Relationship between physicochemical characteristics of Korean wheat flour and quality attributes of steamed bread

Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Relationship between physicochemical characteristics of Korean wheat flour and quality attributes of steamed bread Ji-Eun Kim1, Byung-Kee Baik2, Chul Soo Park1, Jae-Han Son3, Chang-Hyun Choi3, Youngjun Mo3, Tae-Il Park3, Chon-Sik Kang3*, Seong-Woo Cho1* 1

Department of Crop Science & Biotechnology, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Korea USDA-ARS CSWQRU, Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Wooster, OH 44691, USA 3 National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Korea 2

Abstract The purpose of this study is to identify major factors affecting the manufacture and quality of steamed bread, consumed in Southeast Asia including China, Japan, and Korea. Hence, flours of 11 Korean wheat cultivars were used to evaluate quality attributes of two different styles of steamed bread, Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) and northern-style Chinese steamed bread (NSCSB). KSSB prepared more ingredients and higher optimum water absorption of dough than NSCSB because Korean consumers prefer white and glossy surface and soft crumb. KSSB showed lower height, larger diameter and volume of steamed bread, higher stress relaxation, and softer texture of crumb than NSCSB. The correlation between flour characteristics and quality of steamed bread was different in KSSB and NSCSB. About 90% of variability in the height and volume of KSSB could be predicted from protein content, mixing tolerance of Mixograph, average particle size of flour, final viscosity and solvent retention capacity. Protein content and quality parameters also could explain the variation of steamed bread height in NSCSB. Korean wheat carrying Glu-A3c allele produced higher volume of steamed bread (704.7 mL) than Glu-A3d allele (645.8 mL) in KSSB, although there was no significant difference in volume of NSCSB by glutenin compositions. Glu-D1d and Glu-A3c alleles had softer texture of crumb than Glu-D1f and Glu-A3d alleles in KSSB, Glu-B3i allele also showed lower hardness of crumb than their counterpart allele in NSCSB. Hard wheat showed higher height and volume of steamed bread, and lower stress relaxation and hardness of crumb than soft wheat in KSSB. Keywords: steamed bread, quality, wheat, flour, evaluation

1. Introduction Received 29 November, 2018 Accepted 28 February, 2019 Correspondence Chon-Sik Kang, Tel/Fax: +82-63-238-5453, E-mail: [email protected]; Seong-Woo Cho, Tel: +82-55-7513225, Fax: +82-55-751-3229, E-mail: [email protected] * These authors contributed equally to this study. © 2019 CAAS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62668-7

Steamed bread has been consumed in Southeast Asia including China, Japan, and Korea for a long time. Steamed bread is known to originate from the Chinese steamed bread of Han Dynasty, and is different from pan bread baking that the dough of steamed bread is fermented and steamed (Huang and Miskelly 2016). The shape and taste of steamed bread are different by preference of consumption area, and the ingredients are also various by area (Huang and Miskelly 2016). Generally, the main ingredients of steamed

