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Relation of job search and choice process with subsequent satisfaction
Journal of Economic Psychology 26 (2005) 255–268 www.elsevier.com/locate/joep
Relation of job search and choice process with subsequent satisfaction Craig D. Crossley *, Scott Highhouse Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA Received 24 April 2003; received in revised form 1 March 2004; accepted 13 April 2004 Available online 28 July 2004
Abstract This study examined whether how one goes about searching for and choosing a job relates to later job satisfaction. Contrary to Wilson and Schooler’s [J. Personality Soc. Psychol. 60 (1991) 181] disruption hypothesis, the results suggested that people who engaged in a careful and deliberate search and choice process were more satisfied than people who used a more haphazard or intuitive approach. In addition, people who were dispositionally higher in the tendency to consider future outcomes were more likely to use a careful and deliberate approach to finding a job. Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. JEL classification: M12; D23 PsycINFO classification: 3620 Keywords: Information search; Rational choice; Intuitive choice; Job search; Job choice
1. Relation of job search and choice process with subsequent satisfaction The renewed focus on hedonic experience in economic psychology (Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz, 1999; Lopes, 1994) suggests that good decision making is that which leads to a greater state of well-being. Pursuing one’s self-interest, however, requires appropriate predictions of the likely hedonic consequences of different
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +1-419-372-6013. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.D. Crossley).
0167-4870/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2004.04.001
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courses of action. The question of how people arrive at satisfying decisions has not been given much attention in psychology or economics. The purpose of the present study was to apply methods from both the job choice and behavioral decision theory literature to begin to understand how the decision-making process (i.e., information search and choice method) relates to satisfying outcomes in the job search context. The process wherein people search out, compare, and ultimately choose between job opportunities is important to both job seekers and employers. Unsuccessful search resulting in an inadequate match of abilities and interests has been associated with employee burnout and withdrawal (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001), as well as absenteeism, turnover, and decreased productivity (see Kristof, 1996). Because of the importance of successful job searches, a substantial number of studies have examined individual differences, motivational factors, and specific search behaviors that relate to job search success (see Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001). Nevertheless, there is a lack of understanding about how people search out and decide upon jobs, and how this process relates to satisfaction with job choice. In a recent meta-analysis of job search and job choice literature, Kanfer et al. (2001) urged that more research examine the determinants of particular search strategies, as well as how the use of such strategies relates to satisfaction with employment, in addition to common indicators of job search success (e.g., number of offers, length of search) that lack information concerning quality of employment. 1.1. The connection between processes and attitudes There are two competing lines of research that offer different suggestions as to how information search and choice method should affect satisfaction with choice. Some researchers have found that deliberate and careful approaches to decision making may be counterproductive (e.g., Wilson & Kraft, 1993; Wilson et al., 1993; Wilson & Schooler, 1991). For instance, Wilson et al. (1993) found that decision makers who analyzed their reasons for making a particular choice experienced regret rather than satisfaction. Participants in their study chose between a poster of a classic painting or a poster with humorous content. When contacted three weeks after their choice, those who listed reasons for liking and disliking the posters were less satisfied with the choice they had made than were decision makers who were not asked to provide reasons for their decisions. Wilson and Schooler (1991) suggested that, just as automatic behavior can be disrupted when a person’s attention is directed toward it, so can a decision be disrupted when a person is asked to reflect about the reasons for it. Conventional wisdom suggests, however, that important decisions should be made only after deep thought and careful analysis of alternatives (Janis & Mann, 1977). Indeed, some research has suggested that careful decision-making leads to greater satisfaction and less regret over one’s decision (see Aldag & Power, 1986; Bronner & de Hoog, 1983; Mann, 1972; Mau & Jepsen, 1992; Timmermans & Vlek, 1994). For instance, Kmett, Arkes, and Jones (1999) randomly assigned graduating high school students to one of three conditions. In one condition, students used a
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computer program that forced them to think about the bases for making a college choice. In another condition, students completed a questionnaire that listed 21 criteria often used to rate their top two college choices. Students in the control group did not use any decision aid. Kmett et al. found evidence to suggest that those students who were forced to consider the reasons for their choices had greater satisfaction with their ultimate choice. Although this past research had the benefit of tight experimental control, one limitation has been that people were either compelled to think carefully about their decisions, or were restricted from doing so. It would be useful to know how freely-chosen decision processes relate to satisfaction with choice. The retrospective reports of job incumbents, used in the present study, are limited in that cause/effect processes can not be delineated. They do, however, provide some clues about how the decisionmaking process itself can influence choice quality in a naturally-occurring environment. 1.2. The decision-making process Decision making involves two related but separate processes, namely an information search process and a choice process. Whereas information search deals with how information about the decision is gathered, the choice process involves analyzing, comparing, and subjectively weighing this information to form a final decision. 1.2.1. Information search Research examining how people seek out information has identified different strategies that people use in different decision-making contexts. Stevens and Turban (2001) recently proposed three distinct information search strategies used to gather information about possible jobs. A focused search strategy involves concentrating search efforts on a small number of carefully screened potential employers. People using this approach often identify top choices early in their search and apply for only those jobs that they are qualified for and interested in. An exploratory search strategy involves examining several potential employment options and actively gathering job-related information from various sources (e.g., friends, employment centers, etc.). Job seekers using this approach are likely to undertake their job search with an idea of what they want while remaining open to opportunities that may present themselves. A haphazard job search strategy involves passively gathering information both inside and outside of one’s area of academic study or previous work experience. Job seekers using this strategy are likely to use a trial and error approach, often switching tactics without rationale. 1.2.2. Choice methods A considerable amount of research on decision making has suggested that people tend to rely on either a rational or an intuitive method for making an ultimate choice (see Hammond, 1996; Scott & Bruce, 1995 for a review). According to Hammond, Hamm, Grassia, and Pearson (1987) rational choice typically involves fixed
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calculations from selective cues that are objectively measured. Step-by-step logically defensible thought patterns often characterize this method. On the other hand, intuitive choices are usually unstructured and involve a large number of cues that are subjectively assessed with low conscious awareness of the choice method. Intuition is often denigrated for its failures, shortcomings, and cognitive distortions (Hammond, 1980). Although often depicted as a dichotomy, these choice methods are not necessarily direct opposites. Indeed, Hammond (1980) asserted that nearly all decisions are quasi-rational, requiring elements of both methods, and that people may alternate or smoothly transition between the two depending upon a given choice. A growing body of research has supported the proposition that rational and intuitive choice are separate but related processes (for a review, see Hodgkinson & Sadler-Smith, 2003). 1.3. Process vs. outcome Previous research examining satisfaction with choice has largely been focused on satisfaction with outcomes (see Zhang & Fitzsimons, 1999). In reality, however, one could report being satisfied with an entire decision-making process and yet be disappointed by an outcome. In such a case, one may evaluate decision quality as low, not because the decision was bad, but rather because of chance or bad luck affecting the outcome (Surrette & Harlow, 1992; Zhang & Fitzsimons, 1999). Further, people who are satisfied with the decision-making process they have used are likely to reuse the process in the future. Zhang and Fitzsimons thus suggested that going beyond outcome satisfaction to examine satisfaction with the decision-making process can lead to a greater understanding of overall affective evaluations of decision quality, and of behaviors such as returning to shop at a particular store. 1.4. Objective outcomes of search strategy In addition to satisfaction with the search process and outcomes, the present study also examined the relation between information search strategies and more objective outcomes of search length and number of offers. Length of job search as an indicator of success depends on the specific goals of the individual. As long as one’s goals are met, a shorter search is preferable. However, a search for the best possible job often takes longer than a search for an adequate job. Stevens and Beach (1996) suggested that people who engage in a focused search have clear employment goals and sustain search efforts until they find what they are looking for. Job seekers who engage in an exploratory search may not start out with clear employment goals, but are dedicated to their search and are motivated to fully explore their options. Haphazard searchers with fuzzy employment goals are expected to search for a job without a clear idea of what to look for and without the time or dedication to pursue all job options. Because haphazard searchers have low or unclear standards, they are likely to find an acceptable job faster than focused and exploratory searchers. Further, these individuals are likely to take an early offer, thereby receiving fewer offers.
