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Redesigning human systems
References 1. C. Pizzano, Great Message—But Mavericks are Targets in a Sick Culture, Reviewer from Alpharetta, GA, United States, Amazon site, , accessed April 6, (2004). 2. G. Von Krogh, Care in knowledge creation, California Management Review 40(3), 133–154 (1998).
Sven C. Voelpel Harvard Business School, Harvard University, Soldiers Field, Boston, MA 02163, USA Malte Dous Institute of Information Management, University of St. Gallen, Mueller-Friedberg-Str. 8, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2004.07.001
Redesigning human systems Enid Mumford, Information Science Publishing, 2003, 292 pp., US$ 71.96 (hard), US$ 53.96 (soft)
There has been a problem for some while concerning the growth of technology and how people cope with and relate to this. The mistake was to see information transfer as a subsystem of technology transfer, when it is the information and how it is understood that is important. Technology must be seen as a tool to achieve this. Another problem is that decision-making is lagging behind growing complexity, so that it is a matter of urgency that we understand more about how human systems work and how they can be designed to cope with growing complexity. The subject of this book is therefore of importance as it provides ways for improvements to be made so that organisations can cope with growing complexity and handle advances in technology. We need to study theories and values from historic, contemporary and possible future perspectives. Part 1 of the book deals with the socio-technical design and Chapter 1 looks at the past, present and future, arguing that the quality of life issues are more important today than ever before. This should consist of solving complex problems and how to manage this in relationship to new technology. The next chapter studies the history of socio-technical design. This is important, as much of this research provides the basis for developments in holistic management that were ignored by many in mainstream management at the time. Possibly the most important work was done by Emery and Trist at the Tavistock Institute. Although much of this work was ignored in the United Kingdom, it had an influence in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands where there is a more collective culture. It is of interest that this approach has also had an influence in India which is now becoming a centre for software development. This chapter ends with exploring how this approach can have an influence today, and how new models and ideas can be developed. It concludes that the models are here, and also explores how can we adopt them for the 21st century. The next chapter studies participation in practice that has a long history. Recent developments are the rise of the role of facilitator, attempting to find common ground to make new ideas and values acceptable. One approach is the use of some aspects of Arab culture, i.e. ‘my enemies’ enemy is my friend’ leading to the ability to find neutral ground between opposing forces. If organisations do not learn to manage change in both the private and public sector, then sustainable development is not possible. Part 2 deals with designing for manual workers and Chapter 4 deals with analysing problems with causal dock workers in Liverpool where there was conflict within the work force, miniLong Range Planning, vol 37
2004
479
mum co-operation between worker and employer and also a cultural gap between the dock workers and their union. From this, a socio-technical model can be developed. It is interesting to note that despite some progress, as in many other areas, the power of the dock workers has declined due to roll-on roll-off transport. The next chapter deals with coal mining where there are similarities such as dangers in the workplace and the existence of wildcat strikes, often to relieve boredom. Much of the Tavistock Institute work would have solved some of the problems, but both workers and managers rejected it. This resulted in a decline in the coal industry, where deep-mined coal could not compete with cheap imports. Today, coal is seen as a pollutant fuel, although this can be greatly reduced by using the fluidised bed method where coal is ground into small particles that act like a liquid in a stream of air. (The author is to be congratulated in spending time in the coalmine with workers in hazardous conditions.) What is of interest is that, despite the hostility to management and poor working conditions, the workers had pride in their work. Chapter 6 deals with problems in the automobile industry. The experience of people working in this industry was that management was both weak and elitist so that disruptive power was passed to the unions. Quality control and management was lacking so that many automobiles reached the market place in poor condition. What is of interest is that the policy to automate resulted in much car manufacturing going to Japan as they pioneered the use of robots for automatic assembly, while the quality market went to Sweden. A study was done on how we could learn from these failures. It is clear that workers must be given more freedom and not just tied to the assembly line, described by Peter Drucker