Recycling economy in the Mousterian of the Iberian Peninsula: The case study of El Esquilleu

Quaternary International 361 (2015) 113e130

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Recycling economy in the Mousterian of the Iberian Peninsula: The case study of El Esquilleu ~ o b, Mario Lo  pez-Recio a, Felipe Cuartero a, *, Manuel Alcaraz-Castan  n-Santafe  a, Javier Baena-Preysler a Elena Carrio a b

noma de Madrid, Spain Universidad Auto  de Henares, Spain Universidad de Alcala

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online 23 December 2014

In this paper we study the development of Formal Recycling and Formal Maintenance processes in three lithic assemblages coming from the Mousterian sequence of El Esquilleu Cave (Cantabria, Spain). Each of these assemblages is dominated by a different knapping method (Discoid, Levallois and Quina), and shows a different strategy of resource exploitation. Through the study of raw materials quality, volumetric reduction of cores and tools, and knapping strategies, we show how lithic recycling and maintenance processes are related to the techno-economic behaviors documented in each occupation. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Formal Recycling Formal Maintenance Mousterian Iberian Peninsula

1. Introduction: on the notions of recycling, reuse, maintenance and repair Every knapped lithic product that is found in the archaeological record could be used and transformed with different aims during the time in which it was accessible to the societies that produced or found it. According to morphological and functional changes, and also to the lapse of time between different uses, those options of use and transformation have been theoretically conceptualized by Amick (2014) through the notions of maintenance, reuse, and recycling. In general, by recycling we mean the transformation of the formal structure of an object through a knapping process which is technically distinct from the one that first produced it. According to Amick, Formal Recycling implies (1) a formal change from one lithic category to another; and (2) a switch in the technical action which first produced the object. The lapse of time can be assessed by developing detailed spatial and micro-stratigraphic analyses (e.g. Vaquero et al., 2012a, 2012b; Assaf et al., 2015), or through the study of lithologic alterations that mark a turning point in an artifact life-history, such as differential patination rates (Inizan et al., 1995; Baena et al., 2010; Agam et al, 2015). However, when these analyses are not available, the temporal gap between uses is difficult to assess. In these cases it is complicated to choose between the concepts of maintenance/

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Cuartero). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.11.059 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

repair or secondary reuse (sensu Amick) to characterize a given product or assemblage. Because the case study presented in this paper does not include signs allowing assessment of temporal gaps, we will use the term “Formal Maintenance” to refer to reduction processes produced through the same technical action. In prior works (Cuartero, 2008), we analyzed reuse and recycling processes from the point of view of morphological changes, focusing on the techno-economic perspective on lithic analysis €da et al., 1990), and paying special attention to the concepts of (Boe bitage economy (Perle s, 1991). Based raw material economy and de on this approach, in the current study we intend to look into the concepts of primary Formal Recycling and Formal Maintenance/ repair or formal reuse developed by Amick (2014), to explain the formal change of lithic objects. The most relevant cases of lithic recycling to be found in the archaeological record are tools on cores (hereafter TOC) (e.g. Cuartero, 2008; Vaquero, 2011), cores on tools (hereafter COT) (e.g. Cuartero, 2008; Ríos Garaizar, 2008), and cores on flakes (hereafter COF). This flexibility between lithic categories is documented since the Oldowan (Leakey, 1971), where it is especially relevant the recycling of polyhedral tools/cores into spheroid hammerstones through percussion actions (Toth, 1982). Numerous cases of COF are known since the Lower Palaeolithic (Owen, 1938; Inizan et al., 1995; Zaidner et al., 2003; Zaidner, 2013; Agam et al., 2015; Barsky et al., 2015). They became widespread in Europe and Levant during the Middle Pleistocene, and even more from MIS 11 onwards (Coulson, 1990; Geneste and Plisson, 1996; ndez Ashton, 2007; Cuartero, 2008; Barkai et al., 2010; Mene

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Granda, 2010; Assaf et al., 2014; Parush et al., 2014), especially in Middle Palaeolithic assemblages (Solecki and Solecki, 1970; GorenInbar, 1988; Dibble and McPherron, 2007; Casini, 2010; RiosGaraizar et al., 2014). There have been some attempts to systematize knapping strategies according to the exploited area of the COF pieces. Strategies defined are mostly based on the exploitation of ventral faces (Kombewa type) (Newcomer and Hivernel-Guerre, 1974; Tixier and Turq, 1999), dorsal faces (truncated-facetted pieces, Kostienki cores, Nahr-Ibrahim cores) (Slimak and Lucas, 2005; Dibble and McPherron, 2007), and also of wide profiles of flakes, both by transversal detachment (Pucheuil type) (Delagnes, 1996) and longitudinal detachment (burin type) (Le Brun-Ricalens et al., 2006). In the French Mousterian, some of these strategies have been related to ramification processes (Bourguignon et al., 2004; Faivre, 2008). The term ramification alludes to, “a mode in which an element is divided into secondary elements” (Bourguignon et al., 2004) and it has been especially applied to the development of COFs. According to Bourguignon et al. (2004), the main features of this ramification processes include (1) cores showing predetermination patterns, (2) cores showing no usewear traces, and (3) products usually showing retouch and usewear traces, and also signs of transport out from its place of production. However, using flakes as blanks for producing new flakes does not necessarily imply the existence of a recycling action. In some cases, the morphology of the flake facilitates the development of knapping strategies, such as the exploitations associated with Kostienki or truncated-facetted pieces (Newcomer and Hivernel-Guerre, 1974; Bourguignon et al., 2004; Dibble and McPherron, 2007). In other cases, the production is favored by the functional properties of biconvex edges, which is the case for the Kombewa flakes (Geneste and Plisson, 1996; Bourguignon et al., 2004). Therefore, characterizing a COF product as the result of a Formal Recycling process demands, first and foremost, a technological analysis aimed at clarifying the strategies developed in its production. The main aim of this study is recognizing and interpreting those cores and flakes revealing this knapping process. In this paper, the definition of a retouched tool will follow the conventional guidelines of the most widely used typologies of Middle Palaeolithic assemblages. Products classified as such have at least one edge showing continuous (i.e. sidescrapers) or discontinuous (i.e. denticulates or notches) retouches, usually unifacial, and creating a regular edge normally from flat or convex surfaces. Also following the classic guidelines, pieces showing an irregular edge with a zig-zag shape, formed through extractions in both surfaces, are classified as cores. However, classifying a piece as a core does not rule out its use as a functional product, as noted in several cases (Beyries, 1988). In the same sense, numerous cases of the use of raw (unretouched) flakes as functional cutting products have been described n and (Geneste and Plisson, 1996; Lemorini et al., 2014; Lazue lez-Urquijo, 2014). Therefore, recycling of retouched tools Gonza into cores, or the reverse, must necessarily recognize a potentially active area, either a removal (COT) or a modification on a core's edge (TOC). The so-called cannibalized sidescrapers (Coulson, 1990), or sidescrapers with associated clactonian notches (Bordes, 1961), are probably the most documented case of recycling in the Middle Palaeolithic. These and other cases of recycling on sidescrapers produce characteristic resharpening flakes, which have been classified in different types (Bourguignon, 1997) and are especially abundant in many n and Mousterian assemblages (Bourguignon et al., 2004; Lazue

