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Ramie, a multipurpose crop: potential applications, constraints and improvement strategies
Industrial Crops & Products 137 (2019) 300–307
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Ramie, a multipurpose crop: potential applications, constraints and improvement strategies
T
Muzammal Rehmana, Deng Gangb, Qiqing Liua, Yinglong Chenc, Bo Wanga, Dingxiang Penga, ⁎ Lijun Liua, a
MOA Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, PR China b School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, PR China c The UWA Institute of Agriculture and School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6001, Australia
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Bast fiber Environmental conservation Livestock feed Medicinal value Nutritional quality Ramie
World population growth has increased the demand for food and shelter, thus threatening environmental sustainability and expanding the gap between resource availability and the ability to meet human needs. Humans are fulfilling their needs by depleting natural resources. Currently, exploring plant species that can fulfill the life requirements of both humans and animals without degrading natural resources has become a major challenge. Therefore, research on underutilized crops is of high interest among plant scientists. Ramie, an ancient plant with a long history, is being researched because of its vigorous growth, high nutritional value and multipurpose applications in Textiles, livestock feed, environmental conservation and medicine. It can be cultivated in versatile conditions including tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. The present review article provides a detailed discussion on the multipurpose utilization and nutritional importance of ramie as well as potential applications and constraints, and the outlook for the future.
1. Introduction Globally, agriculture plays an important role in sustaining livelihood and human well-being, especially in rural communities. The cultivation of multipurpose crops such as ramie (Fig. 1) may be an optimal option to meet the rising demands of human needs. Ramie is an old Textile fiber crop that is harvested every 60 days by cutting the mature shoots without destroying the roots; thus, the root system develops continuously in the soil (Subandi, 2012). Ramie is cultivated as a major economic crop in China: 500,000 tons of fiber is produced per year, accounting for approximately 96% of global production (Kipriotis et al., 2015). Ramie farming, industries and trade provide livelihood support to approximately 5 million people (An et al., 2017). China exports a large quantity of ramie yarn and fabrics every year (Fig. 2). The major export markets for ramie products are Japan and Europe. Besides being a source of bast fiber (Tewolde & Fernandez, 2003; Sarkar, 2005), ramie is also used as source of feed for livestock (Kipriotis et al., 2015; Rehman et al., 2019a,b) and poultry and fish farming, owing to its vigorous growth, high biomass production and high protein content. Machin (1977) has also reported ramie to be a
potential forage for livestock, because it is an excellent source of crude protein, lysine, methionine, carotenoids, riboflavin and calcium, and it has a low level of crude fiber. The nutritional value of ramie has been described as similar to that of alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Ramie can also be utilized for environmental conservation because of its tolerance to heavy metal stress: ramie can grow and colonize diverse heavy metal contaminated lands (Yang et al. 2010; Zhou et al. 2010). In addition, ramie has potential uses in tea, foods, medicine (Lee et al., 2015) and the cosmetic industry. For example, its leaf extracts exhibit anti-HBV activity (Wei et al., 2014). Despite the multiple benefits of ramie and its products, its cultivation has received comparatively less attention than other annual or perennial fiber crops. The reasons are manifold, but ramie based poorly grown industries are a key hindrance to ramie cultivation. Growers face large challenges to establish a crop, decorticate and degum its fiber and finally find a potential market for their produce. A lack of planting materials and cultivation of local landraces, poor crop management and lack of awareness campaigns are some other limitations to ramie production. However, if researchers and growers were to pay considerable attention to this crop, a progressive change might occur in the
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Rehman), [email protected] (D. Gang), [email protected] (Q. Liu), [email protected] (Y. Chen), [email protected] (B. Wang), [email protected] (D. Peng), [email protected] (L. Liu). ⁎
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.05.029 Received 8 October 2018; Received in revised form 2 May 2019; Accepted 10 May 2019 Available online 21 May 2019 0926-6690/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Fig. 1. A schematic diagram for multipurpose utilization of ramie.
which is anglicized as "ramie". It is native to China, Japan and the Malay Peninsula, where it has been used as a Textile fiber for centuries because of its excellent fiber quality (Wood and Angus, 1974; Batra and Bell, 1975; Liu et al., 2001). It is mainly grown in China, India and other Southeast Asia and Pacific Rim countries (Hester and Yuen, 1989; Liu et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2005). It has been cultivated in China for many centuries, before even cotton, in 1300 AD (Robinson, 1940). Ramie fiber was used to weave clothing in ancient China and for wrapping mummies in Egypt during the period 5000–3000 BC (Ray et al. 2014). The high resistance of ramie fiber to bacteria, mildew, mild acid, insects and rotting made it appropriate for wrapping mummies. Japan has been making fabrics made of ramie fiber—the famed 'Satsumjofu' and ‘Echigojfu’ fabrics—since ancient times. Brazil started ramie production in the late 1930s, and production peaked in 1971. Since then, its production has decreased, owing to competition with alternative crops, such as soybeans and other synthetic fibers. The modern stage in the history of ramie began in 1690, when George Eberhard Rumph found ramie plants growing in the East Indies and named them Ramium majus. In 1737, Linnaeus named them Urtica nivea (Sarma, 2008). Ramie was then renamed Boehmeria nivea L. Gaudichud by Gaudichaud in 1826. By the end of the 19th century, ramie plants and seeds were transported to other parts of the world, where they continue to be grown (Montgomery, 1954). 3. Botanical description of ramie Ramie belongs to the natural vegetable fibers of the stinging nettle family Urtica ceae, genus Boehmeria and species B. nivea. It can grow 1 to 2 ms in height (Singh, 1996). The leaves are alternate, heart-shaped and long petioled, and they appear on the upper parts of the stalks. They are 7 to 15 cm long and 6 to 12 cm wide. The leaves are hairy with felty hairs and with white under face in case of B. nivea and with green undersurface in case of B. utilis. The shoots consist of numerous long and short serial sterns; each called a."cane." Several canes together form a."clum." (Singh, 1996). Ramie is usually monoecious, with male and female flowers produced on the same stalk. However, ramie plants producing only male or female flowers can be obtained under specific environmental conditions or through various hormonal treatments
Fig. 2. Export of ramie yarn and fabrics from China during 2012 to 2017 (Statistical Center of China Textile Industry Federation).
agriculture industry. Therefore, in this article, an overview of ramie is provided with special attention paid to highlighting its industrial importance as a multipurpose crop and its potential applications, constraints and improvement strategies. 2. Origin and history of ramie The word "ramie" is derived from the ancient word “malayan,” 301
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species have been reported from Eastern Asia, 45 species have been reported from Ceylon, and 45 species have been reported from India (Singh, 1996; Kirby, 1963; Hooker, 1885). Two species of the genus Boehmeria are most important: one is B. nivea, also known as white ramie, which is primarily cultivated for commercial purposes worldwide and grows best in temperate and subtropical regions; the other is B. nivea var tenacissima, which is known as green ramie and is more adapted to temperate regions (Mitra et al., 2014). Ramie is sensitive to soil moisture and can grow well in sandy loam soils. However, soils that are deficient in calcium and poor in base exchange capacity are not suitable for cultivation of ramie. Ramie is normally harvested two to three times a year but under good growing conditions can be harvested up to six times per year. Ramie grown in the Yangtze River Basin, China can yield three cuttings per year (Peng, 2009). In the tropics, it can be harvested three to four times per year under favorable conditions (Liu et al., 2005). However, under favorable growing conditions, it can also be harvested up to six times per year. In another report, ramie has yielded up to 14 cuttings per year, providing as much as 300 tons of fresh material (42 tons dry matter) per ha per year, when grown for fodder purposes in tropical areas (Kipriotis et al., 2015). Thus, ramie can be grown in large scales in versatile environments including tropical, subtropical and temperate regions, except for waterlogged soil.
