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Reading and thinking in english
The ESP Joumd Vol. 1. No. 1 Fall 1980
Review Article
READlNG AND THlNKlNQ 1N ENGLISH, John Moore and Teresa Mtmevar. Associate Editor, H. G. Widdowson. London: Oxford University Press, 1979 and 1980. 4 Vols. Pp. 500+.
Reviewed by David H. Wyatt Introduction
Over the last decade, three areas of investigation have been of particular significance for ESP: research into the rhetoric of academic discourse, the development of communicative approaches to language teaching, and the application of notional-functional frameworks in language syllabus design. It is only recently, however, that published courses have begun to reflect these developments in any depth. Reading and Thinking in English (RTE) is therefore of considerable theoretical as well as practical interest, as it incorporates some of the most important new concepts in language pedagogy. Overview RTE is a complete reading comprehension course in four volumes: Concepts in Use, Exploring Functions, Discovering Discourse, and Lli.scoursein Action. Each text
is expected to require approximately sixty class hours of instruction, and individual Teacher’s Editions are available for each level of the course. Although the fourth volume has already been published, it will not be marketed in the United States until later this year. Thus the comments on “the series” in this review apply to the first three textbooks only. The volumes share so many features of approach and methodology that they will be examined jointly in the main body of this review. Brief comments will then be made on the individual texts. Joint Review of the Series
The principal focus of RTE is on the development of reading ability for academic study. Starting theoretically at the near-beginner level, the series is designed to take learners to the point where they can comprehend the unsimplified discourse of textbooks, reference works, and journals. In the authors’ view, reading is an integrated process which involves both knowledge of how language is used in communication and the application of effective reading strategies. In teaching reading as a communicative activity, the series aims to develop the learners’ understanding of the function and logical structure of a passage as well as of its grammatical form. As an EAP (English for Academic Purposes) course, the series is concerned with discourse drawn from a broad range of academic areas. Both practice activities and reading passages cover topics such as electric cells, early Egyptian history, and the psychology of perception. The themes and styles of the reading selections seem well adapted to the intended audience: secondary school pupils, 51
52
The ESP Journal
university students, professionals, and others who need to read source materials in English. Despite the high interest level of most of the topics, the appropriateness of RTE, as of any course, will depend in part on the makeup of the class in which it is used. With students of varied academic interests, the course should be well received. However, given a homogeneous specialist group such as engineers or economists, considerably more resistance might be expected to the use of a series set in a general academic context. The authors are aware of the potential problem and suggest that teachers may wish to provide supplementary materials drawn from the students’ specialist fields. The selection of a general academic context, contrary to the trend towards separate texts for different specialist areas, is one of the most interesting facets of RTE. The series still embodies a “special language” as well as a “special purpose” approach, inasmuch as the linguistic functions chosen as its major teaching focus are those of the academic register. Nevertheless, the following statement in the Teacher’s Edition of Discovering Discourse represents a considerable departure from the general ESP practice: The authors have found that students can best be prepared to use textbooks in particular subjects by being guided to acquire general strategies for reading and thinking, which they can then transfer to more specialized material. (p. xiii) This assertion does not directly comment on the existence of special registers in such areas as science and technology. However, if true, it has considerable significance for the treatment of such registers in ESP courses. Specifically, it seems to imply that either the most important features of these special registers are also present in the general academic register, or the features peculiar to special registers do not present as much of a learning problem as was previously anticipated. The design of the RTE syllabus clearly reflects the notional approach as expressed by Wilkins (1976:42): The whole basis of a notional approach to language teaching derives from the conviction that what people want to do through language is more important than mastery of the language as an unapplied system. Thus the principal bases for the selection and sequencing of material throughout the series are conceptual, functional, and rhetorical rather than structural. However, considerable attention is paid to the grammar and vocabulary used in expressing these concepts and functions, so that a balance is maintained between the teaching of linguistic form and communicative function. The other main focus of the RTE syllabus concerns the understanding of certain general discourse features and reading strategies assumed to be important for efficient reading. Despite the incomplete state of our knowledge of these “microskills”, ESP courses have generally tended to cover similar points. RTE is no exception, with much attention given in the second and third volumes to such areas as adapting one’s reading approach according to the reading purpose, understanding cohesive devices, and grasping the overall function of a paragraph. Once these
