., Kinzig, A.P., Daily, G.C., Loreau, M., Grace, J.B., Larigauderie, A., Srivastava, D.S., Naeem, S., 2012. Corrigendum: biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 489, 326. https://doi.org/10.1038/ nature11373. Core Team, R., 2016. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria URL: https://www.R-project.org/. Coutinho, R.M., Kraenkel, R.A., Prado, P.I., 2015. Catastrophic regime shift in water reservoirs and São Paulo water supply crisis. PLoS One 10 (9), e0138278. Crockford, R.H., Richardson, D.P., 2000. Partitioning of rainfall into throughfall, stemflow and interception:effect of forest type, ground cover and climate. Hydrol. Process. 14, 2903–2920. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1085(200011/12)14:16/
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org/10.1590/2175-7860201566103. Seifert- Dähnn, I., Barkved, L.J., Interwies, E., 2015. Implementation of the ecosystem service concept in water management – Challenges and ways forward. Sustain. Water Qual. Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2015.01.007. Shinzato, E.T., Tonello, K.C., Gasparoto, E.A.G., Valente, R.O.A., 2011. Escoamento pelo tronco em diferentes povoamentos florestais na Floresta Nacional de Ipanema em Iperó, Brasil. Sci. For. 39, 395–402. PRMC, 2005. Land cover map of the sites developed by the State Environmental Agency of São Paulo (available at: http://www.sigam.ambiente.sp.gov.br/sigam3/Default. aspx?idPagina=8052; last access: 20/09/2018). SMA – 08/2008. Fixa orientação para o reflorestamento heterogêneo de áreas degradadas e dá providências correlatas. URL: http://www.ambiente.sp.gov.br/legislacao/ resolucoes-sma/resolucao-sma-08-2008. Last Access 15/09/2017. SOS – Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica, INPE – Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais. Atlas dos Remanescentes Florestais da Mata Atlântica Período 2015-2016. São Paulo, 2017. Suganuma, M.S., Durigan, G., 2015. Indicators of restoration success in riparian tropical forests using multiple reference ecosystems. Restor. Ecol. 23, 238–251. https://doi. org/10.1111/rec.12168. Tambosi, L.R., Vidal, M.M., de Ferraz, S.F.B., Metzger, J.P., 2015. Funções ecohidrológicas das florestas nativas e o Código Florestal. Estud. Avançados – Port. 29, 151–162. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-40142015000200010. Tang, C.Q., Hou, X., Gao, K., Xia, T., Duan, C., Fu, D., 2007. Man-made versus natural forests in Mid-Yunnan, Southwestern China. Mt. Res. Dev. 27, 242–249. https://doi. org/10.1659/mrd.0732. Viglizzo, E.F., Jobbágy, E.G., Ricard, M.F., Paruelo, J.M., 2016. Partition of some key regulating services in terrestrial ecosystems: meta-analysis and review. Sci. Total Environ. 562, 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.201. Wang, Z.H., Duan, C.Q., 2010. How do Plant Morphological Characteristics, Species Composition and Richness Regulate Eco-hydrological Function? J. Integr. Plant Biol. 52, 1086–1099. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.00964.x. Wheeler, C.E., Omeja, P.A., Chapman, C.A., Glipin, M., Tumwesigye, C., Lewis, S.L., 2016. Carbon sequestration and biodiversity following 18 years of active tropical forest restoration. For. Ecol. Manage. 373, 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016. 04.025. Wu, J., 2013. Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes. Landsc. Ecol. 28, 999–1023. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10980-013-9894-9. Zimmermann, B., Zimmermann, A., Scheckenbach, H.L., Schmid, T., Hall, J.S., Van Breugel, M., 2013. Changes in rainfall interception along a secondary forest succession gradient in lowland Panama. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 17, 4659–4670. https:// doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4659-2013.