Gonz alez-Urquijo, 2014; Rios-Garaizar et al., 2014) that sometimes contain COT recycling processes (Cuartero, 2008). Formal Maintenance has been the object of numerous studies, especially dealing with the rejuvenating or resharpening of tools. To the above mentioned works, some others have to be added, mostly focused on the formal reduction of sidescrapers (Dibble, 1984, 1995; Kuhn, 1990; Hiscock and Van Attembrow, 2002; Brumm and McLaren, 2011). These studies have highlighted some important factors involved in the process of formal reduction of these tools, such as flake thickness (Dibble, 1995; Hiscock and Van Attembrow, 2002), or the impact of the resharpening process itself (Kuhn, 1991; Hiscock and Van Attembrow, 2002; Brumm and McLaren, 2011). Moreover, the functional characteristics of sites have been also proposed as a relevant factor conditioning the resharpening processes of tools (Kuhn, 1991). As in the case with the reduction of tools, the exhaustive volumetric reduction of cores can be considered as intense use of raw material. However, this process should not be automatically classified as Formal Maintenance, as the production of progressively smaller blanks could be conditioned either by specific functional needs, or by a regional scarcity of lithic raw materials (Rios-Garaizar et al., 2014). Small flakes have not only been interpreted as functionally useful (Dibble and McPherron, 2007), but their effective use has been demonstrated by use-wear analyses (Barkai et al., n and Gonza lez Urquijo, 2015; 2010; Agam et al., 2015; Lazue Lemorini et al., 2015; Ríos-Garaizar et al., 2015). These small flakes often come from the retouching of tools or the recycling of tools into cores (COT), and in other cases they are obtained from small cores whose size has been proposed for some cases as conditioned by the small size of raw materials (Rios-Garaizar et al., 2015). However, there are some examples in which the production of small flakes does not depend at all on the size of natural blocks,  IV (Dibble and McPherron, as in the Asinipodian of Pech de l’Aze 2007).

 rigo de Lie bana, Cantabria, Spain) 2. El Esquilleu cave (Cillo  rigo de Lie bana, western Cantabria, Spain) El Esquilleu cave (Cillo is situated in the Picos de Europa geological unit (Cantabrian Mountains), in a rough and rocky area on the southeastern calcareous slopes of La Hermida gorge (Fig. 1), belonging to the Valdeteja  et al., 2008). It opens on the right margin of the Formation (Jorda Deva River valley, at around 280 m above sea level and 68 m above the river floodplain (Baena et al., 2005a). The cave was excavated between 1997 and 2006. It has shown a stratigraphic deposit which is 4.20 m thick and has been divided into 41 layers (levels 1e41), subsequently grouped into four main sedimentary units (A, B, C, D) according to textural and  et al., 2008) (Fig. 2). El Esquilleu compositional parameters (Jorda site has yielded one of the most complete sequences for the Cantabrian Mousterian, covering virtually all of MIS 3, according to a large battery of chronometric dates between 60 and 37 ka cal BP (Table 1) (Baena et al., 1999, 2005a, 2005b, 2012;  n Santafe  et al, 2008; Jorda  et al., 2008). Archaeological Carrio remains were found in 29 of the 41 levels, with a total of 69,899 lithic products and 71,815 faunal remains. Environments for the site and surrounding area throughout MIS 3 have been reconstructed from palynological (Baena et al., 2005a), anthracological (Uzquiano et al., 2012), zooarchaeological (Yravedra et al., 2005; Yravedra Sainz de los Terreros, 2006; Yravedra and Uzquiano, 2013) and phytolith data (Cabanes et al., 2010). Rich organic levels with well-preserved horizontally accumulated phytoliths have been interpreted as grass beddings (Cabanes et al., 2010).

F. Cuartero et al. / Quaternary International 361 (2015) 113e130 Table 1 Radiocarbon dates from El Esquilleu cave calibrated by CalPal2007 Hulu calibration  et al., curve (CALPAL march 2007 version, Weninger et al., 2006). Adapted from Jorda 2008. (New dates of level XVII included from Baena et al., 2012, calibrated by http:// www.calpal-online.de/). 14

Calibrated dates BP (95% prob.)

Charcoal AA-37883 Charcoal AA-37882

34380 ± 670 36500 ± 830

41,700e37,460 cal BP 43,060e39,220 cal BP

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

39000 53400 49400 52600 49700

Level

Sample

ESQ-6 fauna ESQ-11 fauna ESQ-13 ESQ-17 ESQ-17-(1) ESQ-17-(2) ESQ-18

Lab code

Beta-149320 OxA-20318 OxA-X-2297-31 OxA-20320 OX A-11414

C date (BP)

± ± ± ± ±

300 1300 1300 1200 1600

43,760e42,160 cal BP Out of range 56,713e51,224 cal BP Out of range 58,890e48,410 cal BP

115

Faunal remains are mostly dominated by Capra and Rupicapra throughout the sequence (>80%), with a minor presence of other species such as Cervus elaphus in the middle levels (XV to XI) (Yravedra Sainz de los Terreros, 2006). Carnivores are documented from level VIII to the top of the sequence, being totally absent in the lowermost levels. However, only in levels III and IV are carnivores the primary agent responsible for the accumulation of faunal remezmains (Yravedra Sainz de los Terreros, 2006; Yravedra and Go ~ edo, 2013). In the lower layers, the high presence of fragCastan mented and burnt bones, sometimes associated with domestic hearths, has been interpreted as evidence of the use of bones as fuel for fires (Yravedra et al., 2005), and also for organic waste disposal (Yravedra and Uzquiano, 2013).

Fig. 1. El Esquilleu: situation and cave entrance.

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In levels containing Quina technology (XV to XI), hard stones are also preferred, especially large stones, among which the finegrained quartzite is the more common. Some of these rocks were obtained in the Deva/Cares confluence, but most came from the conglomerate of El Habario site, located to the south, in the inner valley of Potes. In levels X to VIII, also dominated by Levallois knapping methods, preferences switch to very fine-grained but not necessarily hard rocks, such as ferruginous nodules or some lutites. These rocks are mainly found in the inner valley of Potes, to the south. Finally, in the upper levels (VII to III), where the discoid method is dominant, the raw material catchment is almost strictly local. The most common rocks are middle/coarse-grained quartzites from the gravel bars of the Deva River, while fine-grained quartzites are present only sporadically. 3. Materials and methods

Fig. 2. El Esquilleu: Plan view of the excavation with location of the squares sampled for this study (K10 and J10) and eastern profile indicating the levels analyzed.

Regarding lithic production, the sequence of El Esquilleu can be divided in four different sets of levels where a specific knapping conception is dominant: Levallois in levels XXIX to XVI, Quina in levels XV to XI, again Levallois in levels IX to VII, and finally Discoid  n Santafe , 2003). The regional setting of El in levels VIf to III (Carrio Esquilleu cave concerning rocks suitable for lithic production is well known after field surveys conducted in parallel to the excavation works. More than 20 different outcrops or spots rich in lithic raw materials were identified during these field surveys, which were also responsible for the location of some new archaeological sites (Manzano Espinosa et al., 2005). Among the considerable number of rocks suitable for knapping found in the regional environment of the cave (Fig. 3), flint and chert are scarce. Only some kinds of chert, such as black chert and radiolarites (laminated silicified limestone), are present in association with limestones in mountainous areas, as well as in the stream gravels of the valleys. The most frequent rock in the nearby landscape is limestone, whose quality is usually poor, but some varieties were occasionally knapped, such as the griotte limestone or the so-called mountain limestone. However, the dominant raw materials are quartzite, sandstone, and quartz, which are found in cobbles amongst the gravel bars of the rivers Deva and Cares, and can be also found in fossil secondary deposits as conglomerates, as at the open-air site of El Habario (Baena et al., 1999). These conglomerate deposits also offer other raw materials, such as ferruginous rocks, which were also used for knapping in some levels of El Esquilleu. Raw material catchment analysis throughout the sequence of El Esquilleu (Fig. 4) clearly shows 4 different patterns (Baena et al., 2012). In the lowermost levels (XXX to XVI), dominated by Levallois technology, there is a preference for hard and fine-grained stones, such as hyaline quartz, black chert, and especially finegrained quartzite. These rocks were mainly obtained from areas to the north of the cave, such as the surroundings of the confluence of the rivers Deva and Cares, some mountainous areas, and the coastal corridor, where distances from the cave were sometimes higher than 20 km.