Table 1 Optimum conditions for the growth of ramie. Indices
Required conditions
Soil type pH Temperature Rainfall (annual) Altitude Relative humidity
Loamy or sandy loam 5.5–6.5 25 °C–31 °C 1000–2000 mm (evenly distributed) 200–1500 m (above sea level) 80%
(Mitra et al., 2014). Two panicles each arise from the axils of leaves, and the greenish-white flowers are arranged in close clusters on the branches of the panicles. The female flowers are present on the upper parts of the stalks in axillary panicles. They are unisexual with five sepals and no petals. They have one celled, one seeded ovaries and a slender style, which is hairy on one side. The male flowers are found on the lower part, with four sepals united at the base, stamens and a rudimentary ovary. Seeds are smaller in size and produced in a very large number. Ramie plant has rhizomatous roots including small fibrous roots, storage roots and rhizomes. 4. Growth conditions for the cultivation of ramie
5. Ramie as a bast fiber crop
Ramie, commonly known as “China grass,” is a hardy perennial herbaceous plant cultivated as an important natural Textile fiber crop (Liu et al., 2012; Luan et al., 2015a; Luan et al., 2015b). It is cultivated in China, Brazil, India, Lao PDR, South Korea, Thailand and the Philippines (Zhu et al., 2014). It can grow well with multiple harvests under favorable environmental conditions (Table 1). There are approximately 100 species in the genus Boehmeria Jacq. which are mostly tropical and subtropical; some are herbs, shrubs and trees (Singh, 1996). Approximately 40 species have been reported from Japan, 50
In ramie, in contrast to cotton or some other natural fiber plants, the main Textile plant fiber can be extracted from stems. In China, ramie is an important crop in terms of cultivation area and quantity of fiber produced, and is second only to cotton (Huang et al., 2014). Bast fiber once had key importance in clothing and other Textiles, mainly before the supply of cotton from America. These fibers are multicellular, small and short, but are found in bundles that provide support to the stem. Natural cellulosic plant fibers became popular because of their high
Fig. 3. A schematic diagram from ramie field to ramie clothing. 302
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(Table 3) in China and is palatable to all classes of farm animals. Previous research on cattle, sheep, pigs, horses and poultry has highlighted the importance of ramie as a good nutritional resource in the form of green forage (Pérez et al., 2013). Young shoots and leaves of ramie have high nutritive value and are excellent feed for pigs, cattle and poultry. The young shoots contain protein (16.4%), digestible fiber (25%), calcium (31.8 g kg-1) and potassium (18.7 g kg-1) with high metabolic energy (6.4 MJ kg-1) on a dry matter basis (INFIC, 1978). Ramie can also be processed into powder, plugs and pellets for the convenience of storage and transportation. Therefore, cultivation of ramie may be an optimal solution to support the livestock industry, owing to ramie’s high biomass production, high crude protein content and strong adaptability to the environment. Ramie can be cultivated as a fodder crop for raising livestock with higher economic benefits. In China, utilization of ramie as fodder to raise cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock has gained importance because of its high economic benefits. Ramie leaves are rich in nutrients, including protein (Pérez et al., 2013), and contain amino acids necessary for animal health. Ramie can be grazed ensiled along with molasses, used as green forage or artificially dried to form leaf meal (Fig. 4). Fresh leaves are used as feed for cattle, chickens and pigs in the United States, Japan, Brazil, Spain and Colombia (Machin, 1977). Dinh et al. (2007) have reported the high nutritional value of ramie foliage for ruminants. The yield of ramie foliage along the Red River Delta region can reach up to 126 tons of fresh biomass ha -1 or 17.3 tons dry biomass ha -1 in 1 year. The yield from leaves can reach up to 56 tons fresh biomass ha -1 or 9.6 tons dry biomass ha -1 in 1 year. Ramie foliage from either whole plants or leaves has 21% crude protein (CP) and 19–22% ash in dry matter; however, drying can decrease the CP content in leaves. Ramie meets the nutrient requirements of livestock feed and contains 16.35% crude protein, 6.36% crude lipid, 13.61% crude fiber and 20.50% ash (Despal et al., 2011). The high protein content of ramie leaves has attracted the attention of researchers from tropical and subtropical areas, e.g., Brazil, Guatemala and the southern United States, to study its production potential and forage quality. The nutritive value of ramie has been described as similar to that of alfalfa (Kipriotis et al., 2015). According to previous reports, ramie has similar nutritional quality to that of alfalfa hay (Fig. 5); however, further investigation is required. Ramie foliage has nutritional value for cattle, rabbits and pigs. However, ramie meal is valuable for poultry because it contributes carotenoids and riboflavin (Pérez et al., 2013). Ramie has a higher crude protein content (Cleasby and Sideek, 1958; Machin, 1977) than other balanced feedstuffs on the market; therefore, it constitutes a valuable source of animal feed. Ramie included in the diet of Xiangcun black pigs (< 9%) is an effective feed crop that partly improves the carcass traits and chemical composition of muscles (Li et al., 2018). The addition of ramie tops and leaves in chick rations might also be useful (Mehrhof, 1950). Leaves of ramie in the form of hay can be utilized to substitute 20% of the concentrate in Jawaradu goat rations (Despal et al., 2017). Use of ramie as a forage to supplement White Semi-Giant and Chinchilla rabbit rations has been found to produce changes of 2.0 and 2.2 kg b.wt. within 91 days (Valdivie and de Leon, 2015). However, it is important to note that its fiber content increases, with the age of the cuttings (Pérez et al., 2013). Therefore, the best harvesting time for ramie as forage for optimal nutritional quality is at 30 days, thus yielding 29% crude protein, 29% crude fiber and 4% lignin content (Suryanah et al., 2017). Similarly, the high content of protein and other nutrients is obtained from ramie cut every 30 days, as compared to 45 and 60 days (Acosta et al., 1997).