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Rainfall interception and plant community in young forest restorations a,b,⁎
Fernando Ravanini Gardon Rozely Ferreira dos Santosb
b
, Renato Miazaki de Toledo , Bruno Melo Brentan
T
a,1
,
a
Department of Water Resources, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, State University of Campinas, Rua Saturnino de Brito, 224 Cidade Universitária “Zeferino Vaz”, Campinas, São Paulo CEP: 13083-889, Brazil Department of Ecology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, Rua do Matão, Travessa 14, 321, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo CEP: 05508-900, Brazil
b
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Forest restoration Plant community Rainfall interception Ecosystem services Monitoring Tropical forest
The conversion of tropical forests to human land-use threatens biodiversity conservation and the delivery of many ecosystem services, especially water-related ecosystem services. In these landscapes, many investments have been made to restore native forests and recover hydrological processes lost by deforestation. Rainfall interception is a key hydrological process for water-related ecosystem services’ maintenance, which plays an important role in runoff, infiltration, erosion control, and flood regulation. We evaluated rainfall interception over a 1-year period in eight restoration sites within the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We used the interception function as an indicator of water dynamics recovery in actively restored forests. Monthly rainfall interception was measured by 80 interceptometers distributed within the sites (10/site), and 24 pluviometers were installed in open fields (3/site) close to the restoration sites to collect total precipitation (P) incidents over the sites. We also measured plant community attributes involved in the interception process (density, basal area, tree species richness, and the ratio of deciduous plants). The average rainfall interception reached 21.4 ± 3.9%, but a significant variability was observed among sites. Results showed that 65% of the monthly interception collected is below 30 mm.month−1. Basal area and species richness were forest attributes positively correlated to each other and the most important in the interception process. The results show that actively restored forests can reestablish rainfall interception rates similar to those of mature tropical forests in the short term (10 years). In addition, more time or complementary interventions are needed for plant communities to reach expected attributes’ values. Self-organized maps analysis showed a negative relationship between interception and the proportion of deciduous plant individuals. We present information to support land-use policy decisions, as the results revealed insights regarding the effects on the water cycle that may result from increasing forest cover. We argue that restoring ecosystem services should be the main goal of restoration programs and determining if hydrological processes are being effectively recovered by restoration actions is crucial for achieving water sustainability.
1. Introduction
ecological functions and processes (Ferraz et al., 2014; Hackbart et al., 2017; Tambosi et al., 2015). In these landscapes with heavy precipitation, where deforestation and soil degradation are commonly observed, precipitation reaches the unprotected soil directly and a small portion infiltrates, but most of it flows quickly to the rivers. This dynamic contributes to the erosive processes, flood events, and alterations in the physicochemical properties of freshwater (Defries and Eshleman, 2004; Tambosi et al., 2015). In addition, continued deforestation in the tropics will increase climate change through reducing evapotranspiration and precipitation rates, and elevating global temperature (Lawrence and Vandecar, 2015).
The conversion of tropical forests to human land-use leads to the degradation of these natural ecosystems, threatening biodiversity, ecological integrity, landscapes sustainability, and ecosystem services maintenance (Cardinale et al., 2012; MEA, 2005; Naeem et al., 2012; Wu, 2013). Studies have shown that in tropical regions, the water cycle and the consequent delivery of water-related ecosystem services (WES) such as water flows regulation and water quality for human well-being, are closely related to forest extension, structure, composition, and
⁎
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (F.R. Gardon). 1 Centre de Recherche en Controle et Automatique de Nancy, Université de Lorraine, 2 rue Jean Lamour, Vandoeuvres-les-Nancy 54500, France. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105779 Received 6 June 2018; Received in revised form 24 June 2019; Accepted 27 September 2019 1470-160X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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(Section 2.2.2) in each site. Each plot was subdivided into a 2 × 2 m grid resulting in 20 possible positions of which five were randomly selected as interceptometer positions (see Section 2 of the Supplementary material for detailed information). Data were collected monthly for a year. The amount of water stored in each collector was quantified with a 5 ml precision plastic measuring cylinder. We did not measure stemflow given the low amount of water involved in this process (1–3% of Pmm) (Shinzato et al., 2011). Thus, to calculate Imm we directly subtracted the amount of Thmm from Pmm. We collected 1248 samples from 104 collectors during the period of study. We used Eqs. (1)–(3) to calculate the monthly average of Pmm, Thmm, and Imm, respectively, at each site. We also calculated the ratio of Imm related to Pmm (I(%), Eq. (4)).