as ‘automating people’. This can be done by seeing that knowledge, economic, environmental, psychological and ethical needs are met. These are studied and their relationship is explored. Part 3 deals with designing for office workers, including banking, and the involvement of employees in design at Rolls Royce. In banking, the author describes the failure to use computers effectively due to the failure of knowledge transfer between supplier and user. Again the importance of values and ethics that stand for effective, technical, and human implementation of computer-based systems are emphasised. The Rolls Royce study was undertaken in the aeroengine division and participative design. It is clear that we are moving into a knowledge-based economy. In Chapter 9, there is an important study on designing an expert system. It is now agreed that the work on artificial intelligence and fifth generation computing was not a success, but that expert systems are helping to improve decision-making. The work done was at Digital Equipment with a tool called XCON to assist in the accurate configuring of VAX computers. This failed due to non-involvement and lack of understanding of new technology on the part of the sales force. Lessons can be learned from failure: the following factors can assist in this process—a multidisciplinary approach is essential, there must be a careful choice of the project leader, a well trained project team and the initial design must be tested in a user environment and modified to meet existing and future business needs. Part 4 deals with designing for companies and the next chapter looks at new management approaches in the 1990s which were dominated by re-engineering. At the time, it was predicted these would fail as you cannot engineer people. The question to ask is why it took so long to realise that they would fail—the answer is that some managers were looking for simple solutions that do not exist, as life is getting more complex. The person who started this process had to admit that it failed and there must be a move towards process centred organisations in order to promote change, but the socio-technical approach provides the basis for this.1 The conclusions of this chapter are that this was a disappointing period for new ideas in management. But Schumacher’s book ‘Small is Beautiful’, with the concept of Buddhist 480
Book Reviews and Review Briefs
economics was recognised as important, and the recent rise of e-business and virtual companies shows how small is still powerful. The next chapter studies the work of senior managers in case studies at Air Products, Shell and the West Yorkshire Police. The latter is important as few studies have been done on management in this sector. The approach is for more flexible networking styles, a strategy based on knowledge and a vision of the future and a policy that can change cultures. Also that all groups should be involved in the creation of vision, leading to a flexible strategy on major changes based on goals and feedback. Such socio-technical approaches can be used for improving methods, even in policing. Shell has used the socio-technical model widely and details are given of this approach with a number of case studies, mostly involving quality and the environment. A statement of their general business principles is also included. Part 5 deals with designing for the future and Chapter 13 deals with designing for problem prevention. We are now living in a risk society due to rapid change and the ability of criminals to exploit such risks through hacking and computer fraud. All systems must be deigned for maximum security, and developing participative strategies with all employees is a way forward. The final chapter on designing for an uncertain future shows that the key is participative design. Questions are asked as to what organisations will be like in the future and how work patterns will change, and whether forecasts of decline in employment are accurate. This had happened in the manufacturing sector due to automation and growth has been in the service sector. It is likely that employment levels will decline further in the manufacturing sector, and there now appears to be a decline in the service sector, due to the rise of office automation. There is also the problem of the relationship between the developed and developing world where the gap between rich and poor increases. There is a Fair Trade Movement and the World Trade Organisation needs to be reformed as it favours the developing world. World trade is inevitable, but the problem is that companies locate in the developing world where labour is cheaper and there are less environment and health and safety regulations. It is clear that the open systems approach plus exploring the relationship with rapidly changing technology is possibly the only way to sustainable development and holistic management and this book provides the basis for further progress. The author’s conclusion is that ‘Our challenge is to enable the philosophy of socio-technical design to come to fulfilment in the 21st century’. This book should be widely read in to both the private and public sectors. There is also a very comprehensive and useful appendix.
References 1. M. Hammer, Beyond Reengineering, Harper Collins, 1996.