production, thermostability, biodegradability and low cost (Nam and Netravali, 2006; Monteiro et al. 2009). However, their demand is now limited because of the supply of manufactured fibers. Low-cost fibers have low-grade quality, whereas the production of superior fibers is expensive. Ramie fiber has high quality, good color and an attractive appearance, and it performs well in fabrics, a very important quality in the Textile industry. Ramie crop can persist up to 13 years, thus allowing stable harvesting of stems and bast fiber (Angelini and Tavarini, 2013). Extraction of the fiber begins with manual or mechanical removal of the cortex, in a process known as decortication. Then the cortex is scraped to remove most of the outer bark, the parenchyma and some of the pectins and gums. Finally, the residual cortex material is washed, dried and degummed to extract spinnable fiber for further Textile processing (Fig. 3). The fiber size depends on treatment severity. The helix angle in bast and leaf fibers is lower than that in cotton, typically around 10°; consequently, in ramie, they are approximately pure cellulose with higher strength and lower break extensions (Hearle, 2001). The lifespan of ramie ranges from 6 to 20 years (Sen and Reddy, 2011). Thus continuous harvesting is feasible for ramie; if harvesting is delayed, the yield and quality of fiber are severely affected in the following season (Peng, 2009). Jarman et al. (1978) have also reported a 20 year production cycle for ramie, but no experimental evidence supports that hypothesis. Fiber obtained from ramie has remarkable physical and chemical characteristics as compared with those of other plant fibers (Table 2). Ramie fiber is one of the strongest and longest natural bast fibers (Nishino et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2005; Lu et al., 2006); wetting increases its strength, and it can withstand high temperatures during laundering. Ramie fiber is white and lustrous with a silk-like appearance; it is known for its ability to hold its shape. It is resistant to bacteria, mildew and insects (Jarman et al., 1978). It can also be used in a blend with cotton, wool and even silk to make different industrial products. Ramie blends with cotton can enhance the strength, color and luster without affecting the fabric flexibility. However, ramie fiber is two times stronger than cotton and has a better length:breadth ratio than that of cotton (Satya et al., 2011). It enhances the strength and luster of cotton fabric and decreases shrinkage in wool blends. Ramie fabric is resistant to mild acids, alkalis and light, as well as rotting and shrinkage. It has higher stain resistance than cotton. Ramie clothing is appreciated in summer clothing (Hwang, 2010) because it is highly absorbent and is pleasant to wear during hot and humid weather (Cengiz and Babalik, 2009). It can be bleached easily as well. However, ramie fiber does have certain disadvantages, namely a lack of resiliency, low abrasion resistance, brittleness, stiffness and low elasticity (elongation at break of 3–7%) (Kadolph and Langford, 2001; Mather and Wardman, 2011). 6. Ramie as animal feed Rising costs of livestock feed and the desire to boost high protein feed production have created a need for alternative crops, especially in areas where conventional feed crops are not well adopted for the development of livestock industry. Ramie is a fast growing perennial plant that is used as a source of bast fiber as well as nutritious green feed Table 2 Physical and chemical properties of ramie fiber in comparison with cotton and hemp (Singh, 1996; Dittenber and Gangrao, 2012). Properties
Unit
Ramie
Cotton
Hemp
Fiber length Fiber Diameter Tensile Strength Moisture regaining capacity Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
mm um kg/mm2 % % % %
20-250 40-60 95 12 68.6-91 5-16.7 0.6-0.7
30-60 14-16 45 8 82.7-90 5.7 <2
15-25 15-30 83 12 55-77 14-22.4 3.7-13
7. Importance of ramie in environmental conservation Contamination of soil with heavy metals as a result of global industrialization has markedly increased within the past few years (Manousaki et al., 2008), thus resulting in disorder, instability or harm 303
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Table 3 Nutrient contents of ramie plant parts, given by different sources. Plant Part
Crude protein (%) DM
Crude fiber (%) DM
Ether extract (%) DM
Ash (%) DM
Calcium (%) DM
References
Whole plant Whole plant (fresh) Leaves (fresh) Tops (fresh) Whole plant (fresh) Leaves (fresh) Leaves (dry) Leaves and tender tops Leaves (fresh) Leaves Stems Aerial part (dry) Leaves and tops (dry) Leaves (dry) Leaves (dry) Stem and leaves Stem and leaves (variety: Zhongsizhu No.1) Ramie hay
29.2 11.79 17 15.25 21.2 25.6 21.8 > 20 19.59 23.44 8.36 22.4 21 18.5 22.7 > 20 22
29.4 28.15 6.33 91.21 24.6 12.8 14.5 – 12.98 10.02 43.29 11.9 16.6 17.5 11.3 – –
1.93 2.15 2.33 1.17 1.21 1.74 – 5.23 – – 3.4 4 3.1 8.6 – –
– – – – – – – – 19.10 20.9 7.63 17.7 14.8 – 18.8 – –
– – – – – – – – 6.24 – – 45 49 – 49 – 4.07
Suryanah et al. (2017) Contò et al. (2011)
19
–
–
16
–
de Toledo et al. (2008)
Dinh et al. (2007) Jang and Yoon (2006) Soave Spoladore et al. (1983) Ramirez torres et al. (1981) INFIC (1978) National Research Council (U.S.) (1973) Cleasby and Sideek (1958) Institute of Bast Fiber Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (IBFC, CAAS)
Fig. 4. A diagram representing the processing methods for storage and optimization of ramie forage performance.
to the ecosystem, i.e., physical systems or living organisms. Excessive use of agrochemicals, contaminated irrigation water or different industrial processes causes environmental pollution and is becoming a major concern worldwide. Numerous food and fodder crops grown on metal contaminated soil can accumulate high concentrations of heavy metals, thus posing a severe threat to human and animal health (Rattan et al., 2005; Kulhari et al., 2013). According to Rajaganpathy et al. (2011), agricultural land contamination with heavy metals is a major cause of concern in livestock production systems. There is thus high interest in the utilization of various plant species to remove hazardous elements or compounds from
the soil or water, usually heavy metals, thus mitigating environmental problems without the need to excavate and dispose of contaminant material. Fiber plants, compared with other conventional plants, offer ecological benefits because they can contribute to sequestration of carbon, energy savings, greenhouse gas reduction and non-renewable resources (Fernando et al., 2015). Ramie, a bast fiber plant, possesses a certain degree of constitutional tolerance to heavy metals throughout this species, irrespective of populations or germplasms (Yang et al., 2010). Ramie is quite tolerant to heavy metal stress (e.g., from Cd, Zn or Pb) (Zhou et al., 2010). 304
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pus. It is also used for anti-inflammation, anti-bacteria, antioxidation, diuresis, hemostasis and liver protection (Lin et al., 1997; Lin et al., 1998; Huang et al., 2006). Ramie leaves have been used in herbal medicines (Lee et al., 2015) and are a potentially new source of antioxidants and antidiabetic agents (Wang et al., 2018). The leaves are resolvent and astringent, and can also be used in the treatment of fluxes and wounds (Duke and Ayensu, 1985; Chopra et al., 1986). Some other studies also reported that the ramie leaves are rich in bioactive compounds with antibacterial (Lee et al., 2014), antiviral (Wei et al., 2014), antitumor, antioxidant (Chen et al., 2014), anti-obesity (Lee et al., 2016) and anti-inflammatory effects (Sung et al., 2013). In addition, the leaf extract has been found to improve blood glucose and lipid metabolism in mice with type-2 diabetes (H. Lee et al., 2014). 9. Ramie product diversification and potential constraints
Fig. 5. Chemical composition of ramie and alfalfa hay (Modified from: de Toledo et al., 2008).
Multipurpose utilization of ramie in a number of products, owing to its high productivity for fiber, biomass and high nutritional quality, has increased ramie’s importance as an industrial crop. Example applications include the following. (1) The unique features of ramie fiber, such as its resistance to microbial attack, high strength, durability, absorbency and excellent luster, make it suitable for use in manufacturing a wide variety of value added products, e.g., clothing fabrics, bed sheets, tablecloths, curtains, towel materials, twine, cordage, canvas, industrial packing, car outfits, pulley belts, ropes, fishing nets, fiber hoses, water carrying bags, upholstery fabrics, furnishing materials, shoe sewing thread, paper pulp, hammocks and ship sails, as well as special papers for bank notes and cigarettes (Mauersberger, 1954; Hester and Yuen, 1989; Sen and Reddy, 2011). (2) Ramie fiber can also be utilized in manufacturing various defense articles such as bulletproof panels (Marsyahyo et al., 2009) as well as ammunition belts, cartridge cloth, camouflage nets and parachute chords. Great Britain has found ramie to be a useful fiber in wartime. In fighting fires that broke out in the wake of the London bombings, all ramie fire hoses were found to be useful. Untreated with rubber, these hoses were capable of carrying water under normal pressure without leakage (Monthly Review of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, 1945). (3) The woody parts of ramie can be used for making several other bio-degradable products such as plywood, fiber board and particle board. (4) Fiber crops are potential energy crops that can be used whole or as residues from industry (El Bassam, 2010). The high biomass production of ramie makes it a potential candidate for the production of renewable bio-energy (Fig. 6). (5) The high nutritional quality of ramie has increased its importance as an excellent livestock feed. Broom (2016) has reported that ramie leaves can be eaten by goats, sheep and cattle. (6) Ramie has been widely used as a folk remedy or an emergency food (Institute of Drug and Plant, 1998). (7) Owing to the high percentage of crude protein and crude fiber, ramie residues can be used to develop a substrate for edible mushroom cultivation, thus providing a new insight in the mushroom industry. Ramie stalks can provide an effective supplement for increasing mushroom yield (Xie et al., 2017). (8) Organic mulching is an environmentally friendly approach for sustainable agriculture. Ramie fibers mixed with other natural fibers can be used to produce organic mulch with non-woven technology. (9) Ramie can be used to make ramie blended car seat covers that provide thermal comfort to drivers during real traffic conditions (Cengiz and Babalik, 2009).