In this scenario, forests can mitigate the effects of water scarcity and global warming (Ellison et al., 2017). In tropical landscapes, restoration has been encouraged as a path to recovery of hydrological processes and a strategic tool to ensure water sustainability and safeguard WES (De Groot et al., 2010; Keeler et al., 2012; Seifert- Dähnn et al., 2015). However, evaluations of hydrological indicators and benefits are still scarce (Amatya et al., 2016) and it is difficult to predict WES recovery. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the recovery of the rainfall interception function by restored forests as an indicator of hydrological functioning as it is first hydrological process in the reestablishment of a forest ecosystem’s water cycle (Loescher et al., 2002; Pike and Scherer, 2003). Some authors describe it as a key process in the water cycle, which ensures water redistribution and contributes to regulating WES through soil protection and air humidity increase (Arcova et al., 2003; Geißler et al., 2013; Goebes et al., 2015; Zimmermann et al., 2013). Interception rates depend on the structure and composition of forests (Crockford and Richardson, 2000); therefore, we also selected possible indicators of rainfall interception based on plant community attributes. We expect to offer useful information on evaluations of restoration success thereby contributing to decisions related to forest and water management, which are key components to WES maintenance in human-modified landscapes.
3
Pmm =
( ∑i = 1
Vtot ) A
n 10
Thmm =
Vi ) A
n
10
(1)
(2)
Imm = Pmm − Thmm
(3)
I I% = ⎛ mm ⎞ ∗ 100 P ⎝ mm ⎠
(4)
⎜
2. Methodology
( ∑i = 1
10
⎟
where Pmm is monthly observed precipitation in the open field (mm); Thmm is monthly observed throughfall in the interceptometers (mm); Imm is monthly observed rainfall interception (mm); n is the number of collectors (pluviometers and interceptometers) used at each site to collect total rainfall (n = 3) and throughfall (n = 10); Vtot is the total amount of monthly rainfall collected in each pluviometer (ml); Vi is the total amount of monthly throughfall collected in each interceptometer (ml); A is the catchment area of each collector (cm2); and I(%) is the monthly ratio of Imm related to Pmm.
2.1. Study area Our study was conducted in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a tropical biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000), with only 12–16% of its original cover remaining (Ribeiro et al., 2009; SOS Mata Atlântica, 2017). We selected eight actively restored riparian forests, located in the eastern part of São Paulo state, Brazil (Fig. A.1; Table A.1), totaling 10 ha of land under restoration. The restorations were implemented by a program for large-scale forest restoration – Projeto de Recuperação de Matas Ciliares (PRMC, 2005) that aimed to restore forests and recover ecosystems services in relevant regions to safeguard the water supply of São Paulo state, with a population of about 46 million people (IBGE, 2010) which has recently faced a water crisis (Coutinho et al., 2015). The plantations were started in 2007 with a seedling planting density of 1666 individuals per hectare and at least 80 native species, as suggested by the law (SMA – 8/2008). The original vegetation of the region is Seasonal Semideciduous Forest – SSF (PRMC, 2005). Sites are characterized by a granite-gneiss lithology and comprise two mountain-ranges with crystalline parent material. Restoration sizes ranged from 0.3 to 4.4 ha, with elevation from 640 to 930 m above sea level, and annual precipitation from 1231.4 to 1662.1 mm with an average variation of 198.8 ± 20 mm between the wettest and driest months DAEE, 2011). The rainy season occurs from October to March. Early agricultural use of these lands began during the 19th century (Dean, 1997), while cattle grazing continues to be practiced on high slopes and under heavy precipitation (Machado et al., 2014). Previous land-use at the sites included the cultivation of exotic grasses for grazing (Brachiaria sp., Panicum maximum, and Melinis sp.).
