Recent progresses in plate subduction and element recycling

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Recent progresses in plate subduction and element recycling Cong-Ying Li a,b,d,*, Sai-Jun Sun a,b,d, Xuan Guo c, Hong-Li Zhu a,b,d a Center of Deep Sea Research, Institute of Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China Laboratory for Marine Mineral Resources, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China c CAS Key Laboratory of CrusteMantle Materials and Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China d Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China b

Received 10 September 2019; revised 11 November 2019; accepted 12 November 2019 Available online ▪ ▪ ▪

Abstract New findings on behaviours of elements and the recycling of a variety of volatile components during plate subduction have been made by the Strategic Priority Research Program (B) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. CeHeO fluids show unexpected immiscibility at subduction zone conditions. First principles simulations reveal that high temperature greatly enhances the tendency of calcium partitioning into silicates, which implies that CaCO3 is unlikely to be the major carbon host in Earth’s deep mantle. By integrating the results from this research program and the knowledge from previous studies, a unified picture of the global deep volatile cycle is provided. Carbon is the most important element on Earth, which is the core element of life. It has major influences not only on the climate change, but also on magmatic activities. The Earth’s carbon is mainly stored in the mantle and the core in its reduced form such as diamond, graphite and carbide. Based on first-principle calculations and, high pressure experiments and geophysical results so far published, it is suggested that there should be a layer of "carbonate mantle peridotite" at the bottom of the upper mantle. The carbonatized layer may have acted as the source of severe climate fluctuations and mass extinction on the Earth. These progresses provide us a better understanding on the interactions between the Earth’s interior and surface through plate subduction and mantle plume. Copyright © 2019, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Keywords: Plate subduction; Recycling; Element recycling; Volatile recycling

1. Background Here we report recent progresses made by the Strategic Priority Research Program (B) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which aims at better understanding of plate subduction and subduction-driven element recycling. Aiming to study the Earth as a unified whole to reveal the nature and internal relations of various geological events, some important

* Corresponding author. Center of Deep Sea Research, Institute of Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.-Y. Li). Peer review under responsibility of Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry.

new findings have emerged since the implementation of this project since 2016, as will be summarized in this review. 1.1. The Subduction Factory Plate subduction is the most important process that carries oceanic lithosphere and its overlying sediments into the deep Earth, which changes the physicochemical properties of the mantle (Mcculloch and Gamble, 1991). Subduction of the oceanic slab can also activate the adjacent continental margins, affecting its thermal structure, crustemantle interaction and geographic features, forming magmas and ore deposits. It is the major geologic process that fractionates elements, known as the Subduction Factory. The nature of fluids, melts,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sesci.2019.11.002 2451-912X/Copyright © 2019, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NCND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Please cite this article as: Li, C.-Y et al., Recent progresses in plate subduction and element recycling, Solid Earth Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.sesci.2019.11.002