Ramie can grow and colonize diverse heavy metal mine sites (Yang et al., 2010). It can exhibit high potential for Cd phytoextraction, owing to its high biomass (about 2 m height), fast growth (50–90 days per complete growth cycle) and ability to yield three cuttings per year (Liu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2013; Gong et al., 2016). Yang et al. (2010) reported that the mean annual metal accumulation in aboveground parts of ramie could reach 3852 g Zn, 1024 g Cu, 712 g As, 560 g Pb, 34 g Cd per ha. In a previous study ramie accumulated 4029 mg kg-1 Sb grown in sulfide mining areas of China (Okkenhaug et al., 2011). Cultivated ramie (Xiangzhu No. 7) can also be used as a promising plant species for uranium pollution phytoremediation (W. Wang et al. 2018). Furthermore, ramie derived biochar modified with β-cyclodextrin/poly (L-glutamic acid) can enhance the adsorption of Cr (VI) (Jiang et al. 2017). According to Gong et al. (2018), pyrolyzed products produced from ramie residues obtained after phytoremediation can be used for dye adsorption. Another environmentally friendly aspect of ramie is its progressive influence on the soil organic matter pool. Di Bene et al. (2011) have found that stocks of soil organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorous significantly increase after 13 years of ramie cultivation. Half of the recommended nitrogen fertilizer can be supplemented by the addition of ramie compost in the fertilizer schedule of ramie crops; this treatment efficiently sustains the growth and yield of fiber (Mitra et al., 2014). Ramie also has the potential to grow in hilly or mountainous areas, thus suggesting the possibility of applications in the reduction of soil erosion and water runoff. Cultivation of ramie on slopes of hilly areas might reduce soil erosion (Rong and XiaoNing, 2010). 8. Medicinal value of ramie Ramie is an important cash crop in China. For a long time, only 5% of the total ramie produce was utilized, and more than 90% was discarded as waste or mixed in soil as organic fertilizer. However, over time, ramie gained importance in the field of medicine, especially in traditional Chinese medicine. Previous studies have revealed that the roots and leaves of ramie have high healthcare and medicinal development value. The prime importance of ramie is based on its usefulness to prevent miscarriage (Tian et al., 2011), and promote the drainage of
Fig. 6. A schematic flow chart diagram for production of bio-ethanol from ramie residue.
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In spite of several potential benefits, ramie fiber is of secondary importance as compared with other plant fibers traded globally. The major constraints limiting ramie production and utilization include the lack of suitable large scale fiber extraction equipment as well as the expensive methods of degumming, spinning and weaving the fiber (Roy and Lutfar, 2012), and the high price of ramie based products such as ramie fabrics. However these issues can be solved by paying considerable attention to the development of required machinery from planting of ramie to final product development.
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Huang, X., Chen, J., Bao, Y., Liu, L., Jiang, H., An, X., Dai, L., Wang, B., Peng, D., 2014. Transcript profiling reveals auxin and cytokinin signaling pathways and transcription regulation during in vitro organogenesis of Ramie (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaud). PLoS One 9 (11), e113768. Hwang, M.S., 2010. Morphological differences between ramie and hemp: how these characteristics developed different procedures in bast fiber producing industry. Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. pp. 23. INFIC, 1978. Data from International Network of Feed Information Centres. FAO, Rome. Institute of Drug and Plant, 1998. Details of drug and plant (Revised version). Jimmeong Publish, Korea. Jang, M.S., Yoon, S.J., 2006. Characteristics of quality in Jeolpyun with different amounts of ramie. Korean J. Food Cookery Sci. 22, 636–641. Jarman, C.G., Canning, A.J., Mykolul, S., 1978. Cultivation, extraction and processing of ramie fibre. Rev. Trop. Sci. 20, 91–116. 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10. Conclusions and future prospects This review highlights that ramie is a good alternative plant species that can potentially be utilized for fiber production in the Textile sector, for substituting commercial rations for livestock, for environmental conservation of species and for medicines. The sexual and asexual propagation of ramie and its high productivity over many years after planting make it an important plant species for scientists and growers. Ramie’s high biomass production and nutritional quality support its utility as an animal feed. Moreover, ramie feed, if fully exploited, could assist in increasing the production and improving the health of livestock. One of its main assets is its excellent versatility, because it can be grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions, and even on metal-contaminated and hilly sites, where cultivation of other field crops would be difficult. The utilization and importance of ramie as a bast fiber and animal feed have been widely documented, but several other aspects related to the novel uses of this plant still require further research to decrease the high costs. For example, the production of bio-energy must be further studied, because the conversion rate is low and uneconomical. The utilization of ramie parts in medicines is still being researched. Ramie mulch was developed to avoid the environmental issues of plastic mulch, but it is now being utilized as a seedling substrate, which has shown high potential for larger markets and has been found to be more economical than mulch. The high nutritional quality of ramie has changed opinions regarding its usefulness as only a fiber crop. Use of ramie as a fodder crop can support the ramie industry, because there is a large market for vegetable protein feed. The extension of ramie cultivation would also decrease dependence on imported fibers, and ramie may be a favorable substitute for other natural fibers that are currently imported. At present, there is a large scope for research and development of this valuable crop. Every effort should be made to augment research strategies and policy decisions to promote ramie cultivation with high productivity. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Acknowledgements This work was supported by Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2662015PY059), China Agriculture Research System project (CARS-16-E12) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31571717). We gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of Dr. Saddam Hussain. References Acosta, I.R., Rosales, J., Araque, A.M., Monsalve, D., 1997. Energy evaluation and digestibility of Ramio (Boehmeria nivea) in poultry. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ) 14, 517–523. An, X., Zhang, J., Liao, Y., Liu, L., Peng, D., Wang, B., 2017. Senescence is delayed when ramie (Boehmeria nivea L.) is transformed with the isopentyl transferase (ipt) gene under control of the SAG12 promoter. FEBS Open Biol. 7, 636–644. Angelini, L., Tavarini, S., 2013. Ramie [Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaud.] as a potential new fibre crop for the Mediterranean region: growth, crop yield and fibre quality in a long-term field experiment in Central Italy. Ind. Crops Prod 51, 138–144. Batra, S.K., Bell, C., 1975. On the efficient utilization of natural (vegetable) fibers. A
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Ramie, a multipurpose crop: potential applications, constraints and improvement strategies
T
Muzammal Rehmana, Deng Gangb, Qiqing Liua, Yinglong Chenc, Bo Wanga, Dingxiang Penga, ⁎ Lijun Liua, a
MOA Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, PR China b School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, PR China c The UWA Institute of Agriculture and School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6001, Australia
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Bast fiber Environmental conservation Livestock feed Medicinal value Nutritional quality Ramie
World population growth has increased the demand for food and shelter, thus threatening environmental sustainability and expanding the gap between resource availability and the ability to meet human needs. Humans are fulfilling their needs by depleting natural resources. Currently, exploring plant species that can fulfill the life requirements of both humans and animals without degrading natural resources has become a major challenge. Therefore, research on underutilized crops is of high interest among plant scientists. Ramie, an ancient plant with a long history, is being researched because of its vigorous growth, high nutritional value and multipurpose applications in Textiles, livestock feed, environmental conservation and medicine. It can be cultivated in versatile conditions including tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. The present review article provides a detailed discussion on the multipurpose utilization and nutritional importance of ramie as well as potential applications and constraints, and the outlook for the future.