2.2.2. Forest attributes We measured four parameters of the plant community closely involved with the interception function: (i) Density (individuals/ha), (ii) Basal Area (BA – m2/ha), (iii) Species richness, and (iv) Ratio of deciduous trees. These data were obtained by surveys conducted in four 4 × 50 m transects randomly established within each site, where trees with diameter at breast height (1.30 m height) ≥ 5 cm were identified and the diameter at breast height recorded. When required, leaf/floral samples of the plants were collected for further identification at the Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESA herbarium; USP). We also collected data related to site condition: (v) Canopy continuity, (vi) Vertical stratification, (vii) Cattle presence, and (viii) Grass cover. A full description of the attributes and site condition evaluations is available in the Supplementary material (Table A.2). 2.3. Data analysis All data were analyzed n R 3.2.4 (R Core Team, 2016). ANOVA was used to test for differences in interception data among sites and to select the model that best fit Imm and Pmm. Outliers were removed. We used the Student’s t-test to compare average I(%) between rainy and dry seasons. We performed a self-organized maps (SOM) analysis, an artificial neural network based on the topological distribution of the data of each variable (Fig. A.3), allowing variables to cluster according to the similarity of this distribution (Kohonen, 2013; Kohonen and Hari, 1999). SOM is a similarity analysis, based on a non-parametric and recursive regression process, applicable to discrete or continuous data (Kohonen, 1998) and without assuming any relations among variables. To perform the analysis, the values of monthly I(%) and Pmm and the four vegetation parameters were normalized by the standard score method – Z-score normalization. Parameters related to site condition were measured as binary values (Table 1; Table A.2). More information about SOM is
2.2. Study design 2.2.1. Rainfall interception During a 1-year period, we measured monthly rainfall interception (Imm) in restored forests using 80 interceptometers distributed below the forest canopy (10/site) to collect the water that goes through the forest structure and would reach the ground (throughfall – Thmm). We used 24 pluviometers in open fields (3/site) close to the restoration sites to collect incidents of total precipitation (Pmm). Interceptometers were distributed in two plots (10 × 10 m) randomly allocated along four transects (4 × 50 m) previously established to obtain forest attributes 2
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Table 1 Annual interception (% of annual Pmm), forest attributes and site condition evaluated in each site. Site
Annual interception (%)
Tree density/ ha
BA (m2/ ha)
Species richness
Deciduous trees (%)
Canopy continuity
Vertical stratification
Cattle presence
Grass cover
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
26.4 21.4 21.8 23.5 22.6 14.9 22.8 15.6
1438 125 625 975 588 813 513 675
25.9 0.4 7.3 23.7 15.6 7.4 4.9 4.5
24 6 17 24 21 21 11 21
71.0 71 81.0 57.6 61 31.6 40.5 43.4
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
available in the Supplementary material (Section 3).
3. Results 3.1. Precipitation and interception patterns Restoration planting showed an average I(%) of 21.4 ± 3.9% (minimum 14%, maximum 27%) of the annual Pmm, an amount equivalent to 396 mm returning to the atmosphere. We found significant differences in annual Imm among sites (ANOVA – p < 0.05). About 65% of Imm collected monthly was concentrated at low values, ranging from 3.1 to 30 mm. The model that best fit the data (Imm–Pmm) was a linear model (ANOVA – p < 0.05, R2 = 0.8254, Residual Standard Error = 12.1) (Fig. 1). We found no statistical difference in average I(%) between the rainy and dry seasons (t-test – p > 0.05). In the rainy season (October to March) an average of 22.4% of Pmm was intercepted by the plant community, corresponding to a ratio of 77% of annual Imm. The dry season (April to September) showed an average interception of 18.3%, corresponding to 23% of the amount of water annually intercepted (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. TIF. (1.5 column). Average and standard deviation of Pmm, Imm, and Ratio of interception (%) related to Pmm monthly observed among sites.
3.3. Effects of forest attributes on rainfall interception SOM analysis revealed that BA and species richness are forest attributes most positively correlated to each other and to I(%), observed by the similarity of the maps (Fig. 3). Tree density was also correlated with these variables and I(%) but at a lower intensity. A negative correlation of Pmm and deciduous trees with I(%) could be observed. Canopy continuity and vertical stratification were negatively correlated with cattle presence and grass cover. Positive correlations were observed for canopy continuity and vertical stratification and between cattle presence and grass cover.
3.2. Forest attributes We identified 460 individuals belonging to 72 species and 22 families. Only 14 species accounted for 65% of the total plants identified (Table A.3). The families Anacardiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, and Verbenaceae were the most frequent, representing 78% of the plants identified. Data related to forest attributes and site condition were disparate and presented different sets of conditions (Table 1).