The main objective of this study is to compare different modalities of recycling and Formal Maintenance of lithic assemblages occurred in different technological and economic contexts. In order to do so, we have studied different levels throughout the sequence of El Esquilleu containing different knapping methods and showing different modes of resource exploitation. We have paid special attention to (1) lithic raw materials quality; (2) methods (operative schemes) for the production of blanks (i.e. d ebitage); (3) recycling strategies; and (4) volumetric reduction of cores and tools. Lithic raw materials have been analyzed in terms of their quality. We have developed a quality index according to the criteria of (1) hardness; (2) fragility; and (3) homogeneity. Therefore, we consider rocks best suited for lithic production to be more homogeneous and fragile (and hence more easily knappable), and also hard (and hence more resistant when developing tasks that wear down the piece). According to these criteria, we have obtained a weighted score for each rock, based on blind test knapping experiments (Table 2). Limestone, ferruginous nodules, and coarsegrained quartzites have been classified as low quality rocks (quality index 1). Laminated silicified limestone, griotte limestone, local black chert and middle-grained quartzites have been classified as middle quality rocks (quality index 2). Hyaline quartz, allochthonous flint or chert, and fine-grained quartzite have been classified as good quality rocks (quality index 3). Table 2 El Esquilleu: raw materials quality rate, evaluated from experimental data. Hard, fragile and homogeneous rocks are rated with the highest values (3), while softer, tougher and less homogeneous ones are rated with lower values (lowest ¼ 1). Raw materials

Hardness Fragility Homogeneity Average Quality range

Limestone (LMT) Ferruginous rock (IRN) Coarse-grained quartzite (CGQ) Laminated silicified limestone (LSL) Local black chert (LBC) Middle-grained quartzite (MGQ) Hyalin quartz (HQZ) Allochthonous flint or chert (AFC) Fine-grained quartzite (FGQ)

1 2 4

3 1 1

2 4 4

2 2.33 3

1 1 1

4

3

3

3.33

2

5 5

4 2

2 3

3.67 3.33

2 2

5 5

5 5

3 4

4.33 4.66

3 3

5

5

4

4.66

3

Formal recycling processes analyzed in our study are cores on flakes (COF), cores on tools (COT), and tools on cores (TOC). The presence of these processes in the studied assemblages has been described through the identification of characteristic flakes (F),

F. Cuartero et al. / Quaternary International 361 (2015) 113e130

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Fig. 3. Some examples of raw materials from El Esquilleu, A: Black Local Chert (BLC); B: Coarse grained quartzite (CGQ); C: Laminated silicified limestone (LSL); D: Middle-grain quartzite (MGQ); E: Alloctonous flint/chert (AFC); F: Fine grained quartzite (FGQ). Image created from pictures by Diego Martín Puig. All the pieces come from level XVII.

Fig. 4. Raw materials catchment patterns throughout the sequence of El Esquilleu. Red dot: site location. Green line: lower levels (XXX to XVI) catchment pattern: secondary deposits of the northern coastal plains (alloctonous flint and cherts), river banks of Panes locality (Deva-Cares conjunction), and primary deposits of hyaline quartz and black local chert (mountains). Blue line: middle section levels with Quina technology (XV to XI): northern river banks and El Habario conglomerate (fine grained quartzites). Purple line: levels with Levallois technology (X to VIII) southern inner valley of Deva River (next to Potes locality): catchment of limestones, ferruginous nodules and fine grained quartzites. Red line: Upper levels (VII to III, discoid technology) catchment of limestones, iron nodules, and several qualities of quartzite in the next river banks of the Deva River. (Based on the data from Manzano Espinosa et al., 2005 and Baena et al., 2012). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

tools (T) or cores (C) that can be related to any of these processes. Thus, the development of COF processes can be verified either from the identification of Kombewa flakes (F_COF), Kombewa cores (C_COF), or tools made on Kombewa flakes (T_COF). Recycling actions must be analyzed through the reconstruction of diacritical readings. In prior works (Baena and Cuartero, 2006; Baena et al., 2010) we have attempted to explain the main criteria followed by us in diacritic readings. This method is based on the observation of technical and topographical features in knapped artifacts in order to reconstruct the direction and order of the scars. The technical axis (direction) of a scar can be deduced by: 1) a lowest topography channel at the middle of the scar, from its beginning (hertzian cone) to its end; 2) in fine-grained rocks, the reading of compression rings (concentrically developed) and margin and bulb striae whose direction irradiates from point of percussion to the edges. The more recent order of the removal can be deduced by: 1) a lowest topography related to adjacent surfaces or scars; 2) a more complete (symmetrical) morphology compared to adjacent scars; 3) the presence of margin striae and a microtopographical burr around the outline of the scar. We use a standardized color scale to represent diacritical schemes: blue colors represent d ebitage scars, purple colors represent retouch scars, light yellow represents cortex or natural surfaces, ocher yellow represents a ventral surface, and orange represents a secondary ventral surface. This chromatic scale follows a chronological order in consonance with the convention in this type of depiction: lighter colors represent older actions and darker colors represent younger actions. The scale can be converted to a

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black and white scale, where grey tonalities are used to order the knapping sequence without interpreting the nature of the action (d ebitage or retouch). Reduction of cores and tools is analyzed according to 2 categories: size and degree of transformation (including retouch or core exploitation). We have established 5 size categories of lithic products depending on the length of their longest morphological axis: (1) < 2 cm; (2) 2.1e4 cm; (3) 4.1e6 cm; (4) 6.1e8 cm; (5) > 8 cm. Concerning the degree of transformation, we have considered 3 categories depending on the surface of a product covered by scars: (1) < 33%; (2) 33e66%; (3) > 66%. In retouched tools on flakes, these categories are applied on the retouched face (usually only the dorsal face). Concerning cores, they are applied on the total surface area of the product. We analyzed 2295 lithic pieces coming from three selected levels of El Esquilleu sequence (Table 4). We have sampled one square meter by level: square J10 from level VIf (694 pieces), square K10 from level XIII (762 pieces), and square K10 from level XVII (824 pieces). This sampling, applied on squares that show similar number of pieces showing and density, allows to have equally represented in numerical terms overcoming the different total sums of each level (e.g. level XIII is far richer than VIf) (Table 3).

proportions of pseudo-levallois points and panoply of retouched tools composed by scrapers and denticulates in similar proportions. After a first look at the three assemblages the absence of cores and the high proportion of flakes smaller than 2 cm (n ¼ 192; 25.19%) in level XIII are noteworthy. Both these features are common in Quina assemblages (Bourguignon, 1997). However, level VIf shows a high proportion of cores (n ¼ 47; 6.77%) and a low proportion of flakes smaller than 2 cm (n ¼ 43; 6.19%). In all three assemblages, flakes larger than 2 cm are the dominant category (level XVII: n ¼ 228; 27.66%; level XIII: n ¼ 167; 21.91%; level VIf: n ¼ 250; 36.02%). Retouched tools have proportions close to 10% in all cases, with slightly higher proportions at levels VIf (n ¼ 96; 13.83%) and XIII (n ¼ 108; 14.17%) compared to level XVII (n ¼ 61; 7.4%). Chunks and other fragments make up a third of the total products in level VIf and XIII, while in level XVII they represent almost half of the pieces (n ¼ 379; 45.99%). In our study we have not considered chunks and fragments, and thus we have created a “simplified total” category where we count the total amount of pieces excluding these categories, and therefore including only flakes, cores and tools.