1. Introduction Globally, agriculture plays an important role in sustaining livelihood and human well-being, especially in rural communities. The cultivation of multipurpose crops such as ramie (Fig. 1) may be an optimal option to meet the rising demands of human needs. Ramie is an old Textile fiber crop that is harvested every 60 days by cutting the mature shoots without destroying the roots; thus, the root system develops continuously in the soil (Subandi, 2012). Ramie is cultivated as a major economic crop in China: 500,000 tons of fiber is produced per year, accounting for approximately 96% of global production (Kipriotis et al., 2015). Ramie farming, industries and trade provide livelihood support to approximately 5 million people (An et al., 2017). China exports a large quantity of ramie yarn and fabrics every year (Fig. 2). The major export markets for ramie products are Japan and Europe. Besides being a source of bast fiber (Tewolde & Fernandez, 2003; Sarkar, 2005), ramie is also used as source of feed for livestock (Kipriotis et al., 2015; Rehman et al., 2019a,b) and poultry and fish farming, owing to its vigorous growth, high biomass production and high protein content. Machin (1977) has also reported ramie to be a
potential forage for livestock, because it is an excellent source of crude protein, lysine, methionine, carotenoids, riboflavin and calcium, and it has a low level of crude fiber. The nutritional value of ramie has been described as similar to that of alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Ramie can also be utilized for environmental conservation because of its tolerance to heavy metal stress: ramie can grow and colonize diverse heavy metal contaminated lands (Yang et al. 2010; Zhou et al. 2010). In addition, ramie has potential uses in tea, foods, medicine (Lee et al., 2015) and the cosmetic industry. For example, its leaf extracts exhibit anti-HBV activity (Wei et al., 2014). Despite the multiple benefits of ramie and its products, its cultivation has received comparatively less attention than other annual or perennial fiber crops. The reasons are manifold, but ramie based poorly grown industries are a key hindrance to ramie cultivation. Growers face large challenges to establish a crop, decorticate and degum its fiber and finally find a potential market for their produce. A lack of planting materials and cultivation of local landraces, poor crop management and lack of awareness campaigns are some other limitations to ramie production. However, if researchers and growers were to pay considerable attention to this crop, a progressive change might occur in the
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Rehman), [email protected] (D. Gang), [email protected] (Q. Liu), [email protected] (Y. Chen), [email protected] (B. Wang), [email protected] (D. Peng), [email protected] (L. Liu). ⁎
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.05.029 Received 8 October 2018; Received in revised form 2 May 2019; Accepted 10 May 2019 Available online 21 May 2019 0926-6690/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Fig. 1. A schematic diagram for multipurpose utilization of ramie.
which is anglicized as "ramie". It is native to China, Japan and the Malay Peninsula, where it has been used as a Textile fiber for centuries because of its excellent fiber quality (Wood and Angus, 1974; Batra and Bell, 1975; Liu et al., 2001). It is mainly grown in China, India and other Southeast Asia and Pacific Rim countries (Hester and Yuen, 1989; Liu et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2005). It has been cultivated in China for many centuries, before even cotton, in 1300 AD (Robinson, 1940). Ramie fiber was used to weave clothing in ancient China and for wrapping mummies in Egypt during the period 5000–3000 BC (Ray et al. 2014). The high resistance of ramie fiber to bacteria, mildew, mild acid, insects and rotting made it appropriate for wrapping mummies. Japan has been making fabrics made of ramie fiber—the famed 'Satsumjofu' and ‘Echigojfu’ fabrics—since ancient times. Brazil started ramie production in the late 1930s, and production peaked in 1971. Since then, its production has decreased, owing to competition with alternative crops, such as soybeans and other synthetic fibers. The modern stage in the history of ramie began in 1690, when George Eberhard Rumph found ramie plants growing in the East Indies and named them Ramium majus. In 1737, Linnaeus named them Urtica nivea (Sarma, 2008). Ramie was then renamed Boehmeria nivea L. Gaudichud by Gaudichaud in 1826. By the end of the 19th century, ramie plants and seeds were transported to other parts of the world, where they continue to be grown (Montgomery, 1954). 3. Botanical description of ramie Ramie belongs to the natural vegetable fibers of the stinging nettle family Urtica ceae, genus Boehmeria and species B. nivea. It can grow 1 to 2 ms in height (Singh, 1996). The leaves are alternate, heart-shaped and long petioled, and they appear on the upper parts of the stalks. They are 7 to 15 cm long and 6 to 12 cm wide. The leaves are hairy with felty hairs and with white under face in case of B. nivea and with green undersurface in case of B. utilis. The shoots consist of numerous long and short serial sterns; each called a."cane." Several canes together form a."clum." (Singh, 1996). Ramie is usually monoecious, with male and female flowers produced on the same stalk. However, ramie plants producing only male or female flowers can be obtained under specific environmental conditions or through various hormonal treatments
Fig. 2. Export of ramie yarn and fabrics from China during 2012 to 2017 (Statistical Center of China Textile Industry Federation).
agriculture industry. Therefore, in this article, an overview of ramie is provided with special attention paid to highlighting its industrial importance as a multipurpose crop and its potential applications, constraints and improvement strategies. 2. Origin and history of ramie The word "ramie" is derived from the ancient word “malayan,” 301
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species have been reported from Eastern Asia, 45 species have been reported from Ceylon, and 45 species have been reported from India (Singh, 1996; Kirby, 1963; Hooker, 1885). Two species of the genus Boehmeria are most important: one is B. nivea, also known as white ramie, which is primarily cultivated for commercial purposes worldwide and grows best in temperate and subtropical regions; the other is B. nivea var tenacissima, which is known as green ramie and is more adapted to temperate regions (Mitra et al., 2014). Ramie is sensitive to soil moisture and can grow well in sandy loam soils. However, soils that are deficient in calcium and poor in base exchange capacity are not suitable for cultivation of ramie. Ramie is normally harvested two to three times a year but under good growing conditions can be harvested up to six times per year. Ramie grown in the Yangtze River Basin, China can yield three cuttings per year (Peng, 2009). In the tropics, it can be harvested three to four times per year under favorable conditions (Liu et al., 2005). However, under favorable growing conditions, it can also be harvested up to six times per year. In another report, ramie has yielded up to 14 cuttings per year, providing as much as 300 tons of fresh material (42 tons dry matter) per ha per year, when grown for fodder purposes in tropical areas (Kipriotis et al., 2015). Thus, ramie can be grown in large scales in versatile environments including tropical, subtropical and temperate regions, except for waterlogged soil.