4. Discussion After a decade, restoration planting can intercept on average 21% of total Pmm, a value similar to that of pristine and advanced stage tropical forests in Brazil, 22.6% and 20.6%, respectively (Cuartas et al., 2007; Alves et al., 2007). This highlights the potential of actively restored forest in recovering the interception function in the short term. However, there was high variability of I(%) among sites (14% to 27%) and values of individual sites were similar to those of secondary forests at initial, intermediary, or even advanced stages of regeneration (Ghimire et al., 2017; Lorenzon et al., 2013). We observed that monthly I(%) did not change significantly in response to increased monthly Pmm (Fig. 1). The amount of water intercepted by forests that returns to the atmosphere contributes to the maintenance of the water cycle at both the regional and global scales (Oliveira et al., 2008). The control of erosion processes may also result from interception reestablishment owing to a decrease in the kinetic energy of water drips that reaches the soil, promoting soil conservation (Geißler et al., 2013; Goebes et al., 2015). These positive effects of interception are important regulating ecosystem services provided by restoration (Alamgir et al., 2016; Locatelli et al., 2017; Viglizzo et al., 2016). Increasing forest cover can also diminish the amount of water available, as the plant community, aside from rainfall interception, also uses groundwater for biomass accumulation (photosynthesis process)
Fig. 1. TIF. (1.5 column). Models built with Precipitation (mm) and Interception (mm), and Precipitation (mm) and Interception (%) values monthly collected. The light shaded line and letters “w” (data collected in the wet season) and “d” (data collected in the dry season) represent the linear model Imm-Pmm; The dark shaded line and black circles represent the linear model I(%)-Pmm. 3
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Fig. 3. TIF. (1.5 column). Self-Organized Maps obtained for each variable sampled within the sites. Axes are the position of the neurons distributed in the Kohonen’s layer (20 × 20 neurons). Similar colors represent positive correlations, and inverse colors negative correlation. (color version in the Supplementary material – Fig. A.4).
positive relation with I(%). Studies in natural forests (Geißler et al., 2013; Goebes et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2003; Tang et al., 2007; Wang and Duan, 2010) have found different responses of hydrological processes to the increase in species richness, such as decreased runoff and erosion and improved infiltration. Heterogeneous forests (high diversity) are systems more vertically and horizontally stratified, where species with different characteristics (canopy, leaf dimensions, foliage, and branches density) inhabit different sites and niches (Wang and Duan, 2010). According to our results, it may be suggested that species richness is important to better understand ecological processes in the water-plant interface. The negative relation between canopy continuity and stratification with cattle presence and grass cover was as expected (Fig. 3). Grazing leads to sapling damage and death, which in turn compromises canopy closing and provides more radiation benefit for grasses that compete with tree saplings for resources (Brancalion et al., 2009; Holl et al., 2000; Ignácio et al., 2007; Parrotta et al., 1997; Sampaio and Guarino, 2007). We observed that a planted community in sites without degradation factors may present more structured vegetation and consequently a higher interception (Table 1). For this reason, implementing adequate monitoring actions is crucial to ensure success of restoration over time. It is known that canopy continuity and stratification are determining factors in the interception processes (Crockford and Richardson, 2000), but maybe SOM did not identify relations between these parameters and I(%) because they were measured as binary values. SOM analysis demonstrated that better-structured forests – higher tree density, BA, species richness, canopy continuity, and vertical stratification present higher rainfall interception. Thus, our study corroborates Crockford and Richardson (2000); the variability of interception can be a consequence of different conditions observed among the plant community, including every attribute mentioned earlier. Restoration is a slow and vulnerable process in which it takes a long time for attributes such as biodiversity and carbon stocks to reach values similar to those of mature forests (Wheeler et al., 2016); however, our results indicated that the interception function can be quickly
thereby reducing soil saturation (Calder, 1998; Liu et al., 2003; Tang et al., 2007). Thus, rainfall interception can be an ecosystem disservice, representing a loss of water that returns to the atmosphere by evaporation, instead of flowing into the ground and contributing to water storage (Honda and Durigan, 2016). The dual nature of the interpretation of rainfall interception is evident, and to define if this ecological function leads to the loss or gain of water to the watershed depends on the WES that is the focus of the evaluation. Regarding seasonality, in perennial forests such as the Brazilian Amazon “terra firme” forests, a marked difference in interception rates between seasons can be observed, where interception (%) values increase from the wet to the dry season because there is less precipitation but the same biomass (Oliveira et al., 2011). However, we found no difference in interception rates between seasons in the SSF, but SOM analysis was sensitive enough to indicate a negative correlation of I(%) and the ratio of deciduous species recorded. This could be explained by the existence of many deciduous species in the studied sites; species which lose their leaves in the dry season, resulting in a lower available foliar area (Da Costa et al., 2014) capable of rainfall interception. This supports the principle that restoration actions should rigorously select the set of species to be planted to restore the native plant community and recover the original rates of interception. SOM results indicate that BA and species richness are attributes closely related to I(%) (Fig. 3). BA is recognized as an attribute that governs interception and can be managed to control water dynamics in forested watersheds. An increase of 1 m2/ha in the BA of forests can decrease the amount of water reaching the soil by 0.8% to 1%, and is the attribute most indicated in interception modelling (Del Campo et al., 2014; Dietz et al., 2006; Honda and Durigan, 2016; Molina and del Campo, 2012; Suganuma and Durigan, 2015). Consistent with these studies, we assume that managing this attribute could help the re-establishment of expected interception values and most of the ecosystem services related to canopy cover. Despite our average species richness (18 species) being substantially lower than that in the reference ecosystem (i.e., SSF remnants) (Freitas and Magalhães, 2014; Sartori et al., 2015), SOM analysis showed a 4
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recovered if monitoring actions succeeded in avoiding degradation factors. As active restoration is an expensive investment, we urgently need to determine if WES and plant community are being effectively recovered by these actions, justifying the costs of implementation.