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in particular, supercritical fluids and their respective capabilities in migrating elements are the fundamental preconditions for understanding chemical processes in the Subduction Factory (Kessel et al., 2005; Mibe et al., 2011). The capability of melts and fluids in migrating elements is controlled by the element partition coefficients between minerals and these mobile phases and the solubility of accessory phases in these mobile phases. However, the existing experiments on partition coefficients under high pressures are still quite lacking, which leads to confusion and bewilderment in understanding subduction zone processes such as elemental migration, mantle metasomatism, arc magma genesis and mineralization process. This project carried out high P-T experiments to systematically determine trace element partition coefficients between mineral/melt and mineral/fluid (aqueous fluid or supercritical fluid) and solubility of accessory phases such as rutile and zircon in these mobile phases at variable pressures, temperatures and oxygen fugacities. The aims are to reveal element partitioning behaviors and the capability of melts, fluids and supercritical fluids in migrating elements particularly refractory HFSE (Ti, Zr, Nb and Ta) and ore-forming elements (Cu, Au). These work are expected to significantly improve our understanding of the subduction zone processes. The Pacific subduction zone is currently the largest one on Earth, where seismic activity is the strongest. It is also one of the three major metallogenic systems in the world and plays an important role in the global plate tectonics. Since the Mesozoic, subduction of the paleo-Pacific and Pacific oceanic slabs caused the formation of the western Pacific trench-arc-basin system and controlled the generation of the East Asian continental margin rift basin system and the distribution of mineral resources in East Asia (Maruyama and Liou, 1989). These processes include the significant crustal accretion in NE Asia, lithospheric destruction in North China, the continental reworking in South China and the related large-scale metal metallogeny. It is therefore important to reconstruct the motion and subduction history of the West Pacific Ocean, to track the relevant geological records, and to assess its impact on the East Asian lithospheric structure and crustal recycling. The study of subduction of the western Pacific plate can be traced back to the 1970s. At present, debate remains on the subduction angle and the scope of impact of the western Pacific plate subduction process. For example, Zhou and Li (2000) proposed that subduction of the paleo-Pacific Ocean started in a low-angle style in Jurassic and was transformed into a high-angle dipping during the Cretaceous. Li and Li (2007) put forward to a flat slab subduction model of the Pacific Ocean during the Indo-Sinian period and the subsequent delamination and rollback of the subducted slab led to the eastward migration of magmatism and back-arc extension in South China. Kusky et al. (2014) considered that the paleo-Pacific slab was directly subducted into the mantle transition zone and then the retreat of the slab caused the destruction of the North China Craton. Recent studies have also discovered the oceanic lithospheric relics, seamounts and subduction-related magmatism

in NE China, which reflect the geological records of the paleoPacific subduction in different stages (Guo et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2017b; Zhou et al., 2014). Although typical subduction-related magmatism has not been found in the hinterland of South and North China, the subducted oceanic components, especially the contribution of recycled oceanic crust, have also been reported in some Cenozoic basalts, suggesting the existence of Paleo-Pacific subduction (Xu, 2014). Geophysical data, especially the results from seismic tomography, show that the subducted Pacific slab remains in the mantle transition zone and forms a huge mantle wedge on the eastern margin of the East Asian continent (Li et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2007), which exerts a significant effect on the formation of the Cenozoic back-arc basin and marginal sea basins in East Asia. In this project, we conducted the research on the subductionrelated magmatism in NE China and the Far East of Russia, on the geochemical records especially the subducted oceanic crust in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basalts in South China and the change of sedimentary provenance in the basins in association with the subduction of the Pacific Ocean. The aims of the project will be focused on the geological and geochemical responses of the subduction, accretion and retreating of the subducted oceanic slab recorded in the East Asian continental margin. The results will be important to understand the fundamental geological issues such as the formation, evolution and migration of the global oceanic subduction zone, crustal recycling and continental crustal growth. 1.2. The transport and effects of volatiles Volatile elements are preferentially partitioned into fluids or melts relative to coexisting minerals. In particular, the major volatile elements (HeCeSeN) can cause significant petrological and geophysical consequences (Behrens and Webster, 2011; Hazen et al., 2013). These elements are present in multiple valence states and in variable forms, and are distributed heterogeneously inside the Earth (Luth, 2014). In the dynamic interior of the Earth, volatiles are transported through various processes including subduction, devolatilization and volcanic eruption (Schmidt and Poli, 2014). Phase relations, geophysical properties, and geochemical processes of the deep Earth are importantly shaped by the storage and transport of volatiles (Ni et al., 2017). For that reason, volatiles strongly modulate mantle convection and plate tectonics (Jung and Karato, 2001; Kohlstedt, 2006), the origination of mineral and energy resources (Liebscher, 2007), the formation and evolution of the hydrosphere and the atmosphere (Dasgupta, 2013; Zhang, 2014), and Earth’s habitability (Broadley et al., 2018; Self, 2005). The transport and effects of volatiles have become a frontier and hot topic in solid Earth sciences. In 2009, the Deep Carbon Observatory (DCO), a 10-year global research program, was launched to transform understanding of carbon’s role in Earth. In 2015, the NERC of UK started to fund the “Volatiles,