Table 3 Total number of lithic remains from levels VIf, XIII and XVII from El Esquilleu. Total number of lithic remains by level

Level VIf

Cores Flakes >2 cm Flakes <2 cm Retouched tools Fragments of flakes Fragments of cores Chunks Cobbles and hammerstones Total

XIII

XVII

Total

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

55 311 54 198 349 43 103 10 1123

4.9% 27.69% 4.8% 17.63% 31.08% 3.83% 9.17% 0.89% 100%

23 452 3311 672 1598 14 3404 381 9855

0.23% 4.59% 33.6% 6.82% 16.21% 0.14% 34.54% 3.86% 100%

27 452 347 181 622 19 721 157 2526

1.06% 17.89% 13.7% 7.2% 24.62% 0.75% 28.54% 6.21% 100%

105 1250 3677 1051 2220 33 4125 548 13504

0.77% 9.25% 27.22% 7.78% 16.43% 0.24% 30.54% 4.05% 100%

Shade squares indicate the highest value for the category at each level (column).

Table 4 Sample analyzed in this paper, from El Esquilleu levels VIf, XIII and XVII. Sample: 1 square meter by level

Level VIf- J10

XIII- K10

XVII- K10

Total

Count %

Count %

Count %

Count %

Cores Flakes >2 cm Flakes <2 cm Retouched tools Chunks and fragments Cobbles and hammerstones

47 250 43 96 258 0

6.77% 36.02% 6.19% 13.83% 37.17% 0%

0 167 192 108 295 15

0.0% 21.91% 25.19% 14.17% 38.71% 1.96%

12 228 144 61 379 0

1.45% 27.66% 17.47% 7.4% 45.99% 0%

70 645 379 254 932 15

3.05% 28.10% 16.51% 11.06% 40.61% 0.65%

Total simplified (without fragments, chunks and cobbles) Total

436 694

62.82% 100%

467 762

61.28% 100%

445 824

54.00% 100%

1348 2295

59.12% 100%

Bold format emphasizes values and percentages up to the mean values (right column).

4. Technological traits of levels VIf, XIII and XVII of El Esquilleu Each of the three selected levels shows a different knapping method. Level XVII presents a Levallois techno-complex where elongated, blade-like products are common. Level XIII corresponds to a Quina assemblage, both in technology and typology. Level VI fauna (hereafter VIf) shows a Discoid techno-complex with high

4.1. Level XVII Level XVII is composed of soft black clays with abundant charcoal and ash remains, and its thickness ranges from 4 to 7 cm n Santafe , 2003). It yielded a Levallois assemblage with (Carrio elongated blade-like products, numerous denticulates and Levallois and Mousterian points. The simplified total of this sample analyzed is 445 pieces.

F. Cuartero et al. / Quaternary International 361 (2015) 113e130

Fig. 5. Raw materials quality by levels.

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This level has a huge variability of good quality raw materials, dominated by fine-grained quartzite (n ¼ 305; 68.5%) followed by middle-grained quartzite (n ¼ 62; 13.9%) and black local chert (n ¼ 34; 7.6%). The low quality raw materials represent less than 5% of the total sample analyzed, in opposition to the middle quality ones (n ¼ 110; 24.7%) and the high quality ones (n ¼ 314; 70.6%). Concerning raw (i.e. unretouched) flakes, this level shows a high proportion of flakes without any specific morphology (n ¼ 309; 83.1%). The most characteristic d ebitage products are blade-like flakes (n ¼ 16; 4.3%), Levallois-type flakes (n ¼ 5; 1.3%), pseudolevallois points (n ¼ 5; 1.3%), d ebordant (backed) flakes (n ¼ 4; 1.1%) and Levallois points (n ¼ 4; 1.1%). Rejuvenation/resharpening flakes represent 5.6% (n ¼ 21). Kombewa type flakes represent 2.2% of the total amount of unretouched flakes. These flakes capture the edge generated by the intersection of the ventral surface and the platform of the flake used as blank, and they usually present elongated morphologies (Fig. 7: A, C and D). bitage on flakes (n ¼ 9). Cores from this level (n ¼ 12) show de They are usually developed on the dorsal surface of the flake-blank (Truncated-facetted type or Kostienki type: Klaric, 2000; Dibble and McPherron, 2007) or, less frequently, on the ventral surface (Kombewa/Levallois strategy) (Fig. 6: A, B). Ratios of core/flake (0.052) and tool/flake (0.267) are low, which is due to the high number of flakes present in this level.

Fig. 6. Level XVII: Cores on flake (COF). Two main operatory schemas are observed: one group of Levallois-like cores (A, F) in quartzite with exploitation of ventral surface, and another group of cores with prismatic/elongated morphology linked to the production of bladelets (C,D) in black local chert. Other cores in quartzite (B, E) whose morphology is not typically Levallois seem to be oriented to the production of elongated flakes on the dorsal surface of the flake used as matrix, somehow similar to the Kostienki cores or other truncated-faceted pieces. Piece G shows a continuous retouch from a ventral surface later cut by newer scars, probably oriented to a thinning of the piece (probably for hafting). Pieces A, D and F do not proceed from the sample analyzed here.

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Of the tools (n ¼ 61), almost half are scrapers (n ¼ 30; 49.18%). They are followed by denticulates (n ¼ 24; 39.34%) and Mousterian points (n ¼ 5; 8.19%). Both scrapers and denticulates are equally represented in size categories 2 and 3 (2e4 cm: 13 scrapers, 11 denticulates; and 4e6 cm: 17 scrapers, 15 denticulates). Although most of the flakes smaller than 2 cm found in this level (n ¼ 372) are not diagnostic flakes (n ¼ 121; 84%), re-sharpening flakes have been identified in a moderate number (n ¼ 21; 14.6%). Blade-like flakes, d ebordant flakes and Levallois points and flakes are well represented in size category 2 (2e4 cm), and especially in 3 (4e6 cm), even though unspecific flakes are also high in this size range. Pieces larger than 6 cm (size categories 4 and 5: n ¼ 6) are mostly typical products (1 blade, 1 Levallois flake and 2 Levallois points), and they are often produced in middle quality raw materials (especially middle grained quartzite). 4.2. Level XIII Level XIII is composed of organic, dark clay with abundant lithic and faunal remains. Its thickness varies between 5 and 11 cm. Its lithic industry can be typified as a Quina assemblage with clear n Santafe , 2003). The technological and typological features (Carrio subtotal simplified number of lithic remains for the sample analyzed for this level (K-10) is 467 pieces. Raw materials in level XIII are dominated by fine-grained quartzite (n ¼ 371; 79.4%) followed by middle-grained quartzite (n ¼ 80; 17.1%) and other raw materials including flint or chert in smaller proportions. The high quality of raw material (n ¼ 375; 80.3%) is thereby predominant faced to middle (n ¼ 84; 18%) or low (n ¼ 8; 1.7%) qualities. At level XIII, there are no cores sensu stricto, but the presence of retouched or unretouched d ebordant flakes with natural, cortical back points to a Quina d ebitage strategy as defined by Bourguignon (1997). In two cases related to recycling actions, we can interpret the presence of cores: a clactonian notch associated with a scraper front (COT) (Fig. 8: B) and a unifacial one recycled in scraper (Fig. 8: H). Many of the flakes documented can be assessed as rejuvenation flakes (n ¼ 149; 41.5%). Most of these rejuvenation flakes are under 2 cm (n ¼ 110; 57.29% at this metrical category) but also some (n ¼ 39) are larger. In some flakes, the distal part of the dorsal surface shows previous ventral surfaces that could be related to a Pucheil method (Delagnes, 1996), with significant thickness. At this level, there is a low proportion of cores. Considering these related to recycling/recycled pieces the ratio would be 0.006, compared to the tool/flake ratio of 0.646.