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5. Conclusions We present early ecological outcomes related to the reestablishment of an important hydrological process by restoration forest sites. Our study provides evidence that young actively restored forests (10 years) can play an important role in water cycle maintenance in tropical landscapes and through rainfall interception return to the atmosphere an amount of water similar to that returned by pristine and advanced secondary forests. Seasonality affects interception efficiency and the magnitude of the recovery of the interception function depends on the attributes of the vegetation. Additionally, while basal area has been recognized as a determinant of rainfall interception, species richness also influences the recovery of interception rates. However, achieving the goals of restoration and ensuring success depends on effective monitoring actions. Our findings demonstrate the synergistic outcomes of restorations that extend beyond recovering a focal ecosystem service contributing to the increment in plant diversity in degraded tropical landscapes. Acknowledgment We would like to register our sincere appreciation to each landowner, to the Environmental Agency of the State of São Paulo and to the School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design of the State University of Campinas for collaborating with the study. This study was supported by CAPES – Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior [grant number: 01P03428/2014] and PROAP – Programa de Apoio a Pós-Graduação. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105779. References Alamgir, M., Turton, S.M., Macgregor, C.J., Pert, P.L., 2016. Assessing regulating and provisioning ecosystem services in a contrasting tropical forest landscape. Ecol. Ind. 64, 319–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.016. Alves, R.F., Dias, H.C.T., Oliveira Junior, J.C., Garcia, F.N.M., 2007. Avaliação da precipitação efetiva de um fragmento de Mata Atlântica em diferentes estágios de regeneração no município de Viçosa, MG. Ambi-Água, Taubaté, v.2, n.1, p. 83–93. Amatya, D.M., Williams, T.M., Bren, L., de Jong, C., 2016. Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management and Assessment. CAB International, Boston. Arcova, F.C.S., De Cicco, V., Rocha, P.A.B., 2003. Precipitação efetiva e interceptação das chuvas por floresta de Mata Atlântica em uma microbacia experimental em Cunha – São Paulo. Rev. Árvore 27, 257–262. https://doi.org/10.1590/S010067622003000200014. Brancalion, P.H.S., Isernhagen, I., Gandolfi, S., Rodrigues, R.R., 2009. Plantio de árvores nativas brasileiras fundamentado na sucessão florestal. In: Rodrigues, R.R., Brancalion, P.H.S., Isernhagen, I. (Eds.), Pacto para a restauração da Mata Atlântica: referencial dos conceitos e ações de restauração florestal, first ed. Instituto BioAtlântica, São Paulo, pp. 14–23. Calder, I.R., 1998. Water use by forests, limits and controls. Tree Physiol. 18, 625–631. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/18.8-9.625. Cardinale, B.J., Duffy, J.E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D.U., Perrings, C., Venail, P., Narwani, A., Mace, G.M., Tilman, D., Wardle, A.D., Kinzig, A.P., Daily, G.C., Loreau, M., Grace, J.B., Larigauderie, A., Srivastava, D.S., Naeem, S., 2012. Corrigendum: biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 489, 326. https://doi.org/10.1038/ nature11373. Core Team, R., 2016. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria URL: https://www.R-project.org/. Coutinho, R.M., Kraenkel, R.A., Prado, P.I., 2015. Catastrophic regime shift in water reservoirs and São Paulo water supply crisis. PLoS One 10 (9), e0138278. Crockford, R.H., Richardson, D.P., 2000. Partitioning of rainfall into throughfall, stemflow and interception:effect of forest type, ground cover and climate. Hydrol. Process. 14, 2903–2920. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1085(200011/12)14:16/
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