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1.5. Present research The present study was aimed at examining the relation between how one goes about searching for and choosing a job and later job satisfaction. We examined competing lines of research that offer different suggestions as to how information search and choice method should affect satisfaction with choice. One approach suggests that careful analysis of options leads to disruption in the decision-making process, whereas another suggests that deliberate and careful thought leads to higher quality decisions. To test these competing hypotheses, employees representing a diverse sample of jobs from different geographical regions in the US were asked to retrospectively indicate how they searched for and chose their current jobs. This allowed an examination of search strategies across job types, as well as a cross sectional examination of job satisfaction during early and later phases of employment. In addition, we administered an individual difference measure of forethought.
2. Method 2.1. Participants and procedure Two hundred and four employees at over 30 small companies in the Western and Midwestern United States were asked to complete a questionnaire either on-line (n ¼ 105) or in paper–pencil form (n ¼ 99). These companies were chosen based on proximal location to each other and included both blue and white-collar workers from machine shops, engineering firms, automobile retailers, and medical equipment distribution centers to name a few. Representatives of these companies were contacted in person and asked if employees could complete the surveys either online or in paper–pencil form, whichever the representative thought best. All surveys remained anonymous. Undergraduate students (n ¼ 503) who worked full or part time and attended a midsize commuter school in a large city in the Western United States also participated in this study. To ensure that these three methods of recruitment generated samples that could be combined, a one-way ANOVA was used to assess whether meaningful differences existed between samples. The type of survey (web based at work, paper–pencil at work, and paper–pencil in class) was entered as the grouping variable and focused, exploratory, and haphazard search strategies and rational, and intuitive choice were entered as dependant variables. A Tukey post hoc revealed that whereas the working and the web-based samples differed in the reported use of focused search strategy and rational choice, the web-based and student samples differed in the reported use of haphazard search strategy and rational choice. Because these differences did not appear to occur in any meaningful pattern, participant’s ratings were combined to form a single sample (n ¼ 707). This sample was 54% female, with a mean age of 26. Educational level varied (11% H.S. diploma, 76% some college or technical training, 10% bachelor’s degree, 3% graduate degree). Seventy percent indicated that they held white-collar jobs, whereas 23% rated themselves as having blue-collar jobs; 7% did not indicate job type.
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2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Information search strategies Measures of focused, exploratory, and haphazard information search strategies were created based on Stevens and Turban’s (2001) measures. Because Stevens and Turban’s original scale items did not clearly load on factors representing the three search strategies, and had low reliabilities, several items were modified and additional items were added for the present study. Maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblique rotation found that these items loaded on respective factors as ex-
Table 1 Information search strategy items and rotated factor coefficients Item
Factor I
My job search was more or less haphazard My approach to gathering job-related information could be described as random I used a ‘‘hit or miss’’ approach when gathering information about my job I did not really have a plan when searching for my job I followed up on every lead to make sure I didn’t miss any golden opportunities I tried to get my resume out to as many organizations as possible I followed up on most leads, even long shots I gathered as much information about all the companies that I could I examined all available sources of job information (e.g., employment centers, friends, internet sites, etc.) I gathered information about all possible job opportunities, rather than setting out for something specific I gathered information only for job openings that looked like what I wanted I gathered information only for jobs that I was really interested in My information gathering efforts were focused on specific jobs I gathered information only for jobs that I knew I would qualify for I targeted my job search toward a small number of employers I had a clear idea of what qualities I wanted in a job
II
III
)0.77 )0.75 )0.58 )0.55 0.65 0.60 0.59 0.53 0.52
0.40
0.67 0.55 0.51 0.43 0.37 0.37
Note: Maximum likelihood estimation with oblimin rotation and Kaiser normalization. Responses were made on a 5-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
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pected. All item–total correlations were greater than 0.30. Items and factor coefficients are reported in Table 1, and internal consistency reliabilities are reported in Table 3. 2.2.2. Choice method Participants’ use of rational and intuitive choice methods was assessed by a measure based on Scott and Bruce’s (1995) measure of decision-making styles. Seven items were rewritten and three items were added to reflect decision methods relating to a specific job choice, rather than an overall decision-making style. Maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblique rotation found that items loaded (0.49 or higher) on two distinct factors representing rational and intuitive choice, confirming previous research suggesting that these choice processes are independent, rather than opposite poles of a single dimensional construct (Hammond, 1980; Hodgkinson & Sadler-Smith, 2003). No items cross-loaded greater than 0.30, and all item–total correlations were greater than 0.45. Items and factor coefficients are reported in Table 2; reliabilities are included in Table 3. 2.2.3. Job satisfaction An eight-item abridged measure of the job in general (JIG) scale (Balzer et al., 1997) was used to assess overall satisfaction with one’s job. The abridged JIG was developed based on methods suggested by Stanton et al. (2002) and has demonstrated favorable psychometric properties (Russell, Spitzmueller, Lin, Stanton, & Smith, 2002).