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bread are flour (100%), water (50–60%), salt (1%), yeast (1–4%), sugar (5–10%), and shortening (3–5%) are added for texture, but baking powder is only used for Musimanju of Japan (Huang and Miskelly 2016). Steamed bread is used as the staple food in northern China, the main wheat producing region, and served as warm meal (Huang and Miskelly 2016). Protein content is different according to grain hard types, hard and soft type wheat (Issarny et al. 2017). Generally, soft type wheat is suitable for cookies and low level protein, about 8–10%, while hard type wheat is suitable for bread and high level of protein, about 10–14% (Huebner et al. 1999; Park et al. 2006; Delcour et al. 2012; Issarny et al. 2017). The appropriate wheat flour for northern-style Chinese steamed bread (NSCSB) is known to have 10% of protein content and medium gluten strength (Lin et al. 1990). The research for improvement of NSCSB quality is actively underway not only in China, the main wheat consumer, but also in the USA, Canada, and Australia, the major countries exporting wheat to China. The additional mixing for dough, unlike conventional dough mixing for NSCSB, has recently been proposed to improve the smoothness and brightness of surface of steamed bread (Huang et al. 2015). Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) is being consumed as snack during winter, and the main ingredients are dough stuffed with one of red bean paste, vegetable and meat, and yeast and chemical inflating agent are used for the dough making (Kim et al. 2001). KSSB is good to have white and glossy surface and soft inner texture and not to have cohesiveness or stickiness (Kim et al. 2001). KSSB reacts so sensitively to flour property and fermentation condition that the phenomenon falling in or having wrinkles occurs often. Generally, it is known that the more steamed bread has protein content, the more these phenomena happen. The recent research for KSSB is being focused on the improvement of physiochemical properties, antioxidant activity and shelf life by addition of supplementary materials. KSSB has been produced at random according to the experience of the manufacturer and the situation because the quality standard of flour suitable for KSSB or the method of manufacturing for KSSB is not specifically provided (Kim et al. 2001). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of wheat flour characteristics on the characteristics of steamed bread, NSCSB and KSSB, made from 11 different Korean wheat cultivars and to understand the major factors affecting the manufacture and quality of steamed bread.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Eleven Korean wheat cultivars were sown in randomized

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complete blocks with three replications in the Upland Crop Experimental Farm of the National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration (Korea) in 2016/2017 on 50% clay/loam soil. The seeds were sown in late October, and each plot consisted of three 4-m rows spaced 25-cm apart. These plots were combine-harvested in mid-June for 2 yr. Prior to sowing, fertilizer in the ratio of 5:7:5 kg per 1 000 m2 (N:P:K) was applied, while weeds, insects, and disease were stringently controlled. No supplemental irrigation was applied. Grains from each plot were dried using forced-air dryers and bulked from replications to provide grains for milling.

2.2. Analytical methods Wheat grain was milled using a Bühler experimental mill, based on the American Association of Cereal Chemists International (AACCI) Approved Method 26–31.01 (AACCI 2010). A total of 2 kg of wheat grain was tempered to 15% moisture prior to milling for 12 h and milled with a feed rate of 100 g min–1 and with roll settings of 8 and 5 in break rolls and 4 and 2 in reduction rolls. Moisture, ash content, protein content and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test of wheat flour were determined according to AACCI Approved methods 44–15.02, 08–01.01, 46–30.01 and 56– 70.01, respectively (AACCI 2010). The SDS sedimentation volume of flour was determined both on a constant flour weight (3 g) basis and on a constant protein (300 mg) basis. Amylose and damaged starch contents were determined using the methods described by Gibson et al. (1992, 1997), respectively, using enzymatic assay kits (Megazyme, Bray, Ireland). Flour particle size distribution was measured with an LS13320 multi-wavelength laser particle size analyzer (Beckman Coulter, Brea, CA, USA) according to AACCI Approved Method 55–40.01 (AACCI 2010). Flour color was measured with a colorimeter (CM-2002, Minolta Camera, Osaka, Japan) using an 11-mm measurement aperture. Whiteness index was calculated according to Nguimbou et al. (2012). Solvent retention capacity (SRC) tests were conducted according to the AACCI Approved Method 56–11.01 using 5% lactic acid, 5% sodium carbonate and 50% sucrose solutions, and distilled water (AACCI 2010). Dough mixing properties were determined using a 10-g Mixograph (National Mfg. Co., USA) following AACCI Approved Method 54–40.02 (AACCI 2010). Starch was fractionated from flour (100 g, dry base, db) according to the method described by Czuchajowska and Pomeranz (1993). Briefly, starch separated from gluten was purified by multiple washing with distilled water. The purified starch was air-dried at 24°C for 3 d and ground with a cyclone sample mill (Udy, Fort Collins, Co., USA) fitted with a perforated

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screen with 0.25-mm openings. Pasting properties of starch

2.4. Steamed bread

were determined with a Micro Visco-Amylo-Graph device (Brabender, Duisburg, Germany). Starch (10.0 g, db) was suspended in 0.1% AgNO3 solution (100 mL) and heated

from 30 to 95°C at a rate of 7.5°C min–1, held at 95°C for 5 min, cooled to 50°C at a rate of 5°C min–1, and held at 50°C for 2 min under constant stirring (110 r min–1). Viscosity was expressed in Brabender units. Viscosities (peak and final) and holding strength of starch were recorded. Breakdown was calculated by subtracting the holding strength from the peak and final viscosities. Temperature at peak viscosity was also determined.