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geodynamics and solid Earth controls on the habitable planet” program (abbreviated as “deep volatiles”) to understand the dynamic role of mantle volatiles in mediating fundamental Earth processes that affect the habitability of the surface. With the support of these programs, some exciting new findings have emerged from research in recent years. For example, there is strong evidence from natural samples, experiments, and geophysical observation for a water-rich mantle transition zone and dehydration melting at its boundaries with both the upper and the lower mantle (Pearson et al., 2014; Schmandt et al., 2014). However, there are still lots of important questions about deep volatiles that remain to be answered. 2. Phase relations of volatile-bearing phases and the implications for volatile transport 2.1. Immiscible CeHeO fluids formed at subduction zone conditions The mechanisms for mobilizing carbon from the subducted slab remain unclear. Aqueous fluids produced by slab devolatilization may dissolve a considerable amount of carbon (Frezzotti et al., 2011). It is usually assumed that aqueous CeHeO fluids in subduction zones are fully miscible (e.g., Duan and Zhang, 2006). The miscibility of CeHeO fluids in the presence of 3 wt% NaCl was examined at 0.2e2.5 GPa and 600e700
C using the synthetic fluid inclusion technique. At 0.2 GPa and 700
C, only one single CeHeO fluid phase was present. At 1.5e2.5 GPa and 600e700
C, however, H2O coexisted with gases of CH4þH2, CH4þCO2, or CO2 as immiscible fluid phases (Fig. 1). The experimental results show that pressure significantly expands the miscibility gap of CeHeO fluids and immiscible CeHeO fluids may derive from devolatilization of the slab. The formation of carbon-rich fluids provides an important mechanism for the transfer of slab carbon to the mantle wedge. The work above (Li, 2017) appeared on the front cover of Geochemical Perspectives Letters. GPL editor Hellen Williams commented, “This paper represents a significant advance in our understanding of subduction zone fluid production and element cycling”. This paper is among the most downloaded and cited GPL papers. 2.2. Stability and reactions of CaCO3 polymorphs in the deep mantle

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positive Clapeyron slope of 15.81(6) MPa/K. CaCO3 is prone to reaction with MgSiO3 and is therefore less stable than MgCO3 over the whole mantle pressures (to ~136 GPa) above ~1500 K. Furthermore, CaCO3 readily reacts with SiO2 even in cold subduction slabs. In general, Zhang et al. (2018) conclude that high temperature significantly enhances the tendency of partitioning calcium into the silicates, leaving CaCO3 unlikely the major host of carbon in the deep mantle. 2.3. Garnet pyroxenites as important water reservoir and the deep water cycle To assess the total amount of water in the mantle, it is important to know the hydrous property of deep rocks other than mantle peridotite. Li et al. (2018) investigate garnet pyroxenites enclosed by ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphic gneiss at Hujialin in the Sulu orogeny. In these pyroxenites, clinopyroxene is found to contain water as much as 523e1213 ppm, and garnet contains 55e1476 ppm water. The pyroxenites were generated in the Triassic by metasomatic reaction of the mantle wedge peridotite with hydrous felsic melts derived from partial melting of the deeply subducted continental crust. The correlations with mineral major and trace element abundances indicate the measured water is primary and well preserved. The garnet pyroxenites are estimated to have bulk water contents of 424e660 ppm, which are considerably higher than those for the MORB source, similar to or higher than those for the OIB sources, and close to the lower limit for the arc magma source. Garnet pyroxenites are therefore an important yet poorly recognized water reservoir in the mantle. By integrating the results from this project with those from previous studies (e.g., van Keken et al., 2011), Ni et al. (2017) illustrated a unified picture of the global deep water cycle (Fig. 2). Plate subduction and volcanic eruptions (at subduction zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots) are the predominant mechanisms of ingassing and outgassing of water, respectively. About one third of water in subducted slabs is recycled at subduction zones through dehydration and melting. The other twothirds arrive at >100 km depths and may replenish the source regions of OIBs, MORBs and continental basalts. Some slabs may become stagnant near the 660 km discontinuity and lose water to the transition zone and the overlying mantle. Some other slabs can subduct to the lower mantle, and the water they carry may be partly converted to H2 beyond 1800 km depth. 2.4. Carbonated layer at the base of the upper mantle