Table 2 Rational and intuitive choice method items and rotated factor coefficients Item
Factor I
When making my decision, I carefully considered the pro’s and con’s of working there My job choice was guided by careful consideration In choosing this job, I carefully considered its advantages and disadvantages I chose my job in a logical and systematic way Before choosing my current job, I double-checked information sources to be sure I had the facts right I relied upon my instincts about this job I trusted my inner feelings and reactions when choosing to accept this job My choice to take this job was guided by intuition In deciding among jobs, I made the decision that felt right to me When I chose this job, it was more important for me to feel the decision was right than to have a rational reason for it
II
0.71 0.71 0.69 0.54 0.54 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.51 0.49
Note: Maximum likelihood estimation with oblimin rotation and Kaiser normalization. Responses were made on a 5-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
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Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1
2
Age Gender Education Focused search Exploratory search Haphazard search Rational choice Intuitive choice Job satisfaction Process satisfaction Search length # Offers Forethought
– )0.03 0.12 0.05 )0.01 )0.22 0.08 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.25 0.09 0.07
– )0.04 0.06 )0.02 0.01 )0.02 0.10 0.09 0.05 )0.05 )0.06 0.06
Mean SD
26 8.7
– –
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.00 0.02 )0.16 0.08 )0.03 0.09 )0.03 0.12 0.12 0.20
(0.64) 0.04 )0.29 0.36 0.20 0.19 0.37 0.08 0.06 0.11
(0.70) )0.26 0.34 0.05 0.06 0.25 0.10 0.18 0.02
(0.77) )0.35 0.02 )0.22 )0.39 )0.15 )0.26 )0.17
(0.77) 0.32 0.25 0.41 0.11 0.21 0.13
(0.79) 0.27 0.24 )0.05 0.04 0.06
(0.82) 0.39 0.08 0.10 0.16
6 1.1
3.6 0.59
3.1 0.66
2.8 0.80
3.5 0.68
3.6 0.65
2.4 0.70
11
12
13
(0.83) 0.06 0.16 0.11
– 0.03 0.11
– 0.12
(0.83)
3.6 0.74
4.5 6.9
1.3 1.2
3.7 0.50
–
Note: Reliabilities are in parentheses. Gender was reported 1 ¼ male, 2 ¼ female. Search, choice, process satisfaction, and forethought scales ranged from 1 to 5, and job satisfaction ranged from 0 to 3. Search length was reported in weeks. N ranged from 656 to 704. All correlations 0.08 and larger were significant at p < 0:05.
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Table 3 Means, standard deviations, intercorrelations and reliability estimates for study variables
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2.2.4. Satisfaction with the decision-making process Satisfaction with the decision-making process was measured with the following items: (1) I am happy with the way I went about finding this job, (2) I would look for another job using the same techniques that I used to find this one, (3) I am satisfied with the process I used to find jobs to apply for, and (4) I am satisfied with how I decided upon which job to take. All items loaded (0.58 and larger) on a single factor (maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblique rotation); reliability estimates are reported in Table 3. 2.3. Forethought Research suggests that individual differences can influence how information is sought and choices are made. Therefore, we thought it would be interesting to see how one individual difference, forethought, is related to the information search strategy that is employed, and whether rational or intuitive choice methods are used. A person’s dispositional tendency to think about the future (i.e., forethought) may lead to more careful consideration of job options. Forethought was expected to predict (positive relation) focused and exploratory information search and rational choice method. This individual difference was assessed with Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, and Edwards (1994) 12-item consideration of future consequences scale. This measure includes items such as ‘‘I am willing to sacrifice my immediate happiness or wellbeing in order to achieve future outcomes.’’
3. Results Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations between variables are presented in Table 3. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine the relations between job search and choice, and job and process satisfaction. Results are summarized in Table 4. In all cases, demographic characteristics were controlled by entering them in the first step. Information search strategies were entered in the second step, reflective of the decision-making process wherein information is gathered before it can be analyzed. Choice methods were entered in the final step. Results suggested that both focused and haphazard search strategies predicted job satisfaction (see Table 4). Specifically, focused search was positively related to job satisfaction, whereas a haphazard search was negatively related to job satisfaction. Exploratory search did not significantly predict job satisfaction. Regression analysis also revealed that rational and intuitive choice each predicted (positively) unique variance in job satisfaction. To help alleviate concerns of outcome bias influencing ratings of process satisfaction, satisfaction with the job was statistically controlled by entering it in step 1. Focused, exploratory, and haphazard search each predicted process satisfaction (see Table 4). As expected, focused and exploratory search were positively related, and haphazard search was negatively related to process satisfaction, over and above
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Table 4 Regression analysis for search and satisfaction variables Variable
Process satisfaction b
# Offers b )0.05 0.03 0.02 0.09*
0.04**
0.03 0.04 )0.05 0.09* 0.25** 0.16**
Step 2 Focused Exploratory Haphazard DR2
0.14** 0.01 )0.15** 0.05**
0.17** 0.11** )0.25** 0.19**
)0.01 0.12* )0.22* 0.07**
Step 3 Rational Intuitive DR2 Total R2 Adjusted R2
0.13** 0.20** 0.06** 0.15 0.14
0.15** 0.11** 0.03** 0.39 0.38
Step 1 Gender Age Education Job type Job sata DR2
Job satisfaction b 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.15**
0.03*
0.10 0.09
Note: Job type 1 ¼ blue-collar, 2 ¼ white-collar. *p < 0:05. **p < 0:001. a Job satisfaction used as a control variable for process satisfaction only. Beta’s are reported from the final step.
satisfaction with the outcome. Rational and intuitive choice were both positively related to process satisfaction after controlling for job satisfaction. After controlling for demographics, regression analysis found that exploratory search was positively related to number of offers, and haphazard search was negatively related to number of offers. None of the search strategies predicted length of search over and above the demographic control variables. Interestingly, number of offers was positively correlated with rational choice r ¼ 0:21. Because having offers precedes making a choice, this finding suggests that as the number of offers increased, reliance on rational choice also increased. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between forethought and job search and job choice. Sex, age, education, and job type were entered in the first step, followed by forethought in step two. As expected, forethought predicted focused search b ¼ 0:09, p < 0:05, and rational choice b ¼ 0:12, p < 0:01. However, forethought did not significantly predict exploratory search.