Table 1 Optimum conditions for the growth of ramie. Indices
Required conditions
Soil type pH Temperature Rainfall (annual) Altitude Relative humidity
Loamy or sandy loam 5.5–6.5 25 °C–31 °C 1000–2000 mm (evenly distributed) 200–1500 m (above sea level) 80%
(Mitra et al., 2014). Two panicles each arise from the axils of leaves, and the greenish-white flowers are arranged in close clusters on the branches of the panicles. The female flowers are present on the upper parts of the stalks in axillary panicles. They are unisexual with five sepals and no petals. They have one celled, one seeded ovaries and a slender style, which is hairy on one side. The male flowers are found on the lower part, with four sepals united at the base, stamens and a rudimentary ovary. Seeds are smaller in size and produced in a very large number. Ramie plant has rhizomatous roots including small fibrous roots, storage roots and rhizomes. 4. Growth conditions for the cultivation of ramie
5. Ramie as a bast fiber crop
Ramie, commonly known as “China grass,” is a hardy perennial herbaceous plant cultivated as an important natural Textile fiber crop (Liu et al., 2012; Luan et al., 2015a; Luan et al., 2015b). It is cultivated in China, Brazil, India, Lao PDR, South Korea, Thailand and the Philippines (Zhu et al., 2014). It can grow well with multiple harvests under favorable environmental conditions (Table 1). There are approximately 100 species in the genus Boehmeria Jacq. which are mostly tropical and subtropical; some are herbs, shrubs and trees (Singh, 1996). Approximately 40 species have been reported from Japan, 50
In ramie, in contrast to cotton or some other natural fiber plants, the main Textile plant fiber can be extracted from stems. In China, ramie is an important crop in terms of cultivation area and quantity of fiber produced, and is second only to cotton (Huang et al., 2014). Bast fiber once had key importance in clothing and other Textiles, mainly before the supply of cotton from America. These fibers are multicellular, small and short, but are found in bundles that provide support to the stem. Natural cellulosic plant fibers became popular because of their high
Fig. 3. A schematic diagram from ramie field to ramie clothing. 302
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(Table 3) in China and is palatable to all classes of farm animals. Previous research on cattle, sheep, pigs, horses and poultry has highlighted the importance of ramie as a good nutritional resource in the form of green forage (Pérez et al., 2013). Young shoots and leaves of ramie have high nutritive value and are excellent feed for pigs, cattle and poultry. The young shoots contain protein (16.4%), digestible fiber (25%), calcium (31.8 g kg-1) and potassium (18.7 g kg-1) with high metabolic energy (6.4 MJ kg-1) on a dry matter basis (INFIC, 1978). Ramie can also be processed into powder, plugs and pellets for the convenience of storage and transportation. Therefore, cultivation of ramie may be an optimal solution to support the livestock industry, owing to ramie’s high biomass production, high crude protein content and strong adaptability to the environment. Ramie can be cultivated as a fodder crop for raising livestock with higher economic benefits. In China, utilization of ramie as fodder to raise cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock has gained importance because of its high economic benefits. Ramie leaves are rich in nutrients, including protein (Pérez et al., 2013), and contain amino acids necessary for animal health. Ramie can be grazed ensiled along with molasses, used as green forage or artificially dried to form leaf meal (Fig. 4). Fresh leaves are used as feed for cattle, chickens and pigs in the United States, Japan, Brazil, Spain and Colombia (Machin, 1977). Dinh et al. (2007) have reported the high nutritional value of ramie foliage for ruminants. The yield of ramie foliage along the Red River Delta region can reach up to 126 tons of fresh biomass ha -1 or 17.3 tons dry biomass ha -1 in 1 year. The yield from leaves can reach up to 56 tons fresh biomass ha -1 or 9.6 tons dry biomass ha -1 in 1 year. Ramie foliage from either whole plants or leaves has 21% crude protein (CP) and 19–22% ash in dry matter; however, drying can decrease the CP content in leaves. Ramie meets the nutrient requirements of livestock feed and contains 16.35% crude protein, 6.36% crude lipid, 13.61% crude fiber and 20.50% ash (Despal et al., 2011). The high protein content of ramie leaves has attracted the attention of researchers from tropical and subtropical areas, e.g., Brazil, Guatemala and the southern United States, to study its production potential and forage quality. The nutritive value of ramie has been described as similar to that of alfalfa (Kipriotis et al., 2015). According to previous reports, ramie has similar nutritional quality to that of alfalfa hay (Fig. 5); however, further investigation is required. Ramie foliage has nutritional value for cattle, rabbits and pigs. However, ramie meal is valuable for poultry because it contributes carotenoids and riboflavin (Pérez et al., 2013). Ramie has a higher crude protein content (Cleasby and Sideek, 1958; Machin, 1977) than other balanced feedstuffs on the market; therefore, it constitutes a valuable source of animal feed. Ramie included in the diet of Xiangcun black pigs (< 9%) is an effective feed crop that partly improves the carcass traits and chemical composition of muscles (Li et al., 2018). The addition of ramie tops and leaves in chick rations might also be useful (Mehrhof, 1950). Leaves of ramie in the form of hay can be utilized to substitute 20% of the concentrate in Jawaradu goat rations (Despal et al., 2017). Use of ramie as a forage to supplement White Semi-Giant and Chinchilla rabbit rations has been found to produce changes of 2.0 and 2.2 kg b.wt. within 91 days (Valdivie and de Leon, 2015). However, it is important to note that its fiber content increases, with the age of the cuttings (Pérez et al., 2013). Therefore, the best harvesting time for ramie as forage for optimal nutritional quality is at 30 days, thus yielding 29% crude protein, 29% crude fiber and 4% lignin content (Suryanah et al., 2017). Similarly, the high content of protein and other nutrients is obtained from ramie cut every 30 days, as compared to 45 and 60 days (Acosta et al., 1997).
production, thermostability, biodegradability and low cost (Nam and Netravali, 2006; Monteiro et al. 2009). However, their demand is now limited because of the supply of manufactured fibers. Low-cost fibers have low-grade quality, whereas the production of superior fibers is expensive. Ramie fiber has high quality, good color and an attractive appearance, and it performs well in fabrics, a very important quality in the Textile industry. Ramie crop can persist up to 13 years, thus allowing stable harvesting of stems and bast fiber (Angelini and Tavarini, 2013). Extraction of the fiber begins with manual or mechanical removal of the cortex, in a process known as decortication. Then the cortex is scraped to remove most of the outer bark, the parenchyma and some of the pectins and gums. Finally, the residual cortex material is washed, dried and degummed to extract spinnable fiber for further Textile processing (Fig. 3). The fiber size depends on treatment severity. The helix angle in bast and leaf fibers is lower than that in cotton, typically around 10°; consequently, in ramie, they are approximately pure cellulose with higher strength and lower break extensions (Hearle, 2001). The lifespan of ramie ranges from 6 to 20 years (Sen and Reddy, 2011). Thus continuous harvesting is feasible for ramie; if harvesting is delayed, the yield and quality of fiber are severely affected in the following season (Peng, 2009). Jarman et al. (1978) have also reported a 20 year production cycle for ramie, but no experimental evidence supports that hypothesis. Fiber obtained from ramie has remarkable physical and chemical characteristics as compared with those of other plant fibers (Table 2). Ramie fiber is one of the strongest and longest natural bast fibers (Nishino et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2005; Lu et al., 2006); wetting increases its strength, and it can withstand high temperatures during laundering. Ramie fiber is white and lustrous with a silk-like appearance; it is known for its ability to hold its shape. It is resistant to bacteria, mildew and insects (Jarman et al., 1978). It can also be used in a blend with cotton, wool and even silk to make different industrial products. Ramie blends with cotton can enhance the strength, color and luster without affecting the fabric flexibility. However, ramie fiber is two times stronger than cotton and has a better length:breadth ratio than that of cotton (Satya et al., 2011). It enhances the strength and luster of cotton fabric and decreases shrinkage in wool blends. Ramie fabric is resistant to mild acids, alkalis and light, as well as rotting and shrinkage. It has higher stain resistance than cotton. Ramie clothing is appreciated in summer clothing (Hwang, 2010) because it is highly absorbent and is pleasant to wear during hot and humid weather (Cengiz and Babalik, 2009). It can be bleached easily as well. However, ramie fiber does have certain disadvantages, namely a lack of resiliency, low abrasion resistance, brittleness, stiffness and low elasticity (elongation at break of 3–7%) (Kadolph and Langford, 2001; Mather and Wardman, 2011). 