Review Reading and Thinking in English
53
micro-skills are introduced, they become an integral part of activities in later units, providing very effective reinforcement. Interestingly enough, many of the skills emphasized by ESP reading courses are now receiving direct confirmation as major points of difficulty for foreign learners (Cohen et al. 1979:551). In accordance with RTE’s communicative approach, all practice activities demand careful attention to meaning as well as control of structure. The methodology includes a wide range of meaningful exercise types, but the most striking feature is the prominence of information transfer, an activity much advocated by Widdowson (1978:141). In one basic form of information transfer, students demonstrate their understanding of a reading passage by labeling diagrams or completing tables or flow charts. Color print is judiciously used to make the labeling tasks easier; indeed, clarity and attractiveness of presentation are hallmarks of RTE. The series includes a considerable amount of written work in reinforcement of the reading skills presented. These activities are carefully controlled, so that students are never asked to produce structures or vocabulary to which they have not been exposed. Despite this tight control, the writing exercises are skillfully designed to require understanding of the informational content and accurate manipulation of vocabulary and structure. Vocabulary aids, for instance, are not usually presented in the appropriate form, and must be transformed into the correct word class before use. With regard to class activities, the authors suggest three major types: general classwork involving teacher and students, individual written work, and small group discussion of the answers to certain tasks. In an unorthodox but pragmatic move, teachers are encouraged to make use of the students’ native language where possible in introducing new material or clarifying difficult points. It is also suggested that students use the native language if necessary during small group work, particularly when improving spoken English is not an important objective. One area of particular strength in RTE is the wealth of information, explanation, and guidance provided in the Teacher’s Editions. In addition to the complete text of the student volume, these include a general teacher’s guide, detailed notes on handling some activities in each unit, and a full answer key. The teacher’s guide sections are especially praiseworthy for their clear, concise language and their insight into what the teacher needs to know. For the inexperienced instructor, the brief explanations of notional-functional principles behind the course design and methodology should provide an effective orientation. The purpose, goals, and sequence of teaching points for each unit are also very clearly outlined. The course should therefore be highly teachable and demand relatively little preparation time. Concepts
in Use
This first book in the series (CL!) is said to be aimed at the near-beginner level. Its objective is to develop the learner’s understanding in two main areas: how meanings are expressed by basic grammar and vocabulary, and how these elements convey informatin in written discourse. Each unit is built around a group of related concepts used in a particular communicative function. Consider Unit 2, States of Systems, as an example. In Part 1, the student is exposed to statements and diagrams concerning physical properties and dimensions, the two concepts
54
The ESP Journal
covered in this unit. Part 2 consists of formal presentation and practice of grammar and vocabulary associated with the concepts. Finally, in Part 3, the learner studies discourse in which the concepts are combined into short readings describing properties and dimensions. The concepts are well chosen and presented, and the grammatical structures appear reasonably appropriate although somewhat advanced for the intended level. The vocabulary used in CU, however, is much less controlled. This may well be inevitable, once the decision is taken to use a broad range of academic topics. Inevitable or otherwise, the complexity and quantity of vocabulary items may well make this text impossible to use at a near-beginner level, particularly with Arab or Asian students whose native languages contain few English cognates. However, CU should be highly appropriate for an intermediate level, where the vocabulary will present fewer problems. The technique of information transfer is skillfully used on the whole, although some ambiguities arise in the labeling activities. Occasionally, however, more serious flaws occur, and diagrams are simply not clear enough to permit a real understanding of what they represent, as on page 78. Hopefully, these minor problems will be rectified in the next edition, Exptoring Functions The second volume of RTE is intended for use at the pre-intermediate level. In addition to continuing the work of CU, it is designed to develop a knowledge of general reading techniques and of specific functional types of writing. The introductory unit explains the concept of communicative function and deals with two main topics: purposeful reading and the organization of information in passages. Subsequent units deal in turn with six important functional types of writing: following instructions, describing how things work, reporting series of events, generalizing and exemplifying, making comparisons, and giving explanations. In