4. Discussion Overall, results suggested that a thorough search for job related information was positively associated with satisfaction with the decision process and outcome. Both
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rational and intuitive choice were also positively related to satisfaction with the decision process and outcome over and above information search strategies. This study also demonstrated the usefulness of Stevens and Turban’s (2001) classification of job search strategies in predicting search outcomes and job quality. More specifically, this study found these search strategies were useful in predicting satisfaction with the chosen job and with the search process. Further, haphazard (negatively) and exploratory search (positively) predicted meaningful variance in number of offers over and above demographics. One explanation for this finding relates to the person–job (P–J) fit literature. Saks and Ashforth (2002) found evidence suggesting that vigilant search (a composite of search behaviors and intensity) was positively related to job satisfaction through its relation with P–J fit. An implicit assumption of haphazard search is that it requires less effort than focused or exploratory search and that less information about specific jobs and organizations is generated. It follows that haphazard searchers may have an underdeveloped sense of P–J fit. On the job, this lack of fit may become apparent and lead to decreased satisfaction. Overall, no clear picture emerged of whether one choice method was superior in predicting subsequent satisfaction. Rather, when unconstrained to think rationally or intuitively, both methods were positively related to satisfaction with job choice and the job search process. Further, both methods predicted unique variance in satisfaction with the search process and outcome. One plausible explanation for this finding relates to the argument that rational and intuitive choice are independent processes, and that people often rely on both when making a decision (Hammond, 1980, 1996; Hodgkinson & Sadler-Smith, 2003). The present study found that both rational and intuitive choice predicted unique variance in process and outcome satisfaction, suggesting that reliance on both rational and intuitive choice may lead to better decisions than either method alone. It is also possible that rational and intuitive strategies have a limited effect on satisfaction when job-quality variability is low following a careful search. In other words, the use of rational versus intuitive choice methods may not matter when jobs do not differ in overall attractiveness. Findings of this study suggest that people who tend to consider future outcomes also engage in focused information search and rational choice. One explanation for this finding is that prior to a focused search, one must be able to project what types of information will be necessary for the decision at hand. This requires greater forethought than randomly seeking information (haphazard search), or gathering all available information (exploratory search). Similarly, rational choice involves estimating likelihoods of certain outcomes and basing one’s decision on the most favorable and probable outcome. The tendency for decision makers to consider future outcomes may be important in determining what information to focus on, and in determining the likelihood of certain outcomes actually occurring. 4.1. Limitations and future research A number of limitations in the present study warrant caution in the interpretation and generalizability of the findings. Perhaps the most severe limitation relates to the
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retrospective self-report nature of the questionnaire and the influence that outcome bias or cognitive dissonance may have had on participant ratings. Although outcome satisfaction was statistically controlled when examining the relation between decision processes (i.e., information search and choice method) and satisfaction with the search process, it is unknown how the outcomes themselves may have influenced participant ratings. Further, the extent to which search outcomes and outcome satisfaction may have influenced participants’ recall and ratings of how they gathered and analyzed information about their current job is unknown. In the present study outcome satisfaction was not related to the length of time passed since making the choice (i.e., job tenure; mean 27 months, SD ¼ 38:5), helping to alleviate concerns that ratings were influenced by memory deterioration. Given the cross-sectional, self-report nature of the study, perception–perception inflation may have also impacted these findings. Because it is not clear to what extent retrospective reflection may have affected the results of the present study, these conclusions should be considered tentative. Additionally, because people were free to choose their search strategy and choice method, and random assignment was not used, it is not clear to what extent possible third variables, such as personality, may account for relations between variables in the study. Some readers may also question the relationships found between search strategies. In particular, exploratory and focused search were not found to be negatively related, as suggested by their conceptual definitions. One possible explanation for this finding is that the retrospective nature of the present study and the measure of search strategies was not sensitive enough to detect changes in search strategies over the course of the search. For instance, some searchers may have started out focused and shifted to exploratory search when no job options became available. Alternatively, some searchers may have become more focused as the search progressed and they gained insight into their search goals. Because respondents were not forced to choose one strategy over the others, using both focused and exploratory strategies over the course of the search may have nullified any negative relations between these constructs. Further research is clearly needed to disentangle such an effect and provide more support for this typology of search strategies. Future research is also needed to examine contextual or situational factors that may influence the use of particular search strategies and subsequent decision quality. For instance, in the context of an ambiguous job market, exploratory information search may be associated with more satisfying decisions than focused search. Additional research should also consider theoretical frameworks wherein the job choice process can be examined. The Elaboration-Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) may be a useful framework as it suggests that both individual differences (e.g., need for cognition) and situational factors (e.g., high involvement) influence whether a person will engage in central route (analogous to rational choice) or peripheral route (analogous to intuitive choice) processing when making a decision. Longitudinal research is also needed to provide insight into the dynamic nature of the job search processes. It is likely that decision makers shift from one search strategy to another in some circumstances. Likewise, people may toggle between choice methods depending on the amount and nature of information at hand.
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4.2. Conclusion The purpose of the present study was to gain a better understanding of the job search and job choice process, and specifically to gain insight into how good job choices are made. One central finding was that searching in a focused manner for relevant information was positively associated with process and outcome satisfaction, whereas haphazard information search was negatively related to process and outcome satisfaction. Further, persons who dispositionally engage in forethought were more likely to use focused information search and rational choice when making decisions. The present study also demonstrated the usefulness of distinguishing information search from choice method. We found that satisfaction with one’s decision was determined by how information was both sought and analyzed. By separating these two processes, future research can more closely distinguish how contextual factors (e.g., stress, emotion, type of choice) relate to how decisions are made. For instance, it may be that decision quality suffers under stress because of how information is sought rather than the choice method that is used. Separating search from choice may be a useful distinction for training people to improve their decision-making skills.