CaCO3 is generally thought to be a major carrier of carbon from the surface to the Earth’s deep interior (e.g., Brenker et al., 2007). New varieties of CaCO3 polymorphs have been continuously predicted by first principles simulations and verified by experiments (Li et al., 2018; Merlini et al., 2012; Oganov et al., 2006)). In this project, Zhang et al. (2018) investigate the stability and reactions of high-pressure CaCO3 polymorphs with first principles simulations. Temperature is found to have important influence. In particular, the tetrahedrally structured CaCO3polymorph (space group P21/c) is sensitive to temperature with a

Carbon from mantle plumes is a controlling factor for global climate changes and mass extinctions. Mantle plumes (e.g., OIBs) have C contents up to 1000 ppm more than midocean ridge basalts (MORB). The problem is that mantle plumes are originated deep in the Earth’s mantle, where carbon is mainly present as diamond. Therefore, diamond needs to be oxidized to carbon dioxide either before or during mantle peridotite partial melting to explain the higher carbon contents in OIB than MORB. In average, the ferric

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Fig. 1. Representative synthetic fluid inclusions in quartz formed at 0.2e2.5 GPa, 600e700
C, and fO2 controlled by the FeeFeO to the Re-ReO2 buffer. (a) At 0.2 GPa, only one type of fluid inclusion was observed and these fluid inclusions show a constant vapour/liquid ratio. (b, c, d, e, f) At 1.5 and 2.5 GPa, three different types of fluid inclusions were observed: Type-1 fluid are water-rich and show weak optical contrast to quartz; Type-2 are nearly pure gases and show strong optical contrast to quartz; Type-3 are mixtures of Type-1 and Type-2 fluids and show variable vapour/liquid ratios. Modified after Li (2017).

Fig. 2. Earth’s deep water cycle (delineated in white arrows). The numbers indicate water fluxes in kg/yr. Mantle convection is shown in grey arrows. MOR, midoceanic ridge. Modified after Ni et al. (2017).

versus total iron ratio is about 20% for OIB. To oxidize 600 ppm carbon from diamond into carbon dioxide during the upwelling of a mantle plume, the OIB source should contain FeOTotal of ~15%, with 30% of ferric iron. This is much higher than the iron contents of mantle peridotite. Moreover, it is generally accepted that oxygen fugacity decreases with increasing depths in the Earth’s mantle. It is very difficult for OIB to oxidize so much C and still remain

oxidizing. Yet the oxygen fugacity of OIB is systematically higher than that of mid-ocean ridge basalts, which requires additional oxygen. Diamond is denser than peridotite melt in the upper mantle, where it is less dense at depths deeper than 660 km. Given that diamond is one of the first mineral species crystallized from the Magma Ocean, and is the stable carbon species deep in the mantle, in the Magma Ocean, diamonds

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are gathered at the bottom of the upper mantle driven by density crossover at ~660 km. After plate subduction initiated, these diamonds were gradually oxidized into carbonatite, forming a layer of carbonated peridotite, due to the breakdown of bridgmanite. Bridgmanite is the main mineral in the lower mantle, which contains up to >60% of ferric iron. During plate subduction, plate may penetrate into the lower mantle, which consequently would cause compensational back ground upwelling of equivalent volume of bridgmanite from the lower mantle to the upper mantle. Once bridgmanite is pushed into the upper mantle, it decomposes at the base of the upper mantle, releasing ferric iron, which oxidizes diamond, forming a carbonated layer. Based on first-principle calculations and, high pressure experiments and geophysical results so far published, the density and velocities of the mantle at the base of the upper mantle can be plausibly interpreted by carbonated mantle domains (Fig. 3). This layer may have played an important role in buffering the oxygen fugacity of the upper mantle and deep carbon cycling. 2.5. Oxygen fugacity and porphyry Cu deposits Porphyry Cu deposits are typically oxidized, but when and how porphyry deposits gain their high oxygen fugacity signatures, and how oxygen fugacity controls porphyry mineralization, remains obscure (Li et al., 2017; Sun et al., 2017). To trace the origin of the high oxygen fugacity in