2.3. Allelic variations Genomic DNA was extracted from young leaf tissue (100 mg) using the Genomic DNA Prep Kit (Solgent Co., Korea) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. PCR was conducted with primers for Glu-1 allele-specific markers according to the methods illustrated in Liu et al. (2008) for Glu-A1 allele, Lei et al. (2006) for Glu-B1 allele, and Liu et al. (2008) and DeBustos et al. (2001) for Glu-D1 allele, respectively. PCR was conducted with primers for Glu-3 allele-specific markers according to the methods presented in Wang et al. (2010) for Glu-A3 allele and Wang et al. (2009) for Glu-B3 allele. The allelic variations for puroindolines were evaluated by the procedure described by Gautier et al. (1994). Amplified PCR fragments were separated on 1.5% agarose gels, stained with ethidium bromide, and visualized using UV light.

Steamed bread making was conducted in two different styles, KSBS and NSCSB. There were two differences between the two kinds of steamed bread, formulation and steaming time (Fig. 1). Steamed bread was prepared according to the procedure of Choi et al. (2011) and Ma and Baik (2016) with a minor modification. The ingredients of making KSSB formula consisted of 100.0 g (14% moisture basis, mb) of flour, 8.0 g of sugar, 5.0 g of shortening, 1 g of salt, 1.5 g of instant yeast (Lesaffre Yeast Co., Milwaukee, WI, USA), 1.0 g of baking powder (Jenico Foods Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea) and distilled water. But, the ingredients of NSCSB were 100.0 g of flour (14% mb), 1.5 g of instant yeast and distilled water. The different optimum water absorption was used for making steamed bread, that 100% of Mixograph absorption was used for making KSSB but 80% of Mixograph absorption was used for NSCSB. Dough mixing was divided into two steps, of which the initial mixing was conducted with a 3/4 of Mixograph mixing time and the rest of the mixing time was continued in the second mixing. The amount of distilled water based on the Mixograph mixing time minus 2 mL was used in the initial mixing and 2 mL of distilled water was used in the second mixing. For the initial mixing, 90 g of flour and other ingredients were mixed in a pin mixer (National Mfg. Co., USA) with 102 r min–1. Dough was fermented for 60 min at 32°C and 85% relative humidity in a proofing cabinet (Daeyoung Bakery Machinery Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea). After the second mixing, the dough was sheeted by passing through the rolls of a 7-mm gap 20 times in a dough sheeter (Daeyoung Bakery Machinery

Fig. 1 Procedure for steamed bread making of Korean style steamed bread (A) and northern-style Chinese steamed bread (B).

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Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea). After the dough sheeting, the dough was rounded to a dome shape of 5.5 cm height and proofed for 15 min in a proofing cabinet (32°C, 85% relative humidity). The proofed dough was steamed for 15 min for KSSB and for 20 min for NSCSB and cooled for 15 min at 24°C before analysis.

2.5. Quality evaluation of steamed bread Quality of two types of steamed bread was evaluated according to the method described by Ma and Baik (2016). Steamed bread was cooled for 15 min at 24°C after preparation and then was weighed with an analytical balance. Diameter and height of steamed bread was measured, and volume of steamed bread was determined with the rapeseed displacement method. Both surface and crumb colors of steamed bread were determined with a colorimeter (CM-2002, Minolta Camera, Osaka, Japan) using an 11-mm measurement aperture. Whiteness index was calculated according to Nguimbou et al. (2012). Hardness of crumb was determined with a TA-XT2 Texture Analyser (Stable Micro Systems, England) according to the method described by