the first part of each unit, students are exposed to passages containing the two key concepts to be covered, such as purpose and method in Unit 2. Each concept, together with associated grammar and vocabulary, is studied separately in Parts 2 and 3. Finally, in the fourth section, all the elements are integrated into a longer reading passage exemplifying the functional type of discourse under study. The functions, concepts, and grammatical structures are very clearly explained and adequately practiced. Information transfer exercises are again used frequently and to good effect. As with CU, however, both lexis and syntax are rather complex, with vocabulary in particular seeming inappropriate for the intended preintermediate level of instruction. The text appears much more suitable for upper intermediate classes. At this higher level, even the longer reading passages should be readily accessible to the student. The format of these passages is particularly effective, with vocabulary assistance and comprehension-aiding questions provided exactly where they are needed in the left- and right-hand margins, respectively. A minor problem may arise with the technological presuppositions involved in certain of the exercise materials. For example, some foreign students may be completely unfamiliar with both the general purposes and fundamental concepts of the sophisticated photographic equipment on page 45. Lack of familiarity with
Review Readingand Thinking in English
55
the technological concepts might interfere with the relatively simple linguistic functions and concepts being presented. A unique feature of the Teacher’s Edition is the provision for its use as a selfstudy text. A brief, well-written guide to the student explains the course objectives and principles and outlines the recommended method of study. With the full answer key to provide immediate feedback on performance, this should prove an effective self-study program for the high intermediate learner. Discovering
Discourse
Intended for use at the intermediate level, this third volume continues to develop general reading skills and the understanding of specific patterns of discourse organization. An introductory unit presents strategies such as reading with prediction, understanding meaning through context, and purposeful reading. The remaining units focus on five high-level communicative functions: generalizations, descriptions, definitions, classifications, and hypotheses. The first part of each unit introduces a single communicative function, which is studied at the paragraph level in Part 2. Some sentence-level practice is then given with grammar and vocabulary used to express the function. Thus, patterns such as is known as and may be defined as are covered in the unit on definitions. The final sections of each unit deal with the functions in longer reading passages and also provide practice in general reading strategies. The logical presentation and ample practice material in this volume should certainly aid the learner in grasping the structure and function of discourse, providing access to its total informational content. The well-chosen range of general academic topics should have considerable appeal, and the reading passages are realistic simulations of academic prose. However, the lexical and syntactic complexity of the passages would make this text very difficult to use at the intermediate level. It appears to be much more suitable for an advanced class. As with the previous volume, the Teacher’s Edition includes a practical selfstudy guide with an additional section on using a dictionary. Maintaining their pragmatic approach, the authors recommend bilingual dictionaries for independent study. Final Remarks and Summary When an early version of Discovering Discourse first came to my attention three years ago, it was undergoing class-testing at the Universidad de 10s Andes, in Bogota, Colombia. Even in its preliminary form, it appeared to represent an important new development in ESP. The promise of the earlier version has now been amply fulfilled. The first three volumes of Reading and Thinking in English constitute an innovative and highly practical approach to the teaching of reading for academic purposes. They are particularly suitable for intermediate through advanced classes with a mixture of academic interests. Focusing on the function and structure of academic discourse, the series teaches strategies for effective reading rather than simply giving reading practice. The wealth of guidance provided by the Teacher’s Editions should make this course easy to prepare and use. There are certain flaws, as in
56
The ESP Journal
any pioneering effort, but they are unlikely to detract from the effectiveness of the series in a broad range of academic contexts. REFERENCES Cohen, Andrew, Hilary Glasman, Phyllis R. Rosenbaum-Cohen, Jonathan Ferrara, and Jonathan Fine. 1979. Reading English for Specialized Purposes: Discourse Analysis and the Use of Student Informants. TESOL Quurterly 13, 4: 551-564.
Widdowson, H. G. 1978. Teaching Language as Communication. London: Oxford University Press. Wilkins, D. A. 1976. Notional Syllabuses. London: Oxford University Press. David H. Wyatt is a materials development specialist with the American Language Academy Executive Offices at Catholic University, Washington, D.C. His ESL experience includes several years in Algeria and the Sudan, and he admits to a marked bias towards Middle Eastern culture. He is particularly interested in the development and teaching of courses in English for Specific Purposes, and has served as editor for several such projects. His publications include Essentials of Internutionul Trade (ALA ESP Series).