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Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 68, 1–51. Lopes, L. L. (1994). Psychology and economics: Perspectives on risk, cooperation, and the marketplace. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 197–227. Mann, L. (1972). Use of a ‘‘balance sheet’’ procedure to improve the quality of personal decision making: A field experiment with college applicants. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2, 291–300. Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397– 422. Mau, W. C., & Jepsen, D. A. (1992). Effects of computer-assisted instruction in using formal decisionmaking strategies to choose a college major. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 185–192. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. New York: Springer Verlag. Russell, S. S., Spitzmueller, C., Lin, L. F., Stanton, J. M., & Smith, P. C. (2002). Shorter can also be better: The abridged job in general scale. Bowling Green State University, Unpublished manuscript. Saks, A. M., & Ashforth, B. E. (2002). Is job search related to employment quality? It all depends on the fit. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 646–654. Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1995). Decision-making style: The development and assessment of a new measure. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 818–831. Stanton, J. M., Sinar, E. F., Balzer, W. K., Julian, A. L., Thoreson, P., Aziz, S., Fisher, G. G., & Smith, P. C. (2002). Development of a compact measure of job satisfaction: The abridged job descriptive index. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62, 173–191. Stevens, C. K., & Beach, L. R. (1996). Job search and job selection. In R. Beach & P. Lee Roy (Eds.), Decision making in the workplace: A unified perspective (pp. 33–47). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Stevens, C. K., & Turban, D. B., (2001). Impact of job seekers’ search strategies and tactics on search success. Paper presented at the Annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, April. Strathman, A., Gleicher, F., Boninger, D. S., & Edwards, C. S. (1994). The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 742–752. Surrette, M. A., & Harlow, L. L. (1992). The level of satisfaction and commitment to a decisional choice as mediated by locus of control. Applied H.R.M. Research, 3, 92–113. Timmermans, D., & Vlek, C. (1994). An evaluation study of the effectiveness of multi-attribute decision support as a function of problem complexity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 59, 75–92. Wilson, T. D., & Kraft, D. (1993). Why do I love thee. Effects of repeated introspections about a dating relationship on attitudes toward the relationship. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 409– 418. Wilson, T. D., Lisle, D. J., Schooler, J., Hodges, S. D., Klaaren, K. J., & LaFleur, S. J. (1993). Introspecting about reasons can reduce post-choice satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 331–339. Wilson, T. D., & Schooler, J. (1991). Thinking too much: Introspection can reduce the quality of preferences and decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 181–192. Zhang, S., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (1999). Choice-process satisfaction: The influence of attribute alignability and option limitation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 77, 192–214.
Relation of job search and choice process with subsequent satisfaction Craig D. Crossley *, Scott Highhouse Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA Received 24 April 2003; received in revised form 1 March 2004; accepted 13 April 2004 Available online 28 July 2004
Abstract This study examined whether how one goes about searching for and choosing a job relates to later job satisfaction. Contrary to Wilson and Schooler’s [J. Personality Soc. Psychol. 60 (1991) 181] disruption hypothesis, the results suggested that people who engaged in a careful and deliberate search and choice process were more satisfied than people who used a more haphazard or intuitive approach. In addition, people who were dispositionally higher in the tendency to consider future outcomes were more likely to use a careful and deliberate approach to finding a job. Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. JEL classification: M12; D23 PsycINFO classification: 3620 Keywords: Information search; Rational choice; Intuitive choice; Job search; Job choice
1. Relation of job search and choice process with subsequent satisfaction The renewed focus on hedonic experience in economic psychology (Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz, 1999; Lopes, 1994) suggests that good decision making is that which leads to a greater state of well-being. Pursuing one’s self-interest, however, requires appropriate predictions of the likely hedonic consequences of different
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +1-419-372-6013. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.D. Crossley).
0167-4870/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2004.04.001
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courses of action. The question of how people arrive at satisfying decisions has not been given much attention in psychology or economics. The purpose of the present study was to apply methods from both the job choice and behavioral decision theory literature to begin to understand how the decision-making process (i.e., information search and choice method) relates to satisfying outcomes in the job search context. The process wherein people search out, compare, and ultimately choose between job opportunities is important to both job seekers and employers. Unsuccessful search resulting in an inadequate match of abilities and interests has been associated with employee burnout and withdrawal (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001), as well as absenteeism, turnover, and decreased productivity (see Kristof, 1996). Because of the importance of successful job searches, a substantial number of studies have examined individual differences, motivational factors, and specific search behaviors that relate to job search success (see Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001). Nevertheless, there is a lack of understanding about how people search out and decide upon jobs, and how this process relates to satisfaction with job choice. In a recent meta-analysis of job search and job choice literature, Kanfer et al. (2001) urged that more research examine the determinants of particular search strategies, as well as how the use of such strategies relates to satisfaction with employment, in addition to common indicators of job search success (e.g., number of offers, length of search) that lack information concerning quality of employment. 1.1. The connection between processes and attitudes There are two competing lines of research that offer different suggestions as to how information search and choice method should affect satisfaction with choice. Some researchers have found that deliberate and careful approaches to decision making may be counterproductive (e.g., Wilson & Kraft, 1993; Wilson et al., 1993; Wilson & Schooler, 1991). For instance, Wilson et al. (1993) found that decision makers who analyzed their reasons for making a particular choice experienced regret rather than satisfaction. Participants in their study chose between a poster of a classic painting or a poster with humorous content. When contacted three weeks after their choice, those who listed reasons for liking and disliking the posters were less satisfied with the choice they had made than were decision makers who were not asked to provide reasons for their decisions. Wilson and Schooler (1991) suggested that, just as automatic behavior can be disrupted when a person’s attention is directed toward it, so can a decision be disrupted when a person is asked to reflect about the reasons for it. Conventional wisdom suggests, however, that important decisions should be made only after deep thought and careful analysis of alternatives (Janis & Mann, 1977). Indeed, some research has suggested that careful decision-making leads to greater satisfaction and less regret over one’s decision (see Aldag & Power, 1986; Bronner & de Hoog, 1983; Mann, 1972; Mau & Jepsen, 1992; Timmermans & Vlek, 1994). For instance, Kmett, Arkes, and Jones (1999) randomly assigned graduating high school students to one of three conditions. In one condition, students used a
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computer program that forced them to think about the bases for making a college choice. In another condition, students completed a questionnaire that listed 21 criteria often used to rate their top two college choices. Students in the control group did not use any decision aid. Kmett et al. found evidence to suggest that those students who were forced to consider the reasons for their choices had greater satisfaction with their ultimate choice. Although this past research had the benefit of tight experimental control, one limitation has been that people were either compelled to think carefully about their decisions, or were restricted from doing so. It would be useful to know how freely-chosen decision processes relate to satisfaction with choice. The retrospective reports of job incumbents, used in the present study, are limited in that cause/effect processes can not be delineated. They do, however, provide some clues about how the decisionmaking process itself can influence choice quality in a naturally-occurring environment. 1.2. The decision-making process Decision making involves two related but separate processes, namely an information search process and a choice process. Whereas information search deals with how information about the decision is gathered, the choice process involves analyzing, comparing, and subjectively weighing this information to form a final decision. 1.2.1. Information search Research examining how people seek out information has identified different strategies that people use in different decision-making contexts. Stevens and Turban (2001) recently proposed three distinct information search strategies used to gather information about possible jobs. A focused search strategy involves concentrating search efforts on a small number of carefully screened potential employers. People using this approach often identify top choices early in their search and apply for only those jobs that they are qualified for and interested in. An exploratory search strategy involves examining several potential employment options and actively gathering job-related information from various sources (e.g., friends, employment centers, etc.). Job seekers using this approach are likely to undertake their job search with an idea of what they want while remaining open to opportunities that may present themselves. A haphazard job search strategy involves passively gathering information both inside and outside of one’s area of academic study or previous work experience. Job seekers using this strategy are likely to use a trial and error approach, often switching tactics without rationale. 1.2.2. Choice methods A considerable amount of research on decision making has suggested that people tend to rely on either a rational or an intuitive method for making an ultimate choice (see Hammond, 1996; Scott & Bruce, 1995 for a review). According to Hammond, Hamm, Grassia, and Pearson (1987) rational choice typically involves fixed