Retouched tools at level XIII (n ¼ 108) are in most cases pieces with continuous retouch, mostly scrapers (n ¼ 100; 92.6%) and in a minor proportion denticulates and notches (n ¼ 8; 7.4%). The absence of pieces under 2 cm and the concentration of most of them between 4 and 6 cm (n ¼ 84; 77.77%) is noteworthy. The highest degree of reduction in the case of tools can be observed at this same size category (4e6 cm), mostly concentrated in good quality raw materials. Flakes between 2 and 4 cm (n ¼ 133) are usually unspecific (n ¼ 95; 37%), but their thick platforms could be related to d ebitage or the initial stages of retouching of tools. Flakes up to 4 cm, although scarce (n ¼ 34) can be attributed to types as d ebordant and pseudo-levallois in many cases (n ¼ 7; 20.59%). 4.3. Level VIf n Santafe , Level VIf has been stratigraphically described (Carrio 2003) as a level composed of middle-size clear to dark-colored gravels, with limestone clasts between 3 and 6 cm and abundant remains of fauna that allow a separation as a sub-level from the upper level VI. It has a lenticular section and it is not present at the entire excavated surface, with a maximum thickness of 5 cm. The lithic industry is dominated by a discoid d ebitage and tooling composed by equal proportions of denticulates and scrapers. The sample here analyzed (subtotal simplified) is 436 pieces. Level VIf shows a varied composition of rocks inside its lithic industry, with middle-grained quartzite (n ¼ 145; 33.3%), finegrained quartzite (n ¼ 98; 22.5%), and other raw materials as limestone (n ¼ 55; 12.6%) or ferruginous rocks (n ¼ 47; 10.8%). According to the classification proposed here, the total number of low quality (n ¼ 187; 42.9%) or middle quality (n ¼ 146; 33.5%) is greater than the number of pieces of good quality (n ¼ 103; 23.6%). The types of flakes documented, as well as the cores, can be €da, 1993) (Fig. 9). broadly related to a discoid technology (sensu Boe The pseudo-levallois points represent 22.9% (n ¼ 67) of the flakes of the sample, and other d ebordant flakes represent 11.3% (n ¼ 33). Levallois flakes, mostly atypical, are 3.4%. Kombewa flakes (Fig. 10: D, E), almost 10% of the total number of flakes, indicate the important role of d ebitage actions (COF). Almost half of the cores documented in the sample are cores on flake/flaked flakes (n ¼ 21; 4.8% of the simplified subtotal). At this level there are relatively high proportions of cores (ratio core/flake: 0.188) and tools (0.34). The retouched tools in the sample analyzed (n ¼ 96) are dominated by a high proportion of scrapers (51.04%), denticulates (33.33%) and diverse tools (11.45%). Most retouched tools (n ¼ 52;

Fig. 7. Level XVII: Kombewa flakes and blades/elongated flakes from Cores on Flake (COF); Pieces C and D show a capture of the edge-line formed by the platform/ventral surface intersection. All the pieces are done in fine grained quartzite. Piece A does not proceed from the sample analyzed here.

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61.17%) measure between 2 and 4 cm long. Less common are those between 4 and 6 cm (n ¼ 37) or under 2 cm (n ¼ 7). Those tools under 2 cm are mostly denticulates (n ¼ 4), but also scrapers (2) and diverse. Nevertheless, this metrical range in tooling is absent in the other two levels analyzed, and should be considered as significant. Most flakes in this sample are in the range of 2e4 cm (206 of 293). In this metrical range is also the greatest proportion of pseudo-levallois points (52 of 67), d ebordant flakes (22 of 33) and Kombewa flakes (22 of 27). Moreover, this highlights the presence of these standardized products under 2 cm, as in the case of pseudo-levallois points (20.9% of the flakes under the 2 cm), d ebordant flakes (n ¼ 3; 7%) and Kombewa flakes (n ¼ 3; 7%). Also noteworthy is the greater proportion of cores between 2 and 4 cm (33 of 47), more common than those between 4 and 6 cm (n ¼ 13). The greater transformation degree for tools and cores at this level is mostly related to the middle size (2e6 cm) and best quality raw materials. 5. Formal Maintenance evaluated from raw material quality rate, size class and degree of transformation In order to identify the processes of Formal Maintenance on the tools and the degree of exploitation of cores, we analyzed three of the variables examined here: raw material quality, degree of transformation, and size (Fig. 11). Raw materials of best quality are dominant at levels XVII and XIII. At level VIf, the poor, middle, and good qualities are almost equally represented (Fig. 5, Table 5).

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analyzed, we can appreciate some relevant differences in the three assemblages: Raw material quality rate and Size class (Fig. 12): the three assemblages analyzed indicate a proportionally inverse correlation in Size and Quality: with better quality rates, the size decreases. The frequency of small size objects is always greater in the better raw materials; poor quality ones are better represented in larger sizes. Nevertheless, this principle of proportionally inverse correlation is expressed in different ways through the three assemblages. This correlation is more marked at levels XIII and VIf, where the number of artifacts in the lowest quality raw materials increases in a similar way (even considering the different proportions of qualities). In both cases, there is an augment of elements in poor quality raw materials up to 6 cm. At level XVII, this proportionality is not as evident: the middle and poor quality rocks always have similar percentages (20e30%) through all the size classes. The objects exceeding 6 cm and especially 8 cm tend to show lower qualities as well. Raw material quality rate and degree of transformation (Fig. 13): in general terms there is a slight tendency to increasing degree of transformation when quality increases. This general tendency is more visible at level XVII, where the presence of rocks of lower quality tends to disappear in the elements with higher degree of transformation. Also at level VIf this tendency is especially clear: lower quality raw materials that are numerically dominant through the sample practically do not exist at the highest degree of transformation. In the case of level XIII there is almost no correlation

Table 5 Raw materials: AFC: Alloctonous Flint or Chert; BLC: Black Local Chert; CGQ: Coarse Grained Quartzite; HQZ: Hyalin Quartz; IRN: Ferruginous rock; LMT: Limestone; LSL: Laminated Silicified Limestone; MGQ: Middle Grained Quartzite. Quality rate ( ) from 1 (lowest) to 3 (highest). Level VIf

Raw material

AFC (3) BLC (2) CGQ (1) FGQ (3) HQZ (3) IRN (1) LMT (1) LSL (2) MGQ (2) Total

XIII

XVII

Total

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

0 1 85 98 5 47 55 0 145 436

0.0% 0.2% 19.5% 22.5% 1.1% 10.8% 12.6% 0.0% 33.3% 100.0%

3 3 7 371 1 1 0 1 80 467

0.6% 0.6% 1.5% 79.4% 0.2% 0.2% 0.0% 0.2% 17.1% 100.0%

3 34 16 305 6 5 0 14 62 445

0.7% 7.6% 3.6% 68.5% 1.3% 1.1% 0.0% 3.1% 13.9% 100.0%

6 38 108 774 12 53 55 15 287 1348

0.4% 2.8% 8.0% 57.4% 0.9% 3.9% 4.1% 1.1% 21.3% 100.0%

Bold format is applied for values above the mean (right column) at each category. Shade squares indicate the category with highest values by level (column).