Review Article
READlNG AND THlNKlNQ 1N ENGLISH, John Moore and Teresa Mtmevar. Associate Editor, H. G. Widdowson. London: Oxford University Press, 1979 and 1980. 4 Vols. Pp. 500+.
Reviewed by David H. Wyatt Introduction
Over the last decade, three areas of investigation have been of particular significance for ESP: research into the rhetoric of academic discourse, the development of communicative approaches to language teaching, and the application of notional-functional frameworks in language syllabus design. It is only recently, however, that published courses have begun to reflect these developments in any depth. Reading and Thinking in English (RTE) is therefore of considerable theoretical as well as practical interest, as it incorporates some of the most important new concepts in language pedagogy. Overview RTE is a complete reading comprehension course in four volumes: Concepts in Use, Exploring Functions, Discovering Discourse, and Lli.scoursein Action. Each text
is expected to require approximately sixty class hours of instruction, and individual Teacher’s Editions are available for each level of the course. Although the fourth volume has already been published, it will not be marketed in the United States until later this year. Thus the comments on “the series” in this review apply to the first three textbooks only. The volumes share so many features of approach and methodology that they will be examined jointly in the main body of this review. Brief comments will then be made on the individual texts. Joint Review of the Series
The principal focus of RTE is on the development of reading ability for academic study. Starting theoretically at the near-beginner level, the series is designed to take learners to the point where they can comprehend the unsimplified discourse of textbooks, reference works, and journals. In the authors’ view, reading is an integrated process which involves both knowledge of how language is used in communication and the application of effective reading strategies. In teaching reading as a communicative activity, the series aims to develop the learners’ understanding of the function and logical structure of a passage as well as of its grammatical form. As an EAP (English for Academic Purposes) course, the series is concerned with discourse drawn from a broad range of academic areas. Both practice activities and reading passages cover topics such as electric cells, early Egyptian history, and the psychology of perception. The themes and styles of the reading selections seem well adapted to the intended audience: secondary school pupils, 51
52
The ESP Journal
university students, professionals, and others who need to read source materials in English. Despite the high interest level of most of the topics, the appropriateness of RTE, as of any course, will depend in part on the makeup of the class in which it is used. With students of varied academic interests, the course should be well received. However, given a homogeneous specialist group such as engineers or economists, considerably more resistance might be expected to the use of a series set in a general academic context. The authors are aware of the potential problem and suggest that teachers may wish to provide supplementary materials drawn from the students’ specialist fields. The selection of a general academic context, contrary to the trend towards separate texts for different specialist areas, is one of the most interesting facets of RTE. The series still embodies a “special language” as well as a “special purpose” approach, inasmuch as the linguistic functions chosen as its major teaching focus are those of the academic register. Nevertheless, the following statement in the Teacher’s Edition of Discovering Discourse represents a considerable departure from the general ESP practice: The authors have found that students can best be prepared to use textbooks in particular subjects by being guided to acquire general strategies for reading and thinking, which they can then transfer to more specialized material. (p. xiii) This assertion does not directly comment on the existence of special registers in such areas as science and technology. However, if true, it has considerable significance for the treatment of such registers in ESP courses. Specifically, it seems to imply that either the most important features of these special registers are also present in the general academic register, or the features peculiar to special registers do not present as much of a learning problem as was previously anticipated. The design of the RTE syllabus clearly reflects the notional approach as expressed by Wilkins (1976:42): The whole basis of a notional approach to language teaching derives from the conviction that what people want to do through language is more important than mastery of the language as an unapplied system. Thus the principal bases for the selection and sequencing of material throughout the series are conceptual, functional, and rhetorical rather than structural. However, considerable attention is paid to the grammar and vocabulary used in expressing these concepts and functions, so that a balance is maintained between the teaching of linguistic form and communicative function. The other main focus of the RTE syllabus concerns the understanding of certain general discourse features and reading strategies assumed to be important for efficient reading. Despite the incomplete state of our knowledge of these “microskills”, ESP courses have generally tended to cover similar points. RTE is no exception, with much attention given in the second and third volumes to such areas as adapting one’s reading approach according to the reading purpose, understanding cohesive devices, and grasping the overall function of a paragraph. Once these