6. Ramie as animal feed Rising costs of livestock feed and the desire to boost high protein feed production have created a need for alternative crops, especially in areas where conventional feed crops are not well adopted for the development of livestock industry. Ramie is a fast growing perennial plant that is used as a source of bast fiber as well as nutritious green feed Table 2 Physical and chemical properties of ramie fiber in comparison with cotton and hemp (Singh, 1996; Dittenber and Gangrao, 2012). Properties
Unit
Ramie
Cotton
Hemp
Fiber length Fiber Diameter Tensile Strength Moisture regaining capacity Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
mm um kg/mm2 % % % %
20-250 40-60 95 12 68.6-91 5-16.7 0.6-0.7
30-60 14-16 45 8 82.7-90 5.7 <2
15-25 15-30 83 12 55-77 14-22.4 3.7-13
7. Importance of ramie in environmental conservation Contamination of soil with heavy metals as a result of global industrialization has markedly increased within the past few years (Manousaki et al., 2008), thus resulting in disorder, instability or harm 303
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Table 3 Nutrient contents of ramie plant parts, given by different sources. Plant Part
Crude protein (%) DM
Crude fiber (%) DM
Ether extract (%) DM
Ash (%) DM
Calcium (%) DM
References
Whole plant Whole plant (fresh) Leaves (fresh) Tops (fresh) Whole plant (fresh) Leaves (fresh) Leaves (dry) Leaves and tender tops Leaves (fresh) Leaves Stems Aerial part (dry) Leaves and tops (dry) Leaves (dry) Leaves (dry) Stem and leaves Stem and leaves (variety: Zhongsizhu No.1) Ramie hay
29.2 11.79 17 15.25 21.2 25.6 21.8 > 20 19.59 23.44 8.36 22.4 21 18.5 22.7 > 20 22
29.4 28.15 6.33 91.21 24.6 12.8 14.5 – 12.98 10.02 43.29 11.9 16.6 17.5 11.3 – –
1.93 2.15 2.33 1.17 1.21 1.74 – 5.23 – – 3.4 4 3.1 8.6 – –
– – – – – – – – 19.10 20.9 7.63 17.7 14.8 – 18.8 – –
– – – – – – – – 6.24 – – 45 49 – 49 – 4.07
Suryanah et al. (2017) Contò et al. (2011)
19
–
–
16
–
de Toledo et al. (2008)
Dinh et al. (2007) Jang and Yoon (2006) Soave Spoladore et al. (1983) Ramirez torres et al. (1981) INFIC (1978) National Research Council (U.S.) (1973) Cleasby and Sideek (1958) Institute of Bast Fiber Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (IBFC, CAAS)
Fig. 4. A diagram representing the processing methods for storage and optimization of ramie forage performance.
to the ecosystem, i.e., physical systems or living organisms. Excessive use of agrochemicals, contaminated irrigation water or different industrial processes causes environmental pollution and is becoming a major concern worldwide. Numerous food and fodder crops grown on metal contaminated soil can accumulate high concentrations of heavy metals, thus posing a severe threat to human and animal health (Rattan et al., 2005; Kulhari et al., 2013). According to Rajaganpathy et al. (2011), agricultural land contamination with heavy metals is a major cause of concern in livestock production systems. There is thus high interest in the utilization of various plant species to remove hazardous elements or compounds from
the soil or water, usually heavy metals, thus mitigating environmental problems without the need to excavate and dispose of contaminant material. Fiber plants, compared with other conventional plants, offer ecological benefits because they can contribute to sequestration of carbon, energy savings, greenhouse gas reduction and non-renewable resources (Fernando et al., 2015). Ramie, a bast fiber plant, possesses a certain degree of constitutional tolerance to heavy metals throughout this species, irrespective of populations or germplasms (Yang et al., 2010). Ramie is quite tolerant to heavy metal stress (e.g., from Cd, Zn or Pb) (Zhou et al., 2010). 304
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pus. It is also used for anti-inflammation, anti-bacteria, antioxidation, diuresis, hemostasis and liver protection (Lin et al., 1997; Lin et al., 1998; Huang et al., 2006). Ramie leaves have been used in herbal medicines (Lee et al., 2015) and are a potentially new source of antioxidants and antidiabetic agents (Wang et al., 2018). The leaves are resolvent and astringent, and can also be used in the treatment of fluxes and wounds (Duke and Ayensu, 1985; Chopra et al., 1986). Some other studies also reported that the ramie leaves are rich in bioactive compounds with antibacterial (Lee et al., 2014), antiviral (Wei et al., 2014), antitumor, antioxidant (Chen et al., 2014), anti-obesity (Lee et al., 2016) and anti-inflammatory effects (Sung et al., 2013). In addition, the leaf extract has been found to improve blood glucose and lipid metabolism in mice with type-2 diabetes (H. Lee et al., 2014). 9. Ramie product diversification and potential constraints
Fig. 5. Chemical composition of ramie and alfalfa hay (Modified from: de Toledo et al., 2008).
Multipurpose utilization of ramie in a number of products, owing to its high productivity for fiber, biomass and high nutritional quality, has increased ramie’s importance as an industrial crop. Example applications include the following. (1) The unique features of ramie fiber, such as its resistance to microbial attack, high strength, durability, absorbency and excellent luster, make it suitable for use in manufacturing a wide variety of value added products, e.g., clothing fabrics, bed sheets, tablecloths, curtains, towel materials, twine, cordage, canvas, industrial packing, car outfits, pulley belts, ropes, fishing nets, fiber hoses, water carrying bags, upholstery fabrics, furnishing materials, shoe sewing thread, paper pulp, hammocks and ship sails, as well as special papers for bank notes and cigarettes (Mauersberger, 1954; Hester and Yuen, 1989; Sen and Reddy, 2011). (2) Ramie fiber can also be utilized in manufacturing various defense articles such as bulletproof panels (Marsyahyo et al., 2009) as well as ammunition belts, cartridge cloth, camouflage nets and parachute chords. Great Britain has found ramie to be a useful fiber in wartime. In fighting fires that broke out in the wake of the London bombings, all ramie fire hoses were found to be useful. Untreated with rubber, these hoses were capable of carrying water under normal pressure without leakage (Monthly Review of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, 1945). (3) The woody parts of ramie can be used for making several other bio-degradable products such as plywood, fiber board and particle board. (4) Fiber crops are potential energy crops that can be used whole or as residues from industry (El Bassam, 2010). The high biomass production of ramie makes it a potential candidate for the production of renewable bio-energy (Fig. 6). (5) The high nutritional quality of ramie has increased its importance as an excellent livestock feed. Broom (2016) has reported that ramie leaves can be eaten by goats, sheep and cattle. (6) Ramie has been widely used as a folk remedy or an emergency food (Institute of Drug and Plant, 1998). (7) Owing to the high percentage of crude protein and crude fiber, ramie residues can be used to develop a substrate for edible mushroom cultivation, thus providing a new insight in the mushroom industry. Ramie stalks can provide an effective supplement for increasing mushroom yield (Xie et al., 2017). (8) Organic mulching is an environmentally friendly approach for sustainable agriculture. Ramie fibers mixed with other natural fibers can be used to produce organic mulch with non-woven technology. (9) Ramie can be used to make ramie blended car seat covers that provide thermal comfort to drivers during real traffic conditions (Cengiz and Babalik, 2009).