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calculations from selective cues that are objectively measured. Step-by-step logically defensible thought patterns often characterize this method. On the other hand, intuitive choices are usually unstructured and involve a large number of cues that are subjectively assessed with low conscious awareness of the choice method. Intuition is often denigrated for its failures, shortcomings, and cognitive distortions (Hammond, 1980). Although often depicted as a dichotomy, these choice methods are not necessarily direct opposites. Indeed, Hammond (1980) asserted that nearly all decisions are quasi-rational, requiring elements of both methods, and that people may alternate or smoothly transition between the two depending upon a given choice. A growing body of research has supported the proposition that rational and intuitive choice are separate but related processes (for a review, see Hodgkinson & Sadler-Smith, 2003). 1.3. Process vs. outcome Previous research examining satisfaction with choice has largely been focused on satisfaction with outcomes (see Zhang & Fitzsimons, 1999). In reality, however, one could report being satisfied with an entire decision-making process and yet be disappointed by an outcome. In such a case, one may evaluate decision quality as low, not because the decision was bad, but rather because of chance or bad luck affecting the outcome (Surrette & Harlow, 1992; Zhang & Fitzsimons, 1999). Further, people who are satisfied with the decision-making process they have used are likely to reuse the process in the future. Zhang and Fitzsimons thus suggested that going beyond outcome satisfaction to examine satisfaction with the decision-making process can lead to a greater understanding of overall affective evaluations of decision quality, and of behaviors such as returning to shop at a particular store. 1.4. Objective outcomes of search strategy In addition to satisfaction with the search process and outcomes, the present study also examined the relation between information search strategies and more objective outcomes of search length and number of offers. Length of job search as an indicator of success depends on the specific goals of the individual. As long as one’s goals are met, a shorter search is preferable. However, a search for the best possible job often takes longer than a search for an adequate job. Stevens and Beach (1996) suggested that people who engage in a focused search have clear employment goals and sustain search efforts until they find what they are looking for. Job seekers who engage in an exploratory search may not start out with clear employment goals, but are dedicated to their search and are motivated to fully explore their options. Haphazard searchers with fuzzy employment goals are expected to search for a job without a clear idea of what to look for and without the time or dedication to pursue all job options. Because haphazard searchers have low or unclear standards, they are likely to find an acceptable job faster than focused and exploratory searchers. Further, these individuals are likely to take an early offer, thereby receiving fewer offers.
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1.5. Present research The present study was aimed at examining the relation between how one goes about searching for and choosing a job and later job satisfaction. We examined competing lines of research that offer different suggestions as to how information search and choice method should affect satisfaction with choice. One approach suggests that careful analysis of options leads to disruption in the decision-making process, whereas another suggests that deliberate and careful thought leads to higher quality decisions. To test these competing hypotheses, employees representing a diverse sample of jobs from different geographical regions in the US were asked to retrospectively indicate how they searched for and chose their current jobs. This allowed an examination of search strategies across job types, as well as a cross sectional examination of job satisfaction during early and later phases of employment. In addition, we administered an individual difference measure of forethought.
2. Method 2.1. Participants and procedure Two hundred and four employees at over 30 small companies in the Western and Midwestern United States were asked to complete a questionnaire either on-line (n ¼ 105) or in paper–pencil form (n ¼ 99). These companies were chosen based on proximal location to each other and included both blue and white-collar workers from machine shops, engineering firms, automobile retailers, and medical equipment distribution centers to name a few. Representatives of these companies were contacted in person and asked if employees could complete the surveys either online or in paper–pencil form, whichever the representative thought best. All surveys remained anonymous. Undergraduate students (n ¼ 503) who worked full or part time and attended a midsize commuter school in a large city in the Western United States also participated in this study. To ensure that these three methods of recruitment generated samples that could be combined, a one-way ANOVA was used to assess whether meaningful differences existed between samples. The type of survey (web based at work, paper–pencil at work, and paper–pencil in class) was entered as the grouping variable and focused, exploratory, and haphazard search strategies and rational, and intuitive choice were entered as dependant variables. A Tukey post hoc revealed that whereas the working and the web-based samples differed in the reported use of focused search strategy and rational choice, the web-based and student samples differed in the reported use of haphazard search strategy and rational choice. Because these differences did not appear to occur in any meaningful pattern, participant’s ratings were combined to form a single sample (n ¼ 707). This sample was 54% female, with a mean age of 26. Educational level varied (11% H.S. diploma, 76% some college or technical training, 10% bachelor’s degree, 3% graduate degree). Seventy percent indicated that they held white-collar jobs, whereas 23% rated themselves as having blue-collar jobs; 7% did not indicate job type.
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2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Information search strategies Measures of focused, exploratory, and haphazard information search strategies were created based on Stevens and Turban’s (2001) measures. Because Stevens and Turban’s original scale items did not clearly load on factors representing the three search strategies, and had low reliabilities, several items were modified and additional items were added for the present study. Maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblique rotation found that these items loaded on respective factors as ex-
Table 1 Information search strategy items and rotated factor coefficients Item
Factor I
My job search was more or less haphazard My approach to gathering job-related information could be described as random I used a ‘‘hit or miss’’ approach when gathering information about my job I did not really have a plan when searching for my job I followed up on every lead to make sure I didn’t miss any golden opportunities I tried to get my resume out to as many organizations as possible I followed up on most leads, even long shots I gathered as much information about all the companies that I could I examined all available sources of job information (e.g., employment centers, friends, internet sites, etc.) I gathered information about all possible job opportunities, rather than setting out for something specific I gathered information only for job openings that looked like what I wanted I gathered information only for jobs that I was really interested in My information gathering efforts were focused on specific jobs I gathered information only for jobs that I knew I would qualify for I targeted my job search toward a small number of employers I had a clear idea of what qualities I wanted in a job
II
III
)0.77 )0.75 )0.58 )0.55 0.65 0.60 0.59 0.53 0.52
0.40
0.67 0.55 0.51 0.43 0.37 0.37
Note: Maximum likelihood estimation with oblimin rotation and Kaiser normalization. Responses were made on a 5-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
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pected. All item–total correlations were greater than 0.30. Items and factor coefficients are reported in Table 1, and internal consistency reliabilities are reported in Table 3. 2.2.2. Choice method Participants’ use of rational and intuitive choice methods was assessed by a measure based on Scott and Bruce’s (1995) measure of decision-making styles. Seven items were rewritten and three items were added to reflect decision methods relating to a specific job choice, rather than an overall decision-making style. Maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblique rotation found that items loaded (0.49 or higher) on two distinct factors representing rational and intuitive choice, confirming previous research suggesting that these choice processes are independent, rather than opposite poles of a single dimensional construct (Hammond, 1980; Hodgkinson & Sadler-Smith, 2003). No items cross-loaded greater than 0.30, and all item–total correlations were greater than 0.45. Items and factor coefficients are reported in Table 2; reliabilities are included in Table 3. 2.2.3. Job satisfaction An eight-item abridged measure of the job in general (JIG) scale (Balzer et al., 1997) was used to assess overall satisfaction with one’s job. The abridged JIG was developed based on methods suggested by Stanton et al. (2002) and has demonstrated favorable psychometric properties (Russell, Spitzmueller, Lin, Stanton, & Smith, 2002).