Review Reading and Thinking in English
53
micro-skills are introduced, they become an integral part of activities in later units, providing very effective reinforcement. Interestingly enough, many of the skills emphasized by ESP reading courses are now receiving direct confirmation as major points of difficulty for foreign learners (Cohen et al. 1979:551). In accordance with RTE’s communicative approach, all practice activities demand careful attention to meaning as well as control of structure. The methodology includes a wide range of meaningful exercise types, but the most striking feature is the prominence of information transfer, an activity much advocated by Widdowson (1978:141). In one basic form of information transfer, students demonstrate their understanding of a reading passage by labeling diagrams or completing tables or flow charts. Color print is judiciously used to make the labeling tasks easier; indeed, clarity and attractiveness of presentation are hallmarks of RTE. The series includes a considerable amount of written work in reinforcement of the reading skills presented. These activities are carefully controlled, so that students are never asked to produce structures or vocabulary to which they have not been exposed. Despite this tight control, the writing exercises are skillfully designed to require understanding of the informational content and accurate manipulation of vocabulary and structure. Vocabulary aids, for instance, are not usually presented in the appropriate form, and must be transformed into the correct word class before use. With regard to class activities, the authors suggest three major types: general classwork involving teacher and students, individual written work, and small group discussion of the answers to certain tasks. In an unorthodox but pragmatic move, teachers are encouraged to make use of the students’ native language where possible in introducing new material or clarifying difficult points. It is also suggested that students use the native language if necessary during small group work, particularly when improving spoken English is not an important objective. One area of particular strength in RTE is the wealth of information, explanation, and guidance provided in the Teacher’s Editions. In addition to the complete text of the student volume, these include a general teacher’s guide, detailed notes on handling some activities in each unit, and a full answer key. The teacher’s guide sections are especially praiseworthy for their clear, concise language and their insight into what the teacher needs to know. For the inexperienced instructor, the brief explanations of notional-functional principles behind the course design and methodology should provide an effective orientation. The purpose, goals, and sequence of teaching points for each unit are also very clearly outlined. The course should therefore be highly teachable and demand relatively little preparation time. Concepts
in Use
This first book in the series (CL!) is said to be aimed at the near-beginner level. Its objective is to develop the learner’s understanding in two main areas: how meanings are expressed by basic grammar and vocabulary, and how these elements convey informatin in written discourse. Each unit is built around a group of related concepts used in a particular communicative function. Consider Unit 2, States of Systems, as an example. In Part 1, the student is exposed to statements and diagrams concerning physical properties and dimensions, the two concepts
54
The ESP Journal
covered in this unit. Part 2 consists of formal presentation and practice of grammar and vocabulary associated with the concepts. Finally, in Part 3, the learner studies discourse in which the concepts are combined into short readings describing properties and dimensions. The concepts are well chosen and presented, and the grammatical structures appear reasonably appropriate although somewhat advanced for the intended level. The vocabulary used in CU, however, is much less controlled. This may well be inevitable, once the decision is taken to use a broad range of academic topics. Inevitable or otherwise, the complexity and quantity of vocabulary items may well make this text impossible to use at a near-beginner level, particularly with Arab or Asian students whose native languages contain few English cognates. However, CU should be highly appropriate for an intermediate level, where the vocabulary will present fewer problems. The technique of information transfer is skillfully used on the whole, although some ambiguities arise in the labeling activities. Occasionally, however, more serious flaws occur, and diagrams are simply not clear enough to permit a real understanding of what they represent, as on page 78. Hopefully, these minor problems will be rectified in the next edition, Exptoring Functions The second volume of RTE is intended for use at the pre-intermediate level. In addition to continuing the work of CU, it is designed to develop a knowledge of general reading techniques and of specific functional types of writing. The introductory unit explains the concept of communicative function and deals with two main topics: purposeful reading and the organization of information in passages. Subsequent units deal in turn with six important functional types of writing: following instructions, describing how things work, reporting series of events, generalizing and exemplifying, making comparisons, and giving explanations. In the first part of each unit, students are