Ramie can grow and colonize diverse heavy metal mine sites (Yang et al., 2010). It can exhibit high potential for Cd phytoextraction, owing to its high biomass (about 2 m height), fast growth (50–90 days per complete growth cycle) and ability to yield three cuttings per year (Liu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2013; Gong et al., 2016). Yang et al. (2010) reported that the mean annual metal accumulation in aboveground parts of ramie could reach 3852 g Zn, 1024 g Cu, 712 g As, 560 g Pb, 34 g Cd per ha. In a previous study ramie accumulated 4029 mg kg-1 Sb grown in sulfide mining areas of China (Okkenhaug et al., 2011). Cultivated ramie (Xiangzhu No. 7) can also be used as a promising plant species for uranium pollution phytoremediation (W. Wang et al. 2018). Furthermore, ramie derived biochar modified with β-cyclodextrin/poly (L-glutamic acid) can enhance the adsorption of Cr (VI) (Jiang et al. 2017). According to Gong et al. (2018), pyrolyzed products produced from ramie residues obtained after phytoremediation can be used for dye adsorption. Another environmentally friendly aspect of ramie is its progressive influence on the soil organic matter pool. Di Bene et al. (2011) have found that stocks of soil organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorous significantly increase after 13 years of ramie cultivation. Half of the recommended nitrogen fertilizer can be supplemented by the addition of ramie compost in the fertilizer schedule of ramie crops; this treatment efficiently sustains the growth and yield of fiber (Mitra et al., 2014). Ramie also has the potential to grow in hilly or mountainous areas, thus suggesting the possibility of applications in the reduction of soil erosion and water runoff. Cultivation of ramie on slopes of hilly areas might reduce soil erosion (Rong and XiaoNing, 2010). 8. Medicinal value of ramie Ramie is an important cash crop in China. For a long time, only 5% of the total ramie produce was utilized, and more than 90% was discarded as waste or mixed in soil as organic fertilizer. However, over time, ramie gained importance in the field of medicine, especially in traditional Chinese medicine. Previous studies have revealed that the roots and leaves of ramie have high healthcare and medicinal development value. The prime importance of ramie is based on its usefulness to prevent miscarriage (Tian et al., 2011), and promote the drainage of
Fig. 6. A schematic flow chart diagram for production of bio-ethanol from ramie residue.
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In spite of several potential benefits, ramie fiber is of secondary importance as compared with other plant fibers traded globally. The major constraints limiting ramie production and utilization include the lack of suitable large scale fiber extraction equipment as well as the expensive methods of degumming, spinning and weaving the fiber (Roy and Lutfar, 2012), and the high price of ramie based products such as ramie fabrics. However these issues can be solved by paying considerable attention to the development of required machinery from planting of ramie to final product development.
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Technol.(September). de Toledo, G.S.P., da Silva, L.P., de Quadros, A.R.B., Retore, M., Araújo, I.G., Brum, H.S., Ferreira, P., Melchior, R., 2008. Productive performance of rabbits fed with dietscontaining Ramie hay in substitution to alfalfa hay. Nutr. Dig. Physiol. 827. Despal, M., Ridla, M., Permana, I.G., Toharmat, T., 2017. Substitution of concentrate by ramie (Boehmeria nivea) leaves hay or silage on digestibility of jawarandu goat ration. Pak. J. Nutr. 16, 435–443. Despal, Permana I.G., Safarina, S.N., Tatra, A.J., 2011. Using various of water dissolved carbohydrate resources to improve the quality of ramie leaves silage. Media Peternakan. 34, 69–76. Di Bene, C., Tavarini, S., Mazzoncini, M., Angelini, L., 2011. Changes in soil chemical parameters and organic matter balance after 13 years of ramie [Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaud.] cultivation in the Mediterranean region. Eur. J. Agron. 35, 154–163. Dinh, V.T., Pham, B.D., Hoang, V.H., 2007. 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Pyrolysis and reutilization of plant residues after phytoremediation of heavy metals contaminated sediments: for heavy metals stabilization and dye adsorption. Bioresour. Technol. 253, 64–71. Gong, X., Liu, Y., Huang, D., Zeng, G., Liu, S., Tang, H., Zhou, L., Hu, X., Zhou, Y., Tan, X., 2016. Effects of exogenous calcium and spermidine on cadmium stress moderation and metal accumulation in Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23, 8699–8708. Hearle, J.W.S., 2001. Textile fibers: A comparative overview. Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, 2nd edition. pp. 9100–9116. Hester, S.B., Yuen, M.L., 1989. Ramie: patterns of world production and trade. J. Text. Inst. 80, 493–505. Hooker, J.D., 1885. Flora of India. VL Reve and Co Ltd, Ashford p. 910. Huang, K.L., Lai, Y.K., Lin, C.C., Chang, J.M., 2006. Inhibition of hepatitis B virus production by Boehmeria nivea root extract in HepG2 2.2.15 cells. World J. Gastroenterol. 12, 5721–5725. Huang, X., Chen, J., Bao, Y., Liu, L., Jiang, H., An, X., Dai, L., Wang, B., Peng, D., 2014. Transcript profiling reveals auxin and cytokinin signaling pathways and transcription regulation during in vitro organogenesis of Ramie (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaud). PLoS One 9 (11), e113768. Hwang, M.S., 2010. Morphological differences between ramie and hemp: how these characteristics developed different procedures in bast fiber producing industry. Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. pp. 23. INFIC, 1978. Data from International Network of Feed Information Centres. FAO, Rome. Institute of Drug and Plant, 1998. Details of drug and plant (Revised version). Jimmeong Publish, Korea. Jang, M.S., Yoon, S.J., 2006. Characteristics of quality in Jeolpyun with different amounts of ramie. Korean J. Food Cookery Sci. 22, 636–641. Jarman, C.G., Canning, A.J., Mykolul, S., 1978. Cultivation, extraction and processing of ramie fibre. Rev. Trop. Sci. 20, 91–116. 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10. Conclusions and future prospects This review highlights that ramie is a good alternative plant species that can potentially be utilized for fiber production in the Textile sector, for substituting commercial rations for livestock, for environmental conservation of species and for medicines. The sexual and asexual propagation of ramie and its high productivity over many years after planting make it an important plant species for scientists and growers. Ramie’s high biomass production and nutritional quality support its utility as an animal feed. Moreover, ramie feed, if fully exploited, could assist in increasing the production and improving the health of livestock. One of its main assets is its excellent versatility, because it can be grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions, and even on metal-contaminated and hilly sites, where cultivation of other field crops would be difficult. The utilization and importance of ramie as a bast fiber and animal feed have been widely documented, but several other aspects related to the novel uses of this plant still require further research to decrease the high costs. For example, the production of bio-energy must be further studied, because the conversion rate is low and uneconomical. The utilization of ramie parts in medicines is still being researched. Ramie mulch was developed to avoid the environmental issues of plastic mulch, but it is now being utilized as a seedling substrate, which has shown high potential for larger markets and has been found to be more economical than mulch. The high nutritional quality of ramie has changed opinions regarding its usefulness as only a fiber crop. Use of ramie as a fodder crop can support the ramie industry, because there is a large market for vegetable protein feed. The extension of ramie cultivation would also decrease dependence on imported fibers, and ramie may be a favorable substitute for other natural fibers that are currently imported. At present, there is a large scope for research and development of this valuable crop. Every effort should be made to augment research strategies and policy decisions to promote ramie cultivation with high productivity. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Acknowledgements This work was supported by Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2662015PY059), China Agriculture Research System project (CARS-16-E12) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31571717). We gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of Dr. Saddam Hussain. References Acosta, I.R., Rosales, J., Araque, A.M., Monsalve, D., 1997. Energy evaluation and digestibility of Ramio (Boehmeria nivea) in poultry. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ) 14, 517–523. An, X., Zhang, J., Liao, Y., Liu, L., Peng, D., Wang, B., 2017. Senescence is delayed when ramie (Boehmeria nivea L.) is transformed with the isopentyl transferase (ipt) gene under control of the SAG12 promoter. FEBS Open Biol. 7, 636–644. Angelini, L., Tavarini, S., 2013. Ramie [Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaud.] as a potential new fibre crop for the Mediterranean region: growth, crop yield and fibre quality in a long-term field experiment in Central Italy. Ind. Crops Prod 51, 138–144. Batra, S.K., Bell, C., 1975. On the efficient utilization of natural (vegetable) fibers. A
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