Table 2 Rational and intuitive choice method items and rotated factor coefficients Item
Factor I
When making my decision, I carefully considered the pro’s and con’s of working there My job choice was guided by careful consideration In choosing this job, I carefully considered its advantages and disadvantages I chose my job in a logical and systematic way Before choosing my current job, I double-checked information sources to be sure I had the facts right I relied upon my instincts about this job I trusted my inner feelings and reactions when choosing to accept this job My choice to take this job was guided by intuition In deciding among jobs, I made the decision that felt right to me When I chose this job, it was more important for me to feel the decision was right than to have a rational reason for it
II
0.71 0.71 0.69 0.54 0.54 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.51 0.49
Note: Maximum likelihood estimation with oblimin rotation and Kaiser normalization. Responses were made on a 5-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
262
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1
2
Age Gender Education Focused search Exploratory search Haphazard search Rational choice Intuitive choice Job satisfaction Process satisfaction Search length # Offers Forethought
– )0.03 0.12 0.05 )0.01 )0.22 0.08 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.25 0.09 0.07
– )0.04 0.06 )0.02 0.01 )0.02 0.10 0.09 0.05 )0.05 )0.06 0.06
Mean SD
26 8.7
– –
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.00 0.02 )0.16 0.08 )0.03 0.09 )0.03 0.12 0.12 0.20
(0.64) 0.04 )0.29 0.36 0.20 0.19 0.37 0.08 0.06 0.11
(0.70) )0.26 0.34 0.05 0.06 0.25 0.10 0.18 0.02
(0.77) )0.35 0.02 )0.22 )0.39 )0.15 )0.26 )0.17
(0.77) 0.32 0.25 0.41 0.11 0.21 0.13
(0.79) 0.27 0.24 )0.05 0.04 0.06
(0.82) 0.39 0.08 0.10 0.16
6 1.1
3.6 0.59
3.1 0.66
2.8 0.80
3.5 0.68
3.6 0.65
2.4 0.70
11
12
13
(0.83) 0.06 0.16 0.11
– 0.03 0.11
– 0.12
(0.83)
3.6 0.74
4.5 6.9
1.3 1.2
3.7 0.50
–
Note: Reliabilities are in parentheses. Gender was reported 1 ¼ male, 2 ¼ female. Search, choice, process satisfaction, and forethought scales ranged from 1 to 5, and job satisfaction ranged from 0 to 3. Search length was reported in weeks. N ranged from 656 to 704. All correlations 0.08 and larger were significant at p < 0:05.
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Table 3 Means, standard deviations, intercorrelations and reliability estimates for study variables
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2.2.4. Satisfaction with the decision-making process Satisfaction with the decision-making process was measured with the following items: (1) I am happy with the way I went about finding this job, (2) I would look for another job using the same techniques that I used to find this one, (3) I am satisfied with the process I used to find jobs to apply for, and (4) I am satisfied with how I decided upon which job to take. All items loaded (0.58 and larger) on a single factor (maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblique rotation); reliability estimates are reported in Table 3. 2.3. Forethought Research suggests that individual differences can influence how information is sought and choices are made. Therefore, we thought it would be interesting to see how one individual difference, forethought, is related to the information search strategy that is employed, and whether rational or intuitive choice methods are used. A person’s dispositional tendency to think about the future (i.e., forethought) may lead to more careful consideration of job options. Forethought was expected to predict (positive relation) focused and exploratory information search and rational choice method. This individual difference was assessed with Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, and Edwards (1994) 12-item consideration of future consequences scale. This measure includes items such as ‘‘I am willing to sacrifice my immediate happiness or wellbeing in order to achieve future outcomes.’’
3. Results Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations between variables are presented in Table 3. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine the relations between job search and choice, and job and process satisfaction. Results are summarized in Table 4. In all cases, demographic characteristics were controlled by entering them in the first step. Information search strategies were entered in the second step, reflective of the decision-making process wherein information is gathered before it can be analyzed. Choice methods were entered in the final step. Results suggested that both focused and haphazard search strategies predicted job satisfaction (see Table 4). Specifically, focused search was positively related to job satisfaction, whereas a haphazard search was negatively related to job satisfaction. Exploratory search did not significantly predict job satisfaction. Regression analysis also revealed that rational and intuitive choice each predicted (positively) unique variance in job satisfaction. To help alleviate concerns of outcome bias influencing ratings of process satisfaction, satisfaction with the job was statistically controlled by entering it in step 1. Focused, exploratory, and haphazard search each predicted process satisfaction (see Table 4). As expected, focused and exploratory search were positively related, and haphazard search was negatively related to process satisfaction, over and above
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Table 4 Regression analysis for search and satisfaction variables Variable
Process satisfaction b
# Offers b )0.05 0.03 0.02 0.09*
0.04**
0.03 0.04 )0.05 0.09* 0.25** 0.16**
Step 2 Focused Exploratory Haphazard DR2
0.14** 0.01 )0.15** 0.05**
0.17** 0.11** )0.25** 0.19**
)0.01 0.12* )0.22* 0.07**
Step 3 Rational Intuitive DR2 Total R2 Adjusted R2
0.13** 0.20** 0.06** 0.15 0.14
0.15** 0.11** 0.03** 0.39 0.38
Step 1 Gender Age Education Job type Job sata DR2
Job satisfaction b 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.15**
0.03*
0.10 0.09
Note: Job type 1 ¼ blue-collar, 2 ¼ white-collar. *p < 0:05. **p < 0:001. a Job satisfaction used as a control variable for process satisfaction only. Beta’s are reported from the final step.
satisfaction with the outcome. Rational and intuitive choice were both positively related to process satisfaction after controlling for job satisfaction. After controlling for demographics, regression analysis found that exploratory search was positively related to number of offers, and haphazard search was negatively related to number of offers. None of the search strategies predicted length of search over and above the demographic control variables. Interestingly, number of offers was positively correlated with rational choice r ¼ 0:21. Because having offers precedes making a choice, this finding suggests that as the number of offers increased, reliance on rational choice also increased. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between forethought and job search and job choice. Sex, age, education, and job type were entered in the first step, followed by forethought in step two. As expected, forethought predicted focused search b ¼ 0:09, p < 0:05, and rational choice b ¼ 0:12, p < 0:01. However, forethought did not significantly predict exploratory search.