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porphyry Cu deposits, we determined trace element compositions and UePb ages of magmatic and inherited zircon from Dexing porphyry Cu deposit, calculated Ce4þ/Ce3þ of zircons and estimated the oxygen fugacity of their parental magmas. The Ce4þ/Ce3þ ratios of magmatic zircons are high (550 in average), whereas the Ce4þ/Ce3þ ratios of inherited zircons are much lower (263 in average). The relationship suggests that the Dexing porphyry magma was highly oxidized when the Jurassic magmatic zircons crystallized. We further investigate published data on famous porphyry Cu deposits and find that high fO2 (DFMQ þ1.5) is a primary feature of porphyry Cu deposits. Note, this is consistent with the refined high pressure experiment results, which showed that sulfate is the dominant species at fO2 > DFMQ þ1.5. In general, the behavior of Cu and other chalcophile elements in the mantle is controlled by the presence of a residual sulfide phase, while the sulfur speciation is controlled by oxygen fugacity. Previous modeling results show that partial melting of mantle peridotite under high oxygen fugacity (even at >DFMQþ2) cannot form Cu-rich magmas, which plausibly explains the lack of porphyry Cu deposits in normal arc rocks. Instead, our modeling shows that partial melting of subducted oceanic crust is favorable for producing primary magmas parental to porphyry mineralization under oxygen fugacities higher than DFMQ þ1.5, which plausibly explains the close relationship between porphyry Cu deposits and oxidized magmas (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. (A) and (B) Density profiles of magnesite, diamond (Tse and Holzapfel, 2008), Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) (Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981), peridotitic melt (Ohtani, 2009). Diamond in the Magma Ocean is predominately concentrated at the density crossover between diamond and peridotitic melt near the 660-km discontinuity, and then oxidized to ferromagnesian carbonates by Fe3þ released due to background upwelling of bridgmanite. At depths of 660 km, the density of PREM is 3.99  103 kgm-3, whereas extrapolation of the density curve from 600 km to 660 km gives a density of 4.05  103 kgm-3. The density anomaly at 660 km depth can be plausibly explained by addition of ~1.1% carbon in the form of magnesite and siderite. (C) and (D) Velocity profiles of Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM), showing anomalies at depths between 600 and 660 km. Also shown is the velocity of magnesite (this study) based on first-principle calculations. The velocity anomalies of PREM can also be explained by carbonated peridotite (Sun et al., 2018).

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Fig. 4. Estimated oxygen fugacity from zircon trace elements (Left). The oxygen fugacity of inherited zircons of Dexing deposit is systematically lower than that of Jurassic zircons. Estimated oxygen fugacities of El Teniente porphyry Cu deposit is compared with the result of Dexing in the left. The Cu content in the aggregated melt during partial melting as a function of degree of melting (F) under different oxygen fugacities (Right). Red lines and blue dash-dot lines represent slab and lower crust melting model, respectively, varied from DFMQþ0, DFMQþ1, to DFMQþ1.5. Mantle wedge partial melting in green lines is compared to slab and lower crust partial melting. The pink shadow is consistent with the partial melting degree of slab melting to produce the Sr/Y and La/Yb characteristics of adakite (Zhang et al., 2017a).

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Please cite this article as: Li, C.-Y et al., Recent progresses in plate subduction and element recycling, Solid Earth Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.sesci.2019.11.002