exposed to passages containing the two key concepts to be covered, such as purpose and method in Unit 2. Each concept, together with associated grammar and vocabulary, is studied separately in Parts 2 and 3. Finally, in the fourth section, all the elements are integrated into a longer reading passage exemplifying the functional type of discourse under study. The functions, concepts, and grammatical structures are very clearly explained and adequately practiced. Information transfer exercises are again used frequently and to good effect. As with CU, however, both lexis and syntax are rather complex, with vocabulary in particular seeming inappropriate for the intended preintermediate level of instruction. The text appears much more suitable for upper intermediate classes. At this higher level, even the longer reading passages should be readily accessible to the student. The format of these passages is particularly effective, with vocabulary assistance and comprehension-aiding questions provided exactly where they are needed in the left- and right-hand margins, respectively. A minor problem may arise with the technological presuppositions involved in certain of the exercise materials. For example, some foreign students may be completely unfamiliar with both the general purposes and fundamental concepts of the sophisticated photographic equipment on page 45. Lack of familiarity with
Review Readingand Thinking in English
55
the technological concepts might interfere with the relatively simple linguistic functions and concepts being presented. A unique feature of the Teacher’s Edition is the provision for its use as a selfstudy text. A brief, well-written guide to the student explains the course objectives and principles and outlines the recommended method of study. With the full answer key to provide immediate feedback on performance, this should prove an effective self-study program for the high intermediate learner. Discovering
Discourse
Intended for use at the intermediate level, this third volume continues to develop general reading skills and the understanding of specific patterns of discourse organization. An introductory unit presents strategies such as reading with prediction, understanding meaning through context, and purposeful reading. The remaining units focus on five high-level communicative functions: generalizations, descriptions, definitions, classifications, and hypotheses. The first part of each unit introduces a single communicative function, which is studied at the paragraph level in Part 2. Some sentence-level practice is then given with grammar and vocabulary used to express the function. Thus, patterns such as is known as and may be defined as are covered in the unit on definitions. The final sections of each unit deal with the functions in longer reading passages and also provide practice in general reading strategies. The logical presentation and ample practice material in this volume should certainly aid the learner in grasping the structure and function of discourse, providing access to its total informational content. The well-chosen range of general academic topics should have considerable appeal, and the reading passages are realistic simulations of academic prose. However, the lexical and syntactic complexity of the passages would make this text very difficult to use at the intermediate level. It appears to be much more suitable for an advanced class. As with the previous volume, the Teacher’s Edition includes a practical selfstudy guide with an additional section on using a dictionary. Maintaining their pragmatic approach, the authors recommend bilingual dictionaries for independent study. Final Remarks and Summary When an early version of Discovering Discourse first came to my attention three years ago, it was undergoing class-testing at the Universidad de 10s Andes, in Bogota, Colombia. Even in its preliminary form, it appeared to represent an important new development in ESP. The promise of the earlier version has now been amply fulfilled. The first three volumes of Reading and Thinking in English constitute an innovative and highly practical approach to the teaching of reading for academic purposes. They are particularly suitable for intermediate through advanced classes with a mixture of academic interests. Focusing on the function and structure of academic discourse, the series teaches strategies for effective reading rather than simply giving reading practice. The wealth of guidance provided by the Teacher’s Editions should make this course easy to prepare and use. There are certain flaws, as in
56
The ESP Journal
any pioneering effort, but they are unlikely to detract from the effectiveness of the series in a broad range of academic contexts. REFERENCES Cohen, Andrew, Hilary Glasman, Phyllis R. Rosenbaum-Cohen, Jonathan Ferrara, and Jonathan Fine. 1979. Reading English for Specialized Purposes: Discourse Analysis and the Use of Student Informants. TESOL Quurterly 13, 4: 551-564.
Widdowson, H. G. 1978. Teaching Language as Communication. London: Oxford University Press. Wilkins, D. A. 1976. Notional Syllabuses. London: Oxford University Press. David H. Wyatt is a materials development specialist with the American Language Academy Executive Offices at Catholic University, Washington, D.C. His ESL experience includes several years in Algeria and the Sudan, and he admits to a marked bias towards Middle Eastern culture. He is particularly interested in the development and teaching of courses in English for Specific Purposes, and has served as editor for several such projects. His publications include Essentials of Internutionul Trade (ALA ESP Series).