4. Discussion Overall, results suggested that a thorough search for job related information was positively associated with satisfaction with the decision process and outcome. Both
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rational and intuitive choice were also positively related to satisfaction with the decision process and outcome over and above information search strategies. This study also demonstrated the usefulness of Stevens and Turban’s (2001) classification of job search strategies in predicting search outcomes and job quality. More specifically, this study found these search strategies were useful in predicting satisfaction with the chosen job and with the search process. Further, haphazard (negatively) and exploratory search (positively) predicted meaningful variance in number of offers over and above demographics. One explanation for this finding relates to the person–job (P–J) fit literature. Saks and Ashforth (2002) found evidence suggesting that vigilant search (a composite of search behaviors and intensity) was positively related to job satisfaction through its relation with P–J fit. An implicit assumption of haphazard search is that it requires less effort than focused or exploratory search and that less information about specific jobs and organizations is generated. It follows that haphazard searchers may have an underdeveloped sense of P–J fit. On the job, this lack of fit may become apparent and lead to decreased satisfaction. Overall, no clear picture emerged of whether one choice method was superior in predicting subsequent satisfaction. Rather, when unconstrained to think rationally or intuitively, both methods were positively related to satisfaction with job choice and the job search process. Further, both methods predicted unique variance in satisfaction with the search process and outcome. One plausible explanation for this finding relates to the argument that rational and intuitive choice are independent processes, and that people often rely on both when making a decision (Hammond, 1980, 1996; Hodgkinson & Sadler-Smith, 2003). The present study found that both rational and intuitive choice predicted unique variance in process and outcome satisfaction, suggesting that reliance on both rational and intuitive choice may lead to better decisions than either method alone. It is also possible that rational and intuitive strategies have a limited effect on satisfaction when job-quality variability is low following a careful search. In other words, the use of rational versus intuitive choice methods may not matter when jobs do not differ in overall attractiveness. Findings of this study suggest that people who tend to consider future outcomes also engage in focused information search and rational choice. One explanation for this finding is that prior to a focused search, one must be able to project what types of information will be necessary for the decision at hand. This requires greater forethought than randomly seeking information (haphazard search), or gathering all available information (exploratory search). Similarly, rational choice involves estimating likelihoods of certain outcomes and basing one’s decision on the most favorable and probable outcome. The tendency for decision makers to consider future outcomes may be important in determining what information to focus on, and in determining the likelihood of certain outcomes actually occurring. 4.1. Limitations and future research A number of limitations in the present study warrant caution in the interpretation and generalizability of the findings. Perhaps the most severe limitation relates to the
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retrospective self-report nature of the questionnaire and the influence that outcome bias or cognitive dissonance may have had on participant ratings. Although outcome satisfaction was statistically controlled when examining the relation between decision processes (i.e., information search and choice method) and satisfaction with the search process, it is unknown how the outcomes themselves may have influenced participant ratings. Further, the extent to which search outcomes and outcome satisfaction may have influenced participants’ recall and ratings of how they gathered and analyzed information about their current job is unknown. In the present study outcome satisfaction was not related to the length of time passed since making the choice (i.e., job tenure; mean 27 months, SD ¼ 38:5), helping to alleviate concerns that ratings were influenced by memory deterioration. Given the cross-sectional, self-report nature of the study, perception–perception inflation may have also impacted these findings. Because it is not clear to what extent retrospective reflection may have affected the results of the present study, these conclusions should be considered tentative. Additionally, because people were free to choose their search strategy and choice method, and random assignment was not used, it is not clear to what extent possible third variables, such as personality, may account for relations between variables in the study. Some readers may also question the relationships found between search strategies. In particular, exploratory and focused search were not found to be negatively related, as suggested by their conceptual definitions. One possible explanation for this finding is that the retrospective nature of the present study and the measure of search strategies was not sensitive enough to detect changes in search strategies over the course of the search. For instance, some searchers may have started out focused and shifted to exploratory search when no job options became available. Alternatively, some searchers may have become more focused as the search progressed and they gained insight into their search goals. Because respondents were not forced to choose one strategy over the others, using both focused and exploratory strategies over the course of the search may have nullified any negative relations between these constructs. Further research is clearly needed to disentangle such an effect and provide more support for this typology of search strategies. Future research is also needed to examine contextual or situational factors that may influence the use of particular search strategies and subsequent decision quality. For instance, in the context of an ambiguous job market, exploratory information search may be associated with more satisfying decisions than focused search. Additional research should also consider theoretical frameworks wherein the job choice process can be examined. The Elaboration-Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) may be a useful framework as it suggests that both individual differences (e.g., need for cognition) and situational factors (e.g., high involvement) influence whether a person will engage in central route (analogous to rational choice) or peripheral route (analogous to intuitive choice) processing when making a decision. Longitudinal research is also needed to provide insight into the dynamic nature of the job search processes. It is likely that decision makers shift from one search strategy to another in some circumstances. Likewise, people may toggle between choice methods depending on the amount and nature of information at hand.
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4.2. Conclusion The purpose of the present study was to gain a better understanding of the job search and job choice process, and specifically to gain insight into how good job choices are made. One central finding was that searching in a focused manner for relevant information was positively associated with process and outcome satisfaction, whereas haphazard information search was negatively related to process and outcome satisfaction. Further, persons who dispositionally engage in forethought were more likely to use focused information search and rational choice when making decisions. The present study also demonstrated the usefulness of distinguishing information search from choice method. We found that satisfaction with one’s decision was determined by how information was both sought and analyzed. By separating these two processes, future research can more closely distinguish how contextual factors (e.g., stress, emotion, type of choice) relate to how decisions are made. For instance, it may be that decision quality suffers under stress because of how information is sought rather than the choice method that is used. Separating search from choice may be a useful distinction for training people to improve their decision-making skills.
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