Brain Burrows 73 Fairlawn, Swindon SN3 6EU, UK doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2004.07.002
Nobody in Charge; Essays on the Future of Leadership Harlan Cleveland, Jossey-Bass; San Francisco, 2002, 227 pp., US$ 27.95
Surely few people in business and academia can fail to empathise with the concept of ‘Nobody in Charge’? A commonly held view is that our leaders suffer, at best, from muddled Long Range Planning, vol 37
2004
481
Sven C. Voelpel Harvard Business School, Harvard University, Soldiers Field, Boston, MA 02163, USA Malte Dous Institute of Information Management, University of St. Gallen, Mueller-Friedberg-Str. 8, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2004.07.001
Redesigning human systems Enid Mumford, Information Science Publishing, 2003, 292 pp., US$ 71.96 (hard), US$ 53.96 (soft)
There has been a problem for some while concerning the growth of technology and how people cope with and relate to this. The mistake was to see information transfer as a subsystem of technology transfer, when it is the information and how it is understood that is important. Technology must be seen as a tool to achieve this. Another problem is that decision-making is lagging behind growing complexity, so that it is a matter of urgency that we understand more about how human systems work and how they can be designed to cope with growing complexity. The subject of this book is therefore of importance as it provides ways for improvements to be made so that organisations can cope with growing complexity and handle advances in technology. We need to study theories and values from historic, contemporary and possible future perspectives. Part 1 of the book deals with the socio-technical design and Chapter 1 looks at the past, present and future, arguing that the quality of life issues are more important today than ever before. This should consist of solving complex problems and how to manage this in relationship to new technology. The next chapter studies the history of socio-technical design. This is important, as much of this research provides the basis for developments in holistic management that were ignored by many in mainstream management at the time. Possibly the most important work was done by Emery and Trist at the Tavistock Institute. Although much of this work was ignored in the United Kingdom, it had an influence in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands where there is a more collective culture. It is of interest that this approach has also had an influence in India which is now becoming a centre for software development. This chapter ends with exploring how this approach can have an influence today, and how new models and ideas can be developed. It concludes that the models are here, and also explores how can we adopt them for the 21st century. The next chapter studies participation in practice that has a long history. Recent developments are the rise of the role of facilitator, attempting to find common ground to make new ideas and values acceptable. One approach is the use of some aspects of Arab culture, i.e. ‘my enemies’ enemy is my friend’ leading to the ability to find neutral ground between opposing forces. If organisations do not learn to manage change in both the private and public sector, then sustainable development is not possible. Part 2 deals with designing for manual workers and Chapter 4 deals with analysing problems with causal dock workers in Liverpool where there was conflict within the work force, miniLong Range Planning, vol 37
2004
479
mum co-operation between worker and employer and also a cultural gap between the dock workers and their union. From this, a socio-technical model can be developed. It is interesting to note that despite some progress, as in many other areas, the power of the dock workers has declined due to roll-on roll-off transport. The next chapter deals with coal mining where there are similarities such as dangers in the workplace and the existence of wildcat strikes, often to relieve boredom. Much of the Tavistock Institute work would have solved some of the problems, but both workers and managers rejected it. This resulted in a decline in the coal industry, where deep-mined coal could not compete with cheap imports. Today, coal is seen as a pollutant fuel, although this can be greatly reduced by using the fluidised bed method where coal is ground into small particles that act like a liquid in a stream of air. (The author is to be congratulated in spending time in the coalmine with workers in hazardous conditions.) What is of interest is that, despite the hostility to management and poor working conditions, the workers had pride in their work. Chapter 6 deals with problems in the automobile industry. The experience of people working in this industry was that management was both weak and elitist so that disruptive power was passed to the unions. Quality control and management was lacking so that many automobiles reached the market place in poor condition. What is of interest is that the policy to automate resulted in much car manufacturing going to Japan as they pioneered the use of robots for automatic assembly, while the quality market went to Sweden. A study was done on how we could learn from these failures. It is clear that workers must be given more freedom and not just tied to the assembly line, described by Peter Drucker as ‘automating people’. This can be done by seeing that knowledge, economic, environmental, psychological and ethical needs are met. These are studied and their relationship