Red Wine Bottling and Packaging

C H A P T E R

22 Red Wine Bottling and Packaging Mark Strobl Hochschule Geisenheim University, Geisenheim, Germany

22.1 GLASS BOTTLES 22.1.1 History and Developments Since the time that bottles could be produced by machines (late 19th century), bottles started to replace barrels more and more. The main advantages were: • The wine drinker did not need to go to the wine barrel at the winery or to the pub anymore. A small portable amount could be transported to the table in restaurants, taverns, or to the homes. • The selling units became affordable, in some regions even for normal workers. • A wine bottle could be emptied. Barrels, when tapped, had an uptake of oxygen, as air replaced the tapped volume. This resulted in an oxidation of aroma components, the development of yeast and bacteria, such as Brettanomyces, flor yeasts, and lactic and acetic acid bacteria, so that the last wine to come out of the barrel was sour and mucilaginous (Rhein, 2012). • The wine could be seen through the transparent glass of the bottles. Turbidity was quickly recognized, hinting at bad quality or a too young wine, that has had no time to mature. Thus, the filtration technique followed the industrial glass bottle production. Filtered wines became quality standard, even if clarity had not been achieved by maturation. Maturation in the bottle was necessary in some cases, to develop the biochemical processes to a stable status, which could be kept for years. In some cases the wine still improves in the bottle. • Sparkling wine became possible and affordable for most people. There was no other possibility to keep high amounts of carbon dioxide in the fluids in wooden barrels or amphoras made of clay. For a long period, bottle fermentation was the only way to get wines and beers with more than 2 g CO2/L. • Bottles made brands possible. Emblems and names on the bottle’s surface and, later printed on the paper labels were used to inform the customer about the origin of the bottle. • Closures developed from cloth to wood to cork. Nowadays we have screw caps, crown corks, plastic caps, or glass closures with plastic sealing. Closures should assure that the contents do not drip out of the bottle and that the contents were not altered or falsified by air, microorganisms, or extortioners. Closures can seal the wine and can be additionally sealed by labels or capsules (Fig. 22.1).

22.2 TARGETS TODAY Nowadays, bottles are transport packaging and sales packaging. Presented as a selling unit at the point of sale, a bottle should look attractive and appealing—especially in restaurants and at retailers—when compared to the bottles of the competitors. The bottle has to ensure the shelf life of the wines, which means that the look, smell, and taste of the wine will meet the consumer’s expectations. It is necessary to distinguish between old fashioned red wines with ripening, micro-oxygenation, development in the bottle on the one hand and bulk wines on the other, which are produced and sold in a defined

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FIGURE 22.1 The bottling and packaging process—wine, bottle, closures, labels, carton, palette.

quality. The latter are bottled when the aroma quality is at its height and preserved as long as possible over the period of the shelf life.

22.2.1 Traditional Fashioned Red Wines Ripening in the Bottle Particularly red wines produced using classical manufacturing processes change their aromas and taste while ripening (compare previous chapters). This process can be continued to a certain extent after bottling. If living yeast is still present at bottling, it reduces the oxygen content. Bacteria and yeasts may still ferment residual sugars to alcohols and acids. Alcohols and acids form esters, which may in the end be more pleasant than those in the wine before bottling. Polyphenols which cause bitterness, should have been oxidized during fermentation or maturation. Wooden barrels, which are not gas tight, allow the exchange of carbon dioxide out of the wine and the uptake of oxygen from the air outside a barrique. A gas exchange similar to the gas exchange through the barrel wood is possible if the bottle is sealed with natural cork. As these processes take time, some wines are kept bottled for 5 years and longer, before being sold. The bottle should be kept horizontally, so that the cork will not dry out and embrittle. Nontight bottles with leakage can cause stain. This should preferably happen in the wine maker’s cellar, rather than on the retailer’s shelf or in the customer’s home. The bottles at that stage should not be labeled or encapsulated. There will be losses in water, alcohol, and volatile substances from the bottle through the cork. In the case of very long storage, the bottle should be opened at the latest after 30 years, topped up—if possible with the same wine, if not with a sulfurized similar wine or glass balls—and be closed with a new safe cork. This cork should ensure that the wine gets no cork taint after all those years. Suppliers offer corks, that are treated with carbon dioxide or microwaves to avoid anisol, the agent, causing cork taint beside halogenic atoms (compare Section 5.1). After storage the bottles are dirty and have to be cleaned with water and brushes, before they are labeled and capsuled. The advantage of this method is that it results in classical wines with individual characters. But each bottle can develop differently. Key disadvantages are: a lot of time is required, fixed capital, a risk that the whole effort does not turn out in a positive way. The bottles will have a deposit of yeast, bacterials, proteins, tartaric acid, insoluble sediments, which again need to meet the consumer’s expectation. The whole process is expensive and the target group must be willing to pay for all of this.

22.2.2 Modern Ready to Drink Wines and Shelf Life Modern wines are produced in big batches. The aim is not individual bottles, but constant quality—in the case of brands, over years—without noticeable changes. Consumers’ expectations have to be met and no variations are allowed. This means flavor, taste, and appearance always have to be the same. Malodor—in some cases even dominant flavors which might diminish the number of potential consumers—must be avoided.

22.3 BOTTLING LINES Filling line processes (Fig. 22.2) developed during the last 100 years. The bottles may be set automatically on belt conveyers made of stainless steel and plastic or by hand. The bottles should be rinsed with water. Bottle

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FIGURE 22.2

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Bottling process in a small (left) and in a big winery (right)

rinsers wash the bottles by rinsing the inside with water or air and active ingredients. The bottle is turned bottom up. In bigger lines the bottles are fixed by a clamp arm to the radius of a big turning ring cylinder 1
5 m in diameter, so that enough time for the treatment and the rinsing off of the bottle is assured. The bottle should be inspected empty, before passing into the filler—best by inspection machines with camera systems to detect false matter. The filler (Fig. 22.3) itself usually is a ring bowl, filled with the wine. The wine runs by gravity into the bottles underneath. The bottles are positioned under a filling valve, pressed by lifting elements onto a gas tight sealing. The bottle can be pre-evacuated by vacuum, or prerinsed with nitrogen, before a valve opens the connection to the ring bowl with the wine. The wine runs by gravity into the bottle. It can be filled isobarometric with normal pressure or with overpressure (especially necessary for sparkling wines). There also can be a slight vacuum above the wine (20.05 bar) in the ring bowl for filling level adjustment, where the overfilled wine is sucked up from the bottle back into the bowl. The bottle is released, lowered, and passed to the corker, where the bottle is closed. After that the bottle might be stored intermediately until labeling and selling, or labeled and packed into cartons directly. The output varies from 1000 to 50,000 btl/hour.
Two to eight employees are needed to supply and discharge the bottles, boxes, and palettes from the running line. The machines are expensive, the employees needed afford a good and equal degree of capacity utilization.