At all the levels there is a tendency to a highest representation of the artifacts less than 4 cm. Nevertheless, there are some differences amongst the three assemblages. At level XIII pieces below 2 cm (only flakes) are dominant, and there is a gradual, continuous greater frequency of pieces of larger sizes. At levels XVII and VIf, objects of 2e4 cm are more represented than other categories, especially at level VIf where the greatest part of the pieces belong to this category and pieces below 2 cm are practically absent. At level XVII, although pieces of 2e4 cm are also dominant, there are numerous pieces above and mostly under that range. The dominant degree of transformation at every level is 0: flakes always have percentages greater than a third of the simplified total. Discounting these, we can observe at all levels a greater incidence of a moderate degree of transformation (33e66% of the surface modified) that usually represents at least half of the pieces. This tendency to a middle degree of transformation is especially patent at level XVII, with a more balanced presence of objects with low and high degrees of transformation at levels VIf and XIII. Analyzing the correlations of those three variables through the three samples

between degree of transformation and raw material quality rate: the low and middle quality rocks always have similar percentages of 20% considering the objects with low, middle, or high degree of transformation. Size class and degree of transformation (Fig. 14): there is not a proportionally direct correlation between degree of transformation and size reduction. There is a positive correlation between the augment of size and degree of transformation, especially up to 6 cm maximum length. Unretouched flakes are always less abundant above 4 cm and especially up to 6 cm, while in this metrical range almost all the pieces are modified (retouched or exploited). Nevertheless, some differences can be observed through the levels analyzed: Level XVII shows greater proportions of transformed elements between 2 and 6 cm, and especially in the range of 4e6 cm (with a few larger pieces transformed). Level XIII also has a concentration of retouched/transformed pieces around 4e6 cm maximum length, even more than in level XVII. In level VIf, the degree of transformation shows a greater dispersion through the size classes, with presence in all the metrical categories. Tools under 2 cm maximum length represent almost a unique kind of artifacts in this size (see Fig. 15).

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Fig. 8. Level XIII: Different pieces linked to recycling processes. Top: two Quina scrapers with an adjacent clactonian notch (Bourguignon's type IV), probably cores on tool (COT) (A, B). Scrapers retouched on thin and large rejuvenation flakes (Bourguignon's type III and IV) obtained from Quina scrapers (C, D) or on Kombewa flake (E). Flakes recycling a scraper fronts into cores (COT), knapping the ventral surface (F) or the scraper front from a side-blow (Bourguignon's type VI), (G). H: Quina scraper Tool on core (TOC) produced recycling an unifacial/unipolar core retouched on an edge. All the pieces are knapped on fine grained quartzite. Pieces A and D do not proceed from the sample analyzed here.

6. Formal Recycling processes After analyzing the technological features of each selected assemblage, we can now study the recycling process documented at the three levels taken as a whole. In order to better define the role played by each recycling process (COF, COT and TOC), we have quantified the main technological categories (C: core, T: tool, and F: flake) that show signs of any of these processes in the three levels (Table 6, Fig. 15).

In level XVII, the number of pieces showing signs of recycling processes is scarce (n ¼ 17) out of 445; ratio: 0.038) (Tables 7, 8, 9). Among them, we found some Kombewa flakes (Fig. 7) (F_COF: 8 out of 228 flakes >2 cm), and a great number of COF (Fig. 6) (C_COF: 9 out of 12 cores). The other Formal Recycling categories have not been documented in this level. Both the morphology of some Levallois cores (Fig. 6: A, B, F) and Kostienki or truncated-facetted cores (Fig. 6: C, D, E)), and the elongated morphology of some

Table 6 Raw material quality rate, degree of transformation and size class.

Raw material quality rate (RMQR) Size class (SC)

Level XVII

Level XIII

Level VIf

Good quality

Good quality

Good, middle and poor quality

Concentrated on 2e4 cm

Decreasing number from small to big artifacts High, middle and low degree of transformation balanced Small size-good quality vs big size -poor quality Similar degree of transformation for good and poor raw materials Higher transformation at size 4e6 cm, concentrated

Very concentrated on 2e4 cm

Degree of transformation (DT) RMQR/SC

Middle degree of transformation dominant Middle qualities present at all sizes equally

RMQR/DT

Less quality e lower transformation

DT/SC

Higher transformation at size 4e6 cm

Shade squares indicate a different pattern of variation compared to the other two assemblages.

High, middle and low degree of transformation balanced Small size -good quality vs big size -poor quality Less quality e lower transformation Transformation more balanced by size, concentrated at 2e4 cm

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In level XIII, pieces showing signs of recycling processes are equally scarce (n ¼ 12 out of 467; ratio: 0.025) (Table 7). However, recycling processes documented are more diverse than those of level XVII. Among the Kombewa flakes (3 out of 167 flakes >2 cm), we found 1 (Fig. 8: E) which was later retouched (1 T_COF out of 108 tools). This type of flake often shows remains

Kombewa products (Fig. 7), suggest that in some cases the choice of producing cores on flakes is related to a search of morphologies close to that of the exploited blank. There is also a retouched tool (Fig. 6: G) bearing bifacial scares which were produced after the retouches. This piece could either show a COT process or, more probably, a thinning intended for hafting modification.

Table 7 Recycling processes and categories: UR: un-recycled; C_COF: Core on Flake; F_COF: Flake from Core on Flake (Kombewa or similar); F_COT: Flake from Core on Tool; T_COF: Tool retouched on flake from Core on Flake; T_COT: Tool retouched on flake from a Core on Tool; T_TOC: Tool on Core. Level VIf

Recycling Category

UR C_COF C_COT F_COF F_COT T_COF T_COT T_TOC Subtotal COF Subtotal others Total

XIII

XVII

Total

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

384 21 0 26 1 2 0 2 49 3 436

88.1% 4.8% 0.0% 6.0% 0.2% 0.5% 0.0% 0.5% 11.23% 0.69% 100.0%

455 0 1 3 2 1 4 1 7 5 467

97.4% 0.0% 0.2% 0.6% 0.4% 0.2% 0.9% 0.2% 0.64% 1.93% 100.0%

428 9 0 8 0 0 0 0 17 0 445

96.2% 2.0% 0.0% 1.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 3.82% 0% 100.0%

1267 30 1 37 3 6 1 3 73 10 1348

94.0% 2.2% 0.1% 2.7% 0.2% 0.4% 0.1% 0.2% 5.42% 0.74% 100.0%

Shade rows indicate the most usual recycling actions (COF).

of the ventral surfaces on the distal areas which display an almost perpendicular relation to the platform, and thus could be related to a Pucheuil-type production (Delagnes, 1996). There are also some thick flakes from the recycling of sidescrapers (2 F_COT out of 167 flakes >2 cm). Four were retouched (4 T_COT out of 108 tools) (Fig. 8: C), although their level of transformation is low. Among these flakes, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the recycling of a sidescraper through clactonian notches (although this is clearly recognizable in some pieces: Fig. 8: A and B), or a deep or invasive resharpening action. In this sense, in Esquilleu there seems to be a gradient between types III and IV flakes as defined by Bourguignon (1997), which should be analyzed through statistical and experimental analyses in future works at El Esquilleu. We have also documented (Fig. 8: G) the recycling of a sidescraper into a core through the lateral tranchet blow technique used on a retouched front (Bourguignon type VI flake), and a Kombewa flake with a platform showing continuous retouch scars working as a facetted platform (Fig. 8: F). Lastly, this level has also showed one COT process, a core recycled into a sidescraper (Fig. 8: H). Compared to previous levels, VIf yielded a relatively higher amount of pieces showing signs of recycling processes (n ¼ 52 out of

Table 8 Ratios of recycling categories through the sample analyzed. Recycling ratios by level

VIf

XIII

XVII

A-Total num. of flakes (>2 cm) B-Total num. of cores C-Total num. of retouched tools D-Total num. of Kombewa flakes and other flakes from COF-COT E-Total num. of Cores from COF-COT actions F- Total num. of retouched tools from recycling actions G- Subtotal simplified (total without chunks, cobbles & fragments) H- Total COF-COT-TOC actions

250 47 85 27

167 (2) 108 5

228 12 61 8

21 4

1 6

9 0

436

467

445

52

12

17

Ratio cores/flakes (>2 cm) (B/A) Ratio retouched tools/flakes (>2 cm) (C/A) Ratio flakes from COF-T/total num. flakes (>2 cm) (D/A) Ratio Cores On Flake or Tool/Total num. of cores (E/B) Ratio retouched tools from recycling/total num. of tools (F/C) Ratio Total COT-COF-TOC/Subtotal (simplified) (H/G)

0.188 0.006 0.34 0.646 0.108 0.029

0.052 0.267 0.035

0.446 0.5 0.047 0.055

0.75 0

0.119 0.025

0.038

Table 9 Recycling processes and categories: UR: un-recycled; C_COF: Core on Flake; F_COF: Flake from Core on Flake (Kombewa or similar); F_COT: Flake from Core on Tool; T_COF: Tool retouched on flake from Core on Flake; T_COT: Tool retouched on flake from a Core on Tool; T_TOC: Tool on Core. Level VIf

Recycling Category

UR C_COF C_COT F_COF F_COT T_COF T_COT T_TOC Subtotal COF Subtotal others Total

XIII

XVII

Total

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

Count

%

384 21 0 26 1 2 0 2 49 3 436

88.1% 4.8% 0.0% 6.0% 0.2% 0.5% 0.0% 0.5% 11.23% 0.69% 100.0%

455 0 1 3 2 1 4 1 7 5 467

97.4% 0.0% 0.2% 0.6% 0.4% 0.2% 0.9% 0.2% 0.64% 1.93% 100.0%

428 9 0 8 0 0 0 0 17 0 445

96.2% 2.0% 0.0% 1.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 3.82% 0% 100.0%

1267 30 1 37 3 6 1 3 73 10 1348

94.0% 2.2% 0.1% 2.7% 0.2% 0.4% 0.1% 0.2% 5.42% 0.74% 100.0%

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Fig. 9. Level VIf: Two tools on core (TOC) on fine-grained quartzite (C, D) creating a retouched edge on previous exploitation scars. Cores on flake (COF) of fine-grained quartzite (A, B, H), coarse-grained quartzite (G) and Ferruginous rock (E, F).

Fig. 10. Level VIf: Pseudo-levallois point retouched as a denticulate in ferruginous rock (A). Denticulate on debordant flake, (B) and small and thick denticulate-scraper (C) with scars on the proximal edge that could be related to a recycling action as well as to an accommodation retouch of the back (both in quartzite). Clactonian notches on Kombewa flakes (D, E) in fine grained quartzite. Pseudo-levallois like flake produced from a core on tool (COT), recycling a scraper front, ferruginous rock (F).

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Fig. 11. Raw material quality rating, Degree and Size class. Top left: raw material quality and size class for all the assemblages. Top right: level XIII; Bottom right: level XVII; Bottom left: level VIf. Flakes (degree ¼ 0) not included on the specific graphs by level.

436; ratio: 0.119) (Table 7). Most of these processes are observed in cores corresponding to the exploitation of flakes (Fig. 9) (C_COF ¼ 21), and also on Kombewa flakes (Fig. 10) (F_COF ¼ 26). Although the morphology of these cores is not typical, they can be related to a Discoid technology sensu lato. Cores on flakes are numerous (21 out of 47 cores). However, some of them show series of denticulate-like scars (Fig. 9: F and G) which could point to their classification as COT. It is even possible that scars present in the ventral face of these cores, opposed to the active area of the pieces, could be related to accommodation retouches for hafting purposes, as has been attested in some tools (Fig. 10: B and C). Even considering the problems posed by these pieces, the presence of Kombewa flakes in this level (ratio Kombewa flakes/other flakes ¼ 0.108) is higher than in the two other analyzed assemblages. Furthermore, some of these Kombewa products are backed flakes and pseudo-Levalloislike points (Fig. 10: F), which are technical objectives of the production. Lastly, level VIf has also shown some cases of TOC processes (Fig. 9: C and D), and one single case of COT. The latter is represented by a Kombewa type pseudo-Levallois point whose platform removed a retouched front from a sidescraper (Fig. 10: F).

7. Discussion: conditions and explanations about Formal Recycling and Formal Maintenance at El Esquilleu The three analyzed levels show different strategies of raw material exploitation through Formal Maintenance and Formal Recycling processes. In level XVII we have documented an appreciable impact of Formal Maintenance processes, as shown by the numerous rejuvenation flakes. However, the largest tools, usually knapped in good quality raw materials, but also sometimes in middle quality ones, present a moderate degree of transformation. This differentiation was probably due to the specific shapes of blades and Levallois flakes, whose thickness rarely allowed a covering retouch, even when resharpening cycles can be extended on them (Turq, 1992; Eren and Lycett, 2012). Formal flakes and blades showing no transformation at any of the size classes could indicate a preference bitage unretouched edges (brut de d for de ebitage), which is also very abundant in large sizes, regardless of the rock quality. The cores on flake documented could be interpreted as recycling actions, but not necessarily. These flakes transformed onto cores are

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Fig. 12. Raw material quality rate and degree of transformation by level and mean values.

thicker and different in shape than the Levallois and blade-like products and seem to be an excellent blank for Kostienki-like bitages (Newcomer and Hivernel-Guerre, 1974; Klaric, 2000; de Slimak and Lucas, 2005). Level XVII could be defined as a level with low incidence of Formal Recycling and moderate incidence of Formal Maintenance. Level XIII shows a high incidence of Formal Maintenance processes, as shown by the high proportion of rejuvenation flakes. Nevertheless, the large sidescrapers identified in this level were always produced on large flakes that, far from showing any sign of a continuous reduction through a rejuvenation process, have a standardized shape and size. This preference is probably conditioned by the search of the large, massive and easily prehensile tools that are usually preferred at Quina assemblages n Santafe , 2003; Carrio n Santafe  and (Bourguignon, 1997; Carrio Baena Preysler, 2003). With regard to Formal Recycling processes, although these were present at level XIII under different modalities, they were quantitatively scarce. Although the numerous large sidescrapers, produced in good quality quartzites, could be easily recycled into cores, this process is rarely observed in this assemblage. Level XIII could be defined as a level with moderate incidence of Formal Recycling and high incidence of Formal Maintenance.

Level VIf shows greater proportions of small-sized retouched tools and small-sized formal flakes. The number of rejuvenation flakes is strikingly reduced, which could be possibly related to a development of this activity out of the excavated area. Some large formal flakes as pseudo-levallois points and retouched tools, especially in poor quality raw materials, remained as large pieces with low or middle transformation. Other flakes and some tools mainly in good quality raw materials were exploited as cores on bitage developed to 2 cm. It is flake/cores on tool, with a ramified de possible that the technological requirements at this level with discoid technology were more focused on the procurement of unretouched edges, allowing use of the local, soft raw materials discarded previously. Level VIf could be therefore defined as a level with high incidence of Formal Recycling and low incidence of Formal Maintenance. Level VIf, compared with the other levels studied here, shows a nearer and more varied use of lithic resources, with raw material bitage economy patterns (Perle s, 1991); it also economy and de shows smaller tools compared to the other levels. The Formal Maintenance processes at level VIf, which are practically absent, contrasts with the varied recycling processes observed at this level that are applied on almost every raw material. This phenomenon

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127

Fig. 13. Raw material quality rate and size class by level and mean values.

cannot be explained by a bias in sampling (see Table 3) nor by taphonomic or sedimentary processes (Yravedra Sainz de los  et al., 2008). The small surface of this level Terreros, 2006; Jorda makes an intra-site spatial analysis difficult (Vaquero et al., 2012a, 2012b; Assaf et al., 2014) and with no functional studies, we cannot definitively explain the reasons for this absence. Nevertheless, it is possible that the retouched tools and flakes documented at level VIf were introduced for specific activities such as skinning and defleshing as is the case with other discoid assemblages, such as baut et al., 2011, 2012), those from Mauran and Les Fieux (Thie where some new cutting edges would be produced by recycling (COF/COT) and then abandoned. 8. Conclusions Processes of Formal Maintenance and Formal Recycling, as defined by Amick (2014), are present to different degrees in the three levels of El Esquilleu analyzed in this paper. These different forms of lithic recycling and maintenance were linked both to the technology developed in each occupation (Bourguignon et al., 2006), and the functional characteristics of the occupation itself (Kuhn, 1991).

On the one hand, the technical requirements of producing elongated blade-like blanks (level XVII), or quartzite thick flakes to fabricate Quina sidescrapers (level XIII), provoked the need to exploit distant sources of raw materials to obtain good quality rocks. In levels XVII and XVIII, both probably related to prolonged occupations (Yravedra Sainz de los Terreros, 2006), there is a high degree of Formal Maintenance processes, and thus they support the model proposed by Kuhn (1991). On the other hand, production of d ebordant flakes and pseudo-Levallois points in level VIf, baut et al., which were probably related to butchery activities (Thie 2011), does not necessarily demand tough rocks. This would allow taking advantage of nearby softer raw materials, such as limestone and ferruginous rocks. In this case, the production of new edges was best achieved through knapping actions, and not by retouch. The results of our study allow us to propose two different models of resource exploitation of El Esquilleu geographical setting during Mousterian times: (1) The first model, based on data from levels XVII and XIII, proposes the exploitation of middle and long-distance sources of good quality raw materials, which were later

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Fig. 14. Degree and size class by level and mean values.

Fig. 15. - Recycling categories by level. Left: Recycling categories by Raw material Quality rate. Right: Recycling categories by Size Class.

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knapped through Quina and Levallois methods to produce and repair different types of tools that were in use during rather prolonged occupations. (2) The second model, based on data from level VIf (and to be applied to the whole upper sequence of El Esquilleu), proposes an intense exploitation of the nearby sources of raw materials. These raw materials were used to produce an expedient Discoid technology, which was related to short duration occupations of the cave, as shown by the high presence of carnivores. Finally, the radiometric chronology of level VIf (Table 1), lying in the range of circa 40 ka cal BP, allow us to relate the last Mousterian occupations of El Esquilleu with the chronological framework recently proposed as the more likely for the last Neandertal appearance in Europe (Higham et al., 2014). This reinforces our prior interpretations of the Neandertal demise as a process dominated by a progressive change in the strategies of resource exploitation towards more expedient and immediate models  n Santafe  et al., 2008; Baena et al., 2012). This interpretation (Carrio receives support from other sites of the Cantabrian region, such as Axlor B and D (Ríos-Garaizar, 2008), but also from more distant areas, such as the Italian Lazio (Stiner and Kuhn, 1992) and the Caucasus region (Adler et al., 2006). Acknowledgements This paper was presented in the workshop “The Origins of Recycling: A Paleolithic Perspective” held at Tel-Aviv University, Israel. The workshop was kindly supported by the Israel Science Foundation and the Wenner-Gren Foundation. We are especially grateful for the hospitality and attention received by the local supporting team of Quesem Cave/TAU, who made our stay very comfortable and helpful. We also would like to give special thanks to Laurence Bourguignon for interesting comments on the first version of this paper. References Adler, D.S., Bar-Oz, G., Belfer-Cohen, A., Bar-Yosef, O., 2006. Ahead of the game: Middle and Upper Palaeolithic hunting behaviours in the southern Caucasus. Current Anthropology 47, 89e118. Agam, A., Marder, O., Barkai, R., 2015. Small flake production and lithic recycling at Late Acheulian Revadim, Israel. Quaternary International 361, 46e60. Amick, D.S., 2014. Reflection on the origins of recycling: a Paleolithic perspective. Lithic Technology 39 (1), 64e69. Ashton, N.M., 2007. Flakes, Cores, Flexibility and Obsession: Situational Behaviour in the British Lower Palaeolithic. Tools versus Cores: Alternative Approaches to Stone Tool Analysis. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle, pp. 1e16. Assaf, E., Parush, Y., Gopher, A., Barkai, R., 2015. Intra-site variability in lithic recycling at Qesem Cave, Israel. Quaternary International 361, 88e102. s all Baena, J., Cuartero, F., 2006. Ma a de la tipología lítica: lectura diacrítica y  n como claves para la reconstruccio n del proceso tecnolo gico. experimentacio In: Maillo, J.M., Baquedano, E. (Eds.), Miscel anea en homenaje a Victoria Cabgica, 7 (I), 144e161. rera. Zona Arqueolo n Santafe , E., Requejo Lo pez, V., Conde Ruiz, C., Manzano Baena, Preysler, J., Carrio Espinosa, I., Pino Uría, B., 1999. Avance de los trabajos realizados en el yacimiento paleolítico de la Cueva del Esquilleu (Castrocillorigo-Cantabria). In: Actas del 3 Congreso de Arqueología Peninsular. Vila-Real (Portugal), 21e27 Septiembre 1999, pp. 251e262. n, E., Ruiz, B., Ellwood, B., Sese , C., Yravedra, J., Jorda , J., Uzquiano, P., Baena, J., Carrio ndez, F., 2005a. Paleoecología y Vel azquez, R., Manzano, I., S anchez, A., Herna comportamiento humano durante el Pleistoceno Superior en la comarca de bana: la secuencia de la Cueva del Esqulleu, Occidente de Cantabria, Espan ~ a. Lie In: Lasheras Corruchaga, J.A., Montes Barquín, R. (Eds.), Neandertales canbricos. Estado de la cuestio n. Monografías Museo de Altamira, 20, pp. ta 461e487. n Santafe , E., Manzano Espinosa, I., Vel nz, E., Baena, Preysler, J., Carrio azquez, R., Sa S anchez, S., Ruiz Zapata, B., Uzquiano, P., Yravedra, J., 2005b. Ocupaciones bana (Occidente de Cantabria, Espan ~ a): La musterienses en la comarca de Lie rez-Gonza lez, A., Machado, M.J. (Eds.), cueva de El Esquilleu. In: Santonja, M., Pe n del Patrimonio Edit. ADEMA, Soria, pp. 20e26. Geoarqueología y Conservacio

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