is explored. Part 3 deals with designing for office workers, including banking, and the involvement of employees in design at Rolls Royce. In banking, the author describes the failure to use computers effectively due to the failure of knowledge transfer between supplier and user. Again the importance of values and ethics that stand for effective, technical, and human implementation of computer-based systems are emphasised. The Rolls Royce study was undertaken in the aeroengine division and participative design. It is clear that we are moving into a knowledge-based economy. In Chapter 9, there is an important study on designing an expert system. It is now agreed that the work on artificial intelligence and fifth generation computing was not a success, but that expert systems are helping to improve decision-making. The work done was at Digital Equipment with a tool called XCON to assist in the accurate configuring of VAX computers. This failed due to non-involvement and lack of understanding of new technology on the part of the sales force. Lessons can be learned from failure: the following factors can assist in this process—a multidisciplinary approach is essential, there must be a careful choice of the project leader, a well trained project team and the initial design must be tested in a user environment and modified to meet existing and future business needs. Part 4 deals with designing for companies and the next chapter looks at new management approaches in the 1990s which were dominated by re-engineering. At the time, it was predicted these would fail as you cannot engineer people. The question to ask is why it took so long to realise that they would fail—the answer is that some managers were looking for simple solutions that do not exist, as life is getting more complex. The person who started this process had to admit that it failed and there must be a move towards process centred organisations in order to promote change, but the socio-technical approach provides the basis for this.1 The conclusions of this chapter are that this was a disappointing period for new ideas in management. But Schumacher’s book ‘Small is Beautiful’, with the concept of Buddhist 480
Book Reviews and Review Briefs
economics was recognised as important, and the recent rise of e-business and virtual companies shows how small is still powerful. The next chapter studies the work of senior managers in case studies at Air Products, Shell and the West Yorkshire Police. The latter is important as few studies have been done on management in this sector. The approach is for more flexible networking styles, a strategy based on knowledge and a vision of the future and a policy that can change cultures. Also that all groups should be involved in the creation of vision, leading to a flexible strategy on major changes based on goals and feedback. Such socio-technical approaches can be used for improving methods, even in policing. Shell has used the socio-technical model widely and details are given of this approach with a number of case studies, mostly involving quality and the environment. A statement of their general business principles is also included. Part 5 deals with designing for the future and Chapter 13 deals with designing for problem prevention. We are now living in a risk society due to rapid change and the ability of criminals to exploit such risks through hacking and computer fraud. All systems must be deigned for maximum security, and developing participative strategies with all employees is a way forward. The final chapter on designing for an uncertain future shows that the key is participative design. Questions are asked as to what organisations will be like in the future and how work patterns will change, and whether forecasts of decline in employment are accurate. This had happened in the manufacturing sector due to automation and growth has been in the service sector. It is likely that employment levels will decline further in the manufacturing sector, and there now appears to be a decline in the service sector, due to the rise of office automation. There is also the problem of the relationship between the developed and developing world where the gap between rich and poor increases. There is a Fair Trade Movement and the World Trade Organisation needs to be reformed as it favours the developing world. World trade is inevitable, but the problem is that companies locate in the developing world where labour is cheaper and there are less environment and health and safety regulations. It is clear that the open systems approach plus exploring the relationship with rapidly changing technology is possibly the only way to sustainable development and holistic management and this book provides the basis for further progress. The author’s conclusion is that ‘Our challenge is to enable the philosophy of socio-technical design to come to fulfilment in the 21st century’. This book should be widely read in to both the private and public sectors. There is also a very comprehensive and useful appendix.
References 1. M. Hammer, Beyond Reengineering, Harper Collins, 1996.
Brain Burrows 73 Fairlawn, Swindon SN3 6EU, UK doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2004.07.002
Nobody in Charge; Essays on the Future of Leadership Harlan Cleveland, Jossey-Bass; San Francisco, 2002, 227 pp., US$ 27.95
Surely few people in business and academia can fail to empathise with the concept of ‘Nobody in Charge’? A commonly held view is that our leaders suffer, at best, from muddled Long Range Planning, vol 37
2004
481