22.4 HAZARDS IN BOTTLING RED WINE 22.4.1 Microbiology Hazard No 1 is a microbiological contamination. Microorganisms—even the mainly used cerevisiae—may metabolize ingredients into unwanted components and form haze by propagation. Microorganisms can be seen

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FIGURE 22.3 Main parts of a mechanical filler: (1) wine inlet and ring bowl (2) vacuum canal for preevacuation (3) crank arm for valve control (4) centering and fixing of the bottle (5) air or nitrogen inlet (6) lifting unit (7) electronics

at a certain stage of propagation and some of them can be smelled by their metabolites. Customers will complain about such faults or just change the brand or the supplier. To reduce the probability of microbiological growth lots of tests need to be carried out. The wine should be produced at a hygienic standard, which makes the survival of potential yeast or bacteria less probable. Tanks, pipes, hoses, valves, everything in contact with the wine, should be rinsed to reduce nutrition for biofilms. This includes the periphery from the cellars to the bottling plant. Dry wines have less sugar, so less potential spoilage is caused by bacteria and yeasts. Residual sugars are more dangerous. Less oxygen diminishes the number of potential spoilage species that might cause problems. On the other hand, some strict anaerobic bacteria might cause sulfuric aromas, recognized as reductive notes (Back, 2008). High alcohol amounts and low pH diminish the risk of potential growth of unwanted microorganisms. On the other hand, alcohol-free or alcohol-reduced wines are more vulnerable. Filtration and membrane filtration decreases the amount of potential microorganisms in the wine before filling. Dead yeast cells could themselves be nutrition for wine spoilage bacteria and yeast, and should be removed by kieselghur or cross flow filtration. Cardboard filters or membrane filters, shortly before the wine is bottled, can ensure cell amounts near to zero. Membrane filtration with 0.65 µm pore size will remove the yeasts. Membranes with 0.45 µm should remove wine spoilage bacteria, if present. Flash pasteurization uses heat for a short time to kill most wine spoilage bacteria at temperatures beneath 80 C within less than a minute, depending on ethanol concentration and pH of the wine. If oxygen is avoided (beneath 0.05 mg O2/L) this treatment cannot be tasted. Another advantage is that all enzymes added or produced during wine growth or by microorganisms during fermentation or maturation will be inactivated. Thus, unwanted changes to the wine in the bottle can be avoided. Plate heat exchangers are used, which recover nearly all the energy. The inflowing wine is heated up by the pasteurized wine. Flash pasteurizers are continuously working equipment and work best around the clock with big batches. Big bottlers use these techniques with success. Very safe methods for wine export or the bottling of alcohol-reduced or alcohol-free wines are: Hot filling: The wine is heated up to 80 C or more, and filled into the bottles. The wine with its hot alcohol also disinfects the bottle and the closure. There is definitely a change in the aroma towards a marmalade and jam odor. Oxygen—if present—will cause brown colors, Maillard products, and caramel flavors. Corks cannot be used, the vacuum after the cooling period would suck the cork into the bottleneck. Red wines are less

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complicated for pasteurization than white wine. White wines usually have some CO2 for a fresh appearance, which is lost if hot filling is applied. Pasteurization of the filled bottle: The filled and closed bottle is heated up to pasteurization temperature. To avoid thermic damage of the wine, it should be chilled again immediately after the heating process. In smaller wineries, batches of wine are put into small pasteurization cupboards or heated up in vats with hot water. Bigger producers have tunnel pasteurizers, where the bottles are heated up and chilled back again in a defined time by rinsing hot and cold water over the bottles. The wine and the bottle have to be heated up. Most of the heat energy is lost. This method is similar to hot filling. Cork cannot be used as it would be pressed out of the bottle during the heating process and would not return to a defined position after the cooling down of the pasteurized bottle. Chemical stabilization can be done by SO2, sorbic acid, or di-methyl-di-carbonate (DMDC, E242, Velcorin) (Dahmen, 2017). Chemical preservatives may have an influence on the aroma, for example, SO2 binds the acetaldehyde. Sorbic acid can cause off flavors, like geranium notes. Preservatives should be dosed/added to the wine, at best, shortly before filling—in line with local laws—and should be distributed very evenly in the wine to get the optimum contact with the microorganisms to be killed. On the other hand, toxic concentrations must be avoided to protect employees and customers. The staff must be trained in how to handle and dose the chemicals safely. Acceptable daily intake expositions/exposure must be respected, as DMDC, for example, is volatile and toxic when inhaled and harmful if swallowed (Unsupported source type (InternetSite) for source Lan17.). It must have a higher temperature while dosing it into the wine. Otherwise it will sink to the bottom and stay a poison in the bottle for the consumer, if not dosed properly at defined temperature above 20 C but beneath 30 C (Lanxess, 2015). So special dosing and tempering equipment is necessary. Disinfection of the bottles can be done by rinsing machines. If new glass is delivered, it is probably not spoiled with wine spoilage microorganisms, depending on the package of the new glass bottles. If the palettes are opened, they should be used immediately, to avoid contamination by the air. If already opened palettes are kept for a while, the bottles must be rinsed to achieve microbiological and physical security. The bottle is conveyed into a filler like rondel. It is turned bottom up. A nozzle sprays fluids or air from underneath to the bottom of the bottle, so that the rinsing media is deviated to the walls and washes or blows the unwanted particles down to the bottleneck and out of the bottle. Rinsing media can be: water of good quality, and preferable deionized to avoid water spots on the surface. The water should be microbiologically filtered with membranes ,0.45 µm pore size, treated with ultraviolet (UV) light or chlorine-dioxide, to avoid infection of the bottles. As a disinfectant chlorine dioxide can be used, sulfurized water is popular in the wine industry, as residues would not be detectable beside the normal SO2 contents in the wine. The disinfectants must be rinsed out of the bottle with water according to the ethics—or the local laws—but also to avoid contact and unwanted reactions with the product. Steam rinsers have advantages. Only water condensate is a residue. Steam kills microorganisms with heat, without rinsing it. Therefore steam rinsers should be combined with a water rinsing before steam treatment. Some rinsers just use pressurized air, to blow out the dust, which might have fallen into the bottles. This saves water and waste water costs. A disinfection with gas is possible with ozone, which is very toxic. It produces no wastewater. The waste air has to be evaporated from the hall, so as not to harm the employees working in that area. Rinsers need time for rinsing, chemical, and thermal reactions. The bottle must be treated for at least a minute. At the end, most of the rinsing water should run off. This is achieved with huge rinsers with diameters depending on the quantity of bottles to be rinsed.

22.4.2 Chemical Contaminations A hazard in modern bottling plants is chemical contamination from the cellars. Tanks, pipes, pumps, and hoses are cleaned with caustics, acids, disinfectants. Filling large quantities of product—one after another—may lead to accidentally connected tanks which contain chemicals. The craftsmen on the bottling lines usually should not drink alcohol, so the checking of the wine into the filler might be reduced to a quick look or is simply forgotten. In particular, caustic substances can, if they get into the wine bottle and not be recognized by the customer, cause alkali burn, acid burn (in the case of acid), intoxications in the case of disinfectants. Usually, red wine drinkers pour the wine into a glass, smell and review the wine before drinking it, but these potential accidents have to be examined if hazard analysis of critical control points (CCPs) concepts and certified management systems are

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practiced. There should be an exclusion of fluids other than wine by a conductivity measurement in the pipe shortly before the wine gets into the filler. Conductivity also helps to differentiate between the wines when the filling program changes from one wine to another. The conductivity also helps to optimize the cleaning programs, showing, when caustic, acid, or water is running. Disinfectants are a little bit more difficult, usually used in lower concentrations with less or no conductivity. Test strips are useful, like those for the detection of peracetic acid, to ensure, that all of the disinfectants are rinsed out of the pipes, before wine is filled. Certainly, a good germ-free water has to be used, to rinse out the disinfectants after their reaction time.

22.4.3 Physical Contamination In certified enterprises that produce beverages containing alcohol, there is one point where the consumer’s security and health really can be harmed physically. This is by foreign objects in the wine. This can just dust particles from transport, insects, metal from machinery or glass splinters. When bottles break during transport, cleaning, or bottling and open bottles are around, it may happen that a piece of broken glass falls into one of the bottles before closing seals them. Also, damages to the bottleneck during rinsing, filling, and corking can cause sharp edges, which might hurt the consumers lips, if not pouring the wine into a wine glass. Checking the bottles just by visual examination before putting them on the conveyer is not feasible anymore due to the huge number of bottles filled by modern bottling lines. Machines do this much more accurately. The full UV and IR light spectrum can be used in favor of detection by the human eye. At a speed of more than 2000 btl/hours, human eyes and alertness are not good enough to find physical contaminations in the bottles. To detect foreign matter, inspection machines with camera systems are offered. The problem is how to detect transparent glass splinters in a transparent glass bottle before bottling. With flash lights the shadows of splinters might be detected by the cameras and the bottle can be separated from the other ones. Although the probability of glass contamination while filling the bottles in red wine bottles is less than with sparkling wines during pressurized filling, it might result in an accidental personal injury or just a legal dispute if broken glass leaves the winery in an original sealed bottle. Bottle burst in the course of filling the bottle causes glass splinters whirling over open bottles. A splinter falling into an open bottle is probable. Glass splinters may land on top of the filler and move to the edge over the open bottles due to the centrifugal forces of the turning filler and then fall into the open bottles underneath, long after the bottle burst. The only method to overcome a risk of splinters in the bottles is to remove all the bottles that were in the area of the filler and had not already been closed. After the filler is emptied, it should be rinsed with water, so that no splinter remains on the fillers surface. Splinters sticking in gaskets, sticking on the filling tubes or centering units have to be considered. Some producers of fillers offer automatic bottle burst programs that run these steps automatically, if a bottle burst happened. After the bottling only an X-ray check can detect foreign matter in the filled liquid (Heuft, 2016). Purchasing such a machine becomes more and more interesting, the higher the equipment performance becomes.

22.4.4 Avoidance of Oxygen With Filling Technology Red wine might be improved by small amounts of oxygen. Oxidation of food compounds is normally considered detrimental to food quality and conservation. Considering wine, this evolution may be beneficial or detrimental. During bottle aging, the characteristics of wine, primarily based on fruit and fermentationoriginated flavors, tend to evolve, leading to the appearance of the so-called developed characters as a result of the occurrence of numerous acid-catalyzed reactions. Nevertheless, wine may benefit from a certain exposure to oxygen as it contributes to color stabilization, astringency reduction, or aroma improvement. This is especially true for red wines as they contain a higher level of phenolic compounds which are the main reactants with oxygen (Silva et al., 2011). To achieve a stable product, the necessary oxidations of red wines should be finished before bottling. Once in the bottles, oxidation is more difficult to control, especially if the bottle is already on the way to the customers. At the runtime of shelf life, temperature and light can form unpleasant oxidative aromas, aldehydes, sherry-like notes and browning colors. Oxygen also enhances the probability of aerobic bacteria and yeasts. To remove oxygen, filters, pipes, and tanks should be prerinsed with degassed water, or pressurized with nitrogen, before wine is pumped in, to avoid contact between the wine and the oxygen in the air.

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In modern fillers it is possible to pre-evacuate the bottles with a vacuum, to rinse the bottles with nitrogen, and then fill the wines into the bottles. 0.05 mg O2/L are possible. Sulfur helps, but can be reduced to a necessary minimum with consequent oxygen management. Long tube fillers have a long filling tube, which releases the wine into the bottle about 2 cm above the bottom. When the outlet is covered by wine, only the horizontal surface of the wine has contact to the gas phase in the bottle. The wine displaces the gas out of the bottle. Lowering the bottle takes out the filling tube of the wine. The volume of the tube is partly replaced by the contents of the filling tube. Bottles, filled with long tube fillers, have to be brought up a longer way to the sealing, as the bottle has to move up the whole length of the long tube up to the centering bell and the sealing. Also, it takes time to lower the bottle at the end of the process. If 20.000.000 bottles/year are filled, 0.02 seconds cost more than 100 hours per year. To decrease the lowering time, some wine fillers (e.g., the GmbH, Germany (KHS) Innofill Normaldruck, Rechnergesteuert Trinox (NRT)) lower the bottle while filling it. An electrical contact controls the filling level in the bottle. If the tube is drawn out of the wine throughout filling it, the tube’s volume does not have to be replaced by the end of the filling process with the volume that is in the filling tube. Like in a pipette, the red wine stays in the tube and is filled into the next bottle. This saves time and avoids oxygen contact (Mu¨ller and Schmoll, 2010). Long tube fillers are good in avoiding oxygen uptake, but undesirable if bottle shapes are often changed. Then the tubes have to be replaced with tubes that match the bottles that follow in the filling program. A further disinfection of the filler, after replacing the filling tubes by hand, will be necessary. These operations take time. Short tube fillers just have a tube in the bottleneck, which does not fill the wine, but exhausts the suppressed gas, when the wine flows into the bottle, as it flows in a film along the wall of the bottle. This has the advantage, that the tube does not have to be replaced when bottle shapes are changed during the filling program, because they fit to most bottlenecks. The disadvantage is that the surface of the wine flowing into the bottle is greater, compared to filling with long tube fillers. So, the contact with the gas phase and oxygen in the bottle is more intensive. Short tube fillers can do preevacuation and an inert gas pressurization in order to achieve oxygen values similar to those of long tube fillers, if necessary. SO2 or ascorbic acid can solve the problem, but they have an impact on pH and taste, which might not be wanted. It is possible to produce wines without SO2, but then acetaldehyde, if not masked by SO2, will become a more dominant aroma. Before corking nitrogen droppers can supersede the air still in the bottleneck above the wine (Fig. 22.4). A little drop of liquid nitrogen is dripped into the wine and evaporates immediately on the surface of the wine. The volume increases and the air in the bottleneck is replaced by the nitrogen, before the cork is pushed into the bottle or the screw cap is turned on the thread. Alternatively, a vacuum can remove most of the air, before the cork is pressed (and—in this case sucked) in. Balloon-style bottling fillers have been introduced. A balloon is blown up in the bottle to displace the air. Then the wine displaces the gas in the balloon, so that the wine has contact with the balloon but not with the air. Long-term experiences are not available yet (Horneber, 2015).

FIGURE 22.4

Nitrogen dropper before closing the bottle.

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22.4.5 Adjusting the Filling Level Adjusting the filling level can be achieved by adjusting the filling height in the bottle. Level controlled fillers use the container’s volume as the measuring vessel. This requires a constant bottle quality with a defined volume in a certain range. Low vacuum fillers use a slight vacuum 0.03
0.05 bar below atmospheric pressure (Henning, 2004) in the ring bowl, that can suck the overfilled wine back into the ring bowl, until the exhaust tube is above the wine level. Overpressure, that comes from a special canal in the filler (Trinox canal at fillers, produced by KHS) and pressurizes the wine
s surface in the bottle can also press the overfilled wine up the exhaust tube into the ring bowl again, until the level in the bottle is under the level of the exhaust tube. The valves can then be closed, the pressure is released, and the bottle will be lowered and passed to the corker (Fig. 22.5). Filling tubes, that cause an electrical circuit between an anode and cathode, with an insulation at the filling level are an electric solution. The ascending wine causes a circuit between the two electrodes on the tube. This electrical signal, caused by the ions of the wine closing a contact, gives a signal to the filling valve to close. The filling process is controlled by the filling height in the bottle and is not dependent on the pressure counterbalances or the position of the bottle in the filler. Volumetric filling systems dose a defined volume of wine into the bottle. They divide the product into appropriately sized portions before filling it into the bottle. The wine rinses from a supply tank into a measuring cup of specified content, thus filling it (Blu¨ml and Fischer, 2004). The metered quantity of wine flows into the bottle underneath.

FIGURE 22.5 Filling of a wine bottle with a Trinox canal filler (by KHS): (1) wine in the ring bowl (2) vacuum canal for preevacuation of the bottle (3) valves controlled by pressurized air (4) centering unit, short filling tube in the middle. The filling tube adjustes the filling level (5) replaced air or inert gas goes up in the ring bowl (6) inert gas nitrogen2 above the wine (7) after reaching the filling tube, the Trinox canal puts pressure in the bottleneck, so that overfilled wine is pressed (8) upwards into the ring bowl again

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Volumetric fillers used to consist of a piston with the filling volume. This was a very accurate filling method, but not very flexible when changing the type of bottle and volumes. Moving parts and gaskets need maintenance and good cleaning. Modern volumetric fillers use electromagnetic flow meters, which open a valve, measure the amount of wine flowing into the bottle and then close the valve, when the required amount has passed the measuring system. Fillers with electric flow meters are able to measure the amount of wine by inductivity inline and close the filling valve electronically, when the targeted amount of wine is in the bottle. The needed volume can easily be altered by computers, if bottles are changed in the filling program. Furthermore, these fillers are good when red wine is filled into plastic bottles, because these are elastic and expandable and the volume has to be defined, before filling it into the bottle.

22.4.6 Filling Speed The filling speed is determined by: • • • •

the the the the

hydrostatic pressure; pressure tube diameter; geometry of the return gas path (Blu¨ml and Fischer, 2004); and pressure differences between ring bowl and bottle, if not isobarometric.

The amount of bottles produced per hour is determined by: • the diameter of the filler; • the rotation speed and the time for the filling process (limited by centrifugal forces); and • the amount of filling valves that fit on the ring bowl (depending on the diameter of the bottles). The amount of wine flowing into the bottle is limited by the number and the diameter of the exhaust pipes opened.

22.4.7 Automation Standards Mechanic Fillers—Electronic Fillers Mechanical rinsers and fillers are being replaced more and more by electronic devices. While mechanical rinsers and fillers are controlled by the rotation of the filling organ and its crank arms, that open or close the valves at each turn at the same position. The time the process lasts depends on the speed of the filler and may alter. Problems occur when hydraulic shocks caused by opening valves, tanks with a high hydrostatic volume, or just by the stop and go of the filler have an influence on the filling level. This may cause overfilled or underfilled bottles. Electronic rinsers and fillers have pneumatic controlled valves, that open or close to let or not let through the required gas or fluid, independent from the speed or the position of the filler. The advantages of electronic controlled machines are: • electronically controlled rinsing and filling of the bottles is independent of the speed and the position of the machine. • each bottle can be treated for exactly the same time, with the same pressure, which leads to an optimized and consistent product quality. • a change of bottles or product is done by an electronic signal. • times and pressures are easily adjusted to the individual needs of the products, even while filling.

22.4.8 Packaging Materials Packaging materials have to fulfill very different consumer expectations. Additional the ability to recycle has to be ensured in modern consumption societies. The availability of some raw materials is, in some cases, limited. Since the time bottles became the main alternative to barrels and amphoras 150 years ago, new packaging methods for wine have been introduced.

22.4.9 Glass Bottles Glass bottles are beside the bulk wines the most used containers for red wines. This is because glass is an inert material which does not react with the wine. There is no gas migration at the glass bottle walls, only at the

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closure. Glass can be recycled to make new glass bottles again. Glass has a blank surface, so it can be cleaned easily. It can be sterilized and pasteurized. The wine can be seen, because glass is more or less transparent. This, however, is also a disadvantage, as light is energy and might alter some components of the wine to unpleasant aromas. Glass is heavier than other containers. Weight is expected to be valuable, so it is necessary for high price/quality wines. Weight is certainly a disadvantage during the carriage. The cracking of glass also can cause splinters that might appear inside a wine bottle. These last two factors have led to alternative packaging for red wines especially at the cheaper end of the spectrum.

22.4.10 PET Bottles In line with distribution and recycling systems some red wines are offered in PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles. PET bottles can be filled similarly to glass bottles. Advantages are in mass production: the empty bottles are delivered as a small preform to the bottler. Stretch blow machines heat up the preforms and blow them to their final shape and volume using pressurized air. This saves transport volume. The empty bottle can be transported by neck handling and air conveyers to the filler. Volumetric fillers assure the filling volume. Closures are usually plastic screw caps. The PET bottles are not intended for long storage of the wine. As the PET bottle and the plastic screw are not gas tight, water, ethanol, and aroma vaporize through the walls and the cap. This leaves a vacuum, the bottle shrinks in the course of storage. Additionally, oxygen may pass through the walls and cause unwanted changes in the aroma and solubility of some compounds which will result in clouding and sediment. The PET bottles can and should be recycled. A certain percentage of new PET bottles can be produced out of recycled PET material. Due to the rising levels of PET bottle consumption worldwide, new materials based on sustainable raw materials are being tested, for example poly lactic acid, or Polyethylene Furanoate (Nu¨nning, 2017).

22.4.11 Carton Packaging Carton packaging is technically a good option for beverages like red wine. The packaging is sterile, oxygenfree, light protected, maintains a good transport volume empty and filled, and has some environmental advantages in that the cardboard is a renewable raw material (Tetrapak, 2017). Tetra Pak delivers coils of the printed packages, cardboard laminated with polyethylene and aluminum foil. The cardboard is sterilized by boiling H2O2. A continuous tube is formed. While the tube is welded together the wine is filled into it. The surrounding space that has to be kept sterile is small in comparison to bottle fillers. This is achieved by HEPA1 filtered air. In the dairy industry this system fulfills the required hygienic standards, so it will do the same for red wine with lower pH, alcohol, and SO2 as preservatives. The polyethylene layer of the packages is welded by ultrasonically or electrically heated grippers and the tube is cut into brick- or prisma-shaped packages (Tetrapak, 2017). The edges are folded to the brick and fixed with the heated polyethylene of the outer layer. The Tetra Pak system is strongly dependent on the packaging material delivered by Tetra or Combibloc GmbH (SIG), Italpack, or Elopak2, who all offer similar packaging systems. The printing and laminating needs high accuracy. To adjust the desired colors printing can be done with rotogravure or offset printing. This demands big editions of packaging and big volumes of wine.

22.4.12 Bag in Box The Bota de Vino used to be the traditional transport container especially for red wine in Hispanic countries. Animal skin is sewn together and used to transport wine in a flexible hose. The interior is coated with pine pitch for water-proofing (Sierra and Sierra, 2017). The wine can be drunk directly out of the bota by putting pressure on the bota. A Bag in Box (BIB) contains a plastic bag instead of the animal skin, into which the wine is filled. The bags can be sterilized by gamma rays (Blu¨ml and Fischer, 2004) or ethylene oxide. To stabilize the bag and to ensure safe transport, the filled bag is put in a carton, which may be used as a transport and selling unit. Additionally, a tap may be placed at the bottom of the box, so that the consumer only needs to open the sealed tap. 1

HEPA-Filter 5 high efficiecy particulate air filter.

2

SIG and Elopak have systems, where the folded container is unfolded, welded, and filled similar to bottles.

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The big advantage is the filling of an empty bag, which is inflated by the wine. This has less oxygen uptake. Also the emptying needs no air to replace the tapped volume, the bags shrinks with the remaining wine (Shea and Vimont, 2017). Contamination or oxidation while tapping the wine, is unlikely. Aerobic bacteria and yeasts like acetic acid bacteria, flor yeasts, or Brettanomyces can be avoided for a long time. Unlike the PET bottles, the bags may be coated with an aluminum layer, similar to the Tetra Paks. This prevents water, ethanol, and aroma losses from the wine by evaporation and migration and hinders the uptake of oxygen. The boxes can be packed directly on pallets and transported with a good volume to contents ratio. The wasted bags and boxes should be recycled. The cardboard and the plastic material can be recycled separately. Filling machines for BIB are not very expensive for small wineries, and can be automized for bigger demands. The packaging material must be of a high quality, to avoid leakage and spoilage of the boxes. The size of BIB system may go up to 25,000 L. Flexitainer bags use a transport container as the box. The Flexitainer system can be used to ship large amounts of wine with the advantages similar to the BIB system (Scho¨llhammer, 2010).

22.5 CLOSURES 22.5.1 Cork Since bottles have been available in larger amounts, the traditional closure for red wine has been natural cork. As a result cork has had to be supplied in higher amounts since bottles are popular. Cork comes from the bark of oak trees and is therefore dependent on longer-term calculations to fulfill the consumer’s demands—cork oaks need 12
15 years of growth before harvest can start. Cork is dried and cut to fit into the bottlenecks. As a natural product it might have wrinkles and holes that might lead to leakage. It is also probable that it will not be sterile. In the last century, chlorine was used to disinfect corks and corking machines. This could lead to cork taint, as chlorine reacts spontaneously with anisol which might be present in the wine. To avoid cork taint (2,4,6-trichloranisol, TCA), it is good to avoid anisol in the cellars. Anisol is produced by mold and fungi that thrive on the volatile aromas and humidity which evaporates from wooden wine barrels. Hygiene helps. On the other hand, it is essential to avoid chlorine, and the other halogens, which all produce unpleasant aromas with anisol. Corks can be preselected from barks without mold and treated with microwaves or extracted with hypercritical carbon dioxide to reduce the possibility of TCA formation. Natural cork is not gas tight, so there will be evaporation of water, alcohol, and volatile aroma components and the uptake of oxygen. This may be good for the development of, in particular, unfiltered wine in the bottle, especially for red wines produced in a traditional way. Micro-oxygenation continues and might develop the bitterness to a smoother sensation. Technically, the cork is compressed in a compression box with clamping jaws, so it will fit into the bottleneck. The compressed cork is moved over the bottleneck. The headspace in the bottleneck may be evaporated by vacuum. This reduces the oxygen contents in the bottle and the pressure needed to push the cork with a plunger into the bottle. It is also possible, to add nitrogen on top of the wine in gas form, or with a drop of liquid nitrogen, which evaporates on the surface of the wine and supersedes the oxygen in the bottleneck, before the cork is pushed into the bottle by a plunger. Extruded agglomerated corks are a cheaper cork option. The reason is that they are not very strong, so more likely to break when uncorking a bottle and giving a less reliable seal to the bottle. Molded corks (which are always micro-agglomerated) are a higher quality option and are becoming increasingly common, because they are much stronger and their reliability/consistency is much better than extruded corks (Kevin Crouvisier-Urion, 2018). Multipiece natural stoppers are manufactured from two or more halves of natural cork glued together with an adhesive approved for use with food. These are stoppers made from thinner cork that would be insufficient to make natural stoppers from a single piece. These stoppers are of higher density (Jung, Rainer, and Zu¨rn, 2012). Technical stoppers were designed for bottling of wines to be consumed, in general, within 2 or 3 years. These consist of a very dense agglomerated cork body with discs of natural cork glued to its top or both ends. Corks have to glide into the bottleneck and therefore have wax on the surface. This is also important for the removal of the cork. There are differences in the frictions and variable forces are needed to close and to open the bottles. Also, the gas migration varies and has to be specified by the cork supplier. The aim is to adjust the

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permeability to the amount of oxygen, so that it improves the wine by micro-oxygenation and does not harm it by oxidation. To find out the right time to enjoy the wine is not always successful.

22.5.2 Screw Caps Screw caps are usually made of aluminum. The conveyed bottle passes a hold ready aluminum deep drawn cylinder cap with a compound mass, as a sealing in the cover. It is set on to the thread top of the bottleneck. For oxygen management the cap should be rinsed with nitrogen, before encasing the possible air in the cap into the bottle. The aluminum cap is pressed by rotating steel wheels onto the thread. The compound mass in the cap is the gasket. It is pressed on the sealing face with defined torque. The compound has little contact with the surrounding, so that gas diffusion is very slow, compared to plastic screw caps or cork. This saves the wine from impact from the surroundings, but also hinders substances from evaporating out of the bottle. All sulfuric compounds stay in the bottle and might create or keep reductive notes. The compound mass has a valve function and releases pressure if fermentation of residual sugars takes place or the bottle is stored under warmer conditions, so that pressure might increase. As red wine has no carbon dioxide this is normally not a problem, but knocks or pressure due to the weight of pallets stacked on top of bottles might activate the valve function of the compound in the caps. The bottle is then open for air and microorganisms and does not close again. The thickness of the metal sheet that the caps are made of must be checked from time to time.

22.5.3 Vinolok Vinolok is a glass or plastic closure, which fits in the bottleneck and is sealed by a silicone gasket. It is just put on the bottle and has to be fixed with a capsule, by pressing or shrinking the capsule onto the bottleneck. As the vinolok can be used to close the wine bottle again, the capsule is also the seal of the bottle. The gas exchange is limited by the surface of the gasket, so this is comparable to the screw caps.

22.6 PREPARING THE WINE FOR MARKET 22.6.1 Checking the Filling Level To ensure the filling level, camera systems check the filling height in the bottle by visual control. If bottle volumes are too different they sort out underfilled bottles by cameras. Alternatively scales can be integrated in the conveyers. Gamma rays can be used to check the filling level, even if the containers are not transparent, for example in cans or kegs.

22.6.2 Treatment of the Closed Bottles After corking and labeling some wineries put the bottles into lattice box pallets in a horizontal position. This is done if the wine should develop in the bottle for a certain time. It is also done, to detect leakages of the closures, before the wines are labeled or on the way to the customer. A further advantage for smaller wineries is that, if the wine is not sold immediately, wine mistakes or infections, which might become apparent over the period of shelf life, can still be detected in the winery before selling it and losing customers. The bottles in some cases collect dust, and can be cleaned before labeling with water and rotating brushes to improve the appearance. In bigger wineries, labeling is done immediately after filling and closing of the bottle. The bottle is conveyed to a labeling machine. It is necessary to ensure proper labeling, not only for marketing reasons. Particularly if alcohol-free or alcoholreduced red wines are being produced, no other red wine should be filled into the bottles by accident. It is possible to check the labels with camera systems, so that the contents of the wine running to the filler has to match the label, glued on the bottles, to avoid unwanted problems with consumers. Also for tax reasons in some bottling plants, labeling is a CCP.

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22.6.3 Labeling The purpose of labeling is: • • • • • •

to to to to to to

fulfill consumer’s expectations, label, status, information of the origin, differentiation to other products; comply with legal requirements, like the declaration of ingredients, warnings, contents, alcohol percentage; advertise the brand or the vineyard; make the wine retraceable, brand, vintage, vineyard, variety of grapes; seal the closure to guarantee original filling before opening, i.e., avoid manipulation; and advertise the wine at the point of sale.

22.6.4 Paper Labels Paper labels are the usual way of labeling red wines. Labels used to be glued on to the bottle by hand. Nowadays, there are fast running machines that put the labels on the bottles with a speed up to 72,000 labels per hour (Krones, 2017). The paper for high value impression and fast machines needs to have a printable surface, with a certain wet— and rupture strength. It has to be able to absorb glue, water and to be cut burr free without punching edges. The fiber direction has to be crosswise to the axis of the bottle, so that the label “grabs” the bottle. It has to be resistant to abrasion. Paper labels should be stored at 20
25 C with 60%
70% hygroscopic moisture. The glue usually has a low viscosity at higher temperatures. The contact of the glue to the bottle surface chills the glue and has to increase the viscosity at once, so that the label adheres to the bottle. Depending on the temperature, dextrine glues are used at higher temperatures. At lower temperatures, casein glue with specific casein contents is used. The glues should have a short curing time, the amount of glue should not be too high, and they should not become fluid again, just by water condensate on the bottle. To put the glue on the label, the casein glue is heated up to 28
32 C in a circulation pump that supplies a glue carrier on a labeling machine. The surface of the cylinder is moistened by the glue, a scraper ensures the thickness of the glue on the cylinder. The rest of the glue flows back into the glue bucket and is heated up and pumped to the cylinder again. Labeling machines are longitudinal or rotating (for higher speeds). A glue carrier, coated with rubber material is rolled onto the glue cylinder’s surface and is dampened with a thin film of glue. It moves to the label magazine, where it sticks a label with adhesive forces to the glue. Now the glue is on the back of the label, usually in stripes, so that the gaps between the stripes of glue provide space for the glue to spread into the gaps once the label is fixed to the bottle. The label, glued to the carrier is removed by a gripper, which takes over the label from the carrier. The glue is now on the outer side, while the printed side is facing a soft sponge. The gripper cylinder rolls the label onto the bottle’s surface. The sponge presses the label onto the surface of the bottle, the viscosity of the glue increases, because the temperature of the bottle’s surface is lower than that of the glue, heated by the glue pump. The gripper releases the label, which is now fixed to the bottle. To fix the edges of the label to the bottle, the bottle is fixed with a centering cone and turned left and right by a carrier. Brushes mechanically spread the glue between the label and bottle surface. The glue increases viscosity and fixes the label. Now the humidity of the glue has time to evaporate through the paper and along the edges of the label.

22.6.5 Self-Adhesive Labels Self-adhesive labels were already being used 100 years ago. They were paper labels with a rubber glue on the back, which was activated by the condensate of cold bottles coming from the cellars. The labels were fixed by hand. Nowadays, self-adhesive labels are applied by machines. Self-adhesive labels are placed on a carrier paper, which is passed over a sharp edge. As the carrier paper is drawn away from the stiffer label, the label with the glue on it is released from the carrier and juts out over the bottle conveyer. A bottle is rolled along the label, so that the label is fixed to the surface of the bottle as it leaves the machine. Just by rolling the bottle along brushes, the label is passed from the carrier feeding paper onto the bottle’s surface and fixed. With self-adhesive labels speeds of up to 60,000 labels/hours are possible (KHS, 2017). Self-adhesive labels can be produced with embossing or with transparent parts (no label look) if the label is made of plastic material.

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22.6.6 Hot Glue Labeling Hot glue labeling is more expensive, but very good for sealing the product, as the glue fixes the label to a higher extent. Nozzles spray 180 C hot resin glue onto the place where the label is immediately pressed. Especially for tax labels and seals which block the closure, this method ensures that the seal has to be broken before getting to the contents of the wine bottle (Gernep, 2017).

22.6.7 Sleeves Sleeves are printed transparent polyethylene hoses from a coil. The hose is opened by grippers, sliced and drawn over the bottle. Here it may be fixed by water with adhesive forces. Finally it can be shrunk by hot air to the shape of the bottle. The whole bottle can be covered.

22.6.8 Alternative Labeling Systems In the case of PET bottles, it might be advantageous to avoid glue aromas diffusing into the product. So shrinking sleeves on the bottle or wrapping the label 380 around the bottle and just glueing the overlapping parts together are possible solutions. Direct printing without paper or plastic onto the surface of glass or PET bottles reduces paper and plastic waste and is possible at up to 36,000 btl/hours (NMP Systems, 2017).

22.7 PACKAGING The filled and labeled containers can be the selling unit, but for transport they are packed as a bigger selling unit or into a transport unit that can be handled by forklift trucks or automatic loading systems. They must be transportable and, ever more frequently, storable in high rack warehouses with automatic pallet transport. Transport package is: • • • • •

protection from light, dust, microorganisms, temperature, contamination; transport protection, logistic transport unit; sealing and protection against manipulation; presentation of the brand, advertisement; and selling unit. Transport package has to assure:

• declaration of the content (machine readable) of batch and in some countries of best before and traceability, usually printed on the label by ink jet printers, or burned on the label or bottle by laser systems as a bar- or QR code; • recycling ability.

22.7.1 Boxing and Wrapping Machines for Bottles The wooden boxes, that were used for red wine bottles a 100 years ago, have been replaced by cartons. Cardboard has different qualities, and needs to be stable, even if a bottle leaks and the pallet gets wet. The bottles are put into the cartons by hand, or by packers, that grab the bottles at the neck. A cone like grabber is positioned over the bottleneck, lowered and an inflatable rubber membrane inside the cone fixes the bottle by pressurized air. The bottle is lifted, placed into a carton, and the pressure of the membrane is released, leaving the bottle in the carton. Dividers can be placed between the bottles. They are made of cardboard that keeps the bottles from knocking against each other and scratching throughout the transport. The carton lid is dotted with hot glue, the carton lid is bowed by rods over the conveyers, pressing the cardboard cover in such a way that the glue fixes the lid on the carton. The box is sealed by the glue. For continuous production the carton is wrapped around a pack of portioned wine bottles on the conveyers, kinked, and fixed by glue.

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Boxes are stacked like brickwork on pallets. Overlapping of the cartons helps to ensure a cohesion of the packed unit. In some wineries the top layer is fixed to the second layer by spots of hot melted glue. The boxes should match the size of the pallets, otherwise gaps between the pallets may cause displacement of the boxes while being transported. To give the cartons protection and stability, and to seal the unit, the whole pallet can be shrink-wrapped in a plastic sleeve or wrapped with a stretch foil. In both cases the pallet has to be included in the shrinking or wrapping process, to fix the cartons on the pallet for the transport, especially, when the lorry/truck or forklift truck has to brake or turn a corner sharply. The unit can be labeled with bar codes for high rack storage warehouses (Fig. 22.6).

22.8 ECONOMY Bottling plants are expensive and can only be run economically if the amount of bottles to be filled is large and constant. For small wineries it might be more efficient to share a bottling plant with others as a cooperative, or to order service providers. This could be a small rinsing and bottling unit on a truck that comes to the winery, or transportation of the wine to a bottling center. Transport in tanks is certainly risky with regard to microbiological and oxygen uptake, but the risk can be limited by cleaning and disinfection of the tanks and by using nitrogen as a shielding gas, or topping up the tanks. Flexitainers, big plastic bags in containers, may also be a solution, if the material of the bags is safe against styrene tones. Running a bottling plant means high capital costs, so it needs to be used to the maximum extent. Technical equipment runs best with well-trained employees. Essentially, a winemaker or a skilled person should always supervise the filling process and pay due attention to what is best for the red wine. Bottling plants tend to be loud, because of empty bottles clashing together. Electronically controlled conveyers can transport bottles with a gap between them so that noise is avoided. A hygienic environment hinders the build-up of biofilms, and, if hygiene levels are maintained, the risk of contamination of the bottles, corks, and wines is minimized. Smooth/frictionless surfaces are needed for hygienic reasons but they reflect noise. So a good planning of the plants and their buildings should be carried out by specialists with experience in this genre. Baffle ceilings, noise encasing of the machines and conveyers may be necessary. The employees should—in some cases must—wear ear protection. Logistics have to be considered. Empty bottles need nearly as much space as filled bottles (less for PET bottles or Tetra Paks). Thus, nearly the same amount of pallets has to be transported with empty bottles as with filled ones. Even if the machines run continuously, the logistics need a buffer. Empty bottle supply might be buffered outdoors, if well packed and shrinked, and the climate is mild. The filled and packed wines have to be stocked, commissioned, and distributed.

FIGURE 22.6

Filling equipment of a 12 ha winery. From the left: rinser, filler, and corker.

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FIGURE 22.7 Parameters in red wine filling.

22.9 ECOLOGY The type of packaging depends on the distribution and the size of and distance to target group. Packaging can have different impacts on the environment. Return bottles are interesting if only one type of bottle is used in an area about 100 km maximum distance from the bottler to the customer. One-way systems with glass recycling offer in most cases ecological advantages over return bottles. Return transport at full bottle volume, sorting and washing of the bottles is not always ecological (IFEU, 2017). Labels can be recycled, if removed from the bottles. In a glass return systems, they burn in the glass melt and add some energy into the fluid glass. Glass recycling is real recycling, where glass bottles become glass bottles again. The recycled bottles help to save energy at glass production. PET bottles, Bag in Box, or cardboard packages can be recycled only to a certain extent. Gradually, the polymer chains of the cellulose or the plastic materials decrease, so that the recycled papers or plastics have different, less valuable characteristics. Wine quality is certainly much better today, than 200 years ago. The success of the bottles carries on, not only in glass, but also in plastic. Red wine mostly comes in a glass bottle, but new materials are tested. Quality can be planned and maintained for a long time, so that consumer’s expectations can be fulfilled for years, and bad surprises are very rare nowadays. Prices have also gone down. Effective bottling and distribution increased competition during the last 100 years, so that nearly everybody can afford and enjoy a nice good tasting red wine from all over the world. Bottling and packaging are important tools in becoming better than the competitors in quality and economy. In many cases, it is the last interface to the consumers that decides on the success of a winery and, finally the consumer decides, which red wine package and which contents best meet his or her expectations (Fig. 22.7).

References Back, W., 2008. Mikrobiologie der Lebensmittel Bd.5: Getra¨nke. Behr’s Verlag, Hamburg. Blu¨ml, Susanne, Fischer, Sven, 2004. Manual of Filling Technology. Behr’s Verlag, Hamburg. Crouvisier-Urion, K., Bellat, J.-P., Gougeon, R.D., Karbowiak, T., 2018. Mechanical properties of agglomerated cork stoppers for sparkling wines: influence of adhesive and cork particle size. Compos. Struct. 203, 789
796. Dahmen, M., 2017. Innovation und Investition im Einklang. Brauindustrie 09, 16
18.

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Gernep, 2017. Hot Glue Labelling from the Magazine. hhttp://www.gernep.de/en/labelling-systems/hot-glue-labelling.htmli (accessed 201712-10). Henning, J., 2004. In: von Blu€m, S., Fischer, S. (Eds.), Manual of Filling Technology. Behr’s Verlag, Hamburg, pp. 275
285. Heuft, 2016. “Heuft Examiner II.” HEUFT SYSTEMTECHNIK GMBH. hhttps://heuft.com/en/product/beverage/full-containers/foreignobject-inspection-heuft-examiner-ii-xac-bevi (accessed 2017-11-20). Horneber, Annette, 2015. “Fast and environmentally friendly bottling”. Beer Brew. Int. 4, 26
28. Jung, R., Zu¨rn, F., 2012. Geisenheimer Testmethoden: Teil I Pru¨f-Vorschriften fu¨r die Qualita¨ts-Kontrolle von Weinkorken; Teil II Vorschriften fu¨r die Handhabung und Verarbeitung von Korken durch die Weinwirtschaft; Teil III Geisenheimer Pru¨fsiegel. KHS, 2017. “KHS”. KHS Innoket Neo SK Labeling Machine. KHS. hhttps://www.khs.com/en/products/detail/khs-innoket-neo-sk-labelingmachine/i (accessed 2017-12-10). Krones, 2017. Krones Modular Labellers. hhttps://www.krones.com/en/products/machines/modular-labellers.phpi (accessed 2017-12-10). Lanxess Safety Data Sheet Velcorin 00673404 Version 4.01, 2015. Avialable from: , http://www.scottlab.com/uploads/documents/downloads/87/VELCORIN%20SDS%20SHEET%202014.pdf . (approved 26.07.17.). Mu¨ller, L., Schmoll, W., 2010. New filling techniques innofill DRF merkmale. In: Intervitis IVIF-Kongress. Stuttgart. NMP Systems, 2017. hhttps://nmpsystems.khs.com/direct-print/i (accessed 2017-12-10). Nu¨nning, J.u¨rgen, 2017. Die durchsichtige Flasche wird gru¨n. Getra¨nkeindustrie 11, 14
17. S. Rhein, Stephan, 2012. Der Wein ist gesegnet. Gesellschaft fu¨r Geschichte des Weines e.V, Wiesbaden. Scho¨llhammer, L., 2010. Bag in box. In: Scholle Europe GmbH (Ed.), Intervitis. Stuttgart. Shea, P., Vimont, F., 2017. Technical specifications of wine BIB packaging. MOZ. Available from: , http://www.b-i-b.com/bib/web/downloads/PerfBIBspecTechJul07Eng.pdf . (accessed 10.12.17.). Sierra, Lisa, Sierra, Tony, 2017. Spanish Botas
Wineskins. The Spruce -02-18 https://www.thespruce.com/spanish-botas-wineskins-3083094 (accessed 2017-12-10). Silva, M.A., Julien, M., Jourdes, M., Teissedre, P.L., 2011. Impact of closures on wine post-bottling development: a review. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 19 (10), 905
914. Tetrapak, 2017. Wine, A Global Love Story. hhttps://www.tetrapak.com/us/findbyfood/wine-and-spirits/winei (accessed 2017-10-12).

Further Reading Apcor, 2015. Apcor. hhttps://www.apcor.pt/en/products/cork-stoppers/multi-piece-natural-cork-stoppers/i (accessed 2017-12-01). Chloe & Wine, 2014-07-14. hhttp://www.chloeandwines.com/2014/07/defects-in-wine-really-en.htmli (accessed 2018-01-07). CorkLink, 2015. CorkLink. CorkLing, 3885-482 Esmoriz, Portugal. hhttp://www.corklink.com/index.php/agglomeratdor-natural-corks/i (accessed 2017-12-01). IFEU, 2010. Zusammenfassung der Handreichung zur Diskussion um Einweg- und Mehrweggetränkeverpackungen. ifeu - Institut fü r Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg GmbH. 2017-08-24 hhttp://www.umweltbundesamt.de/umwelttipps-fuer-den-alltag/essentrinken/mehrwegflaschen#textpart-1i (accessed 2017-11-19). Lanxess, 2017. Lanxess. Velcorin. hhttp://velcorin.com/hazards-identificatio-velcorin/i (accessed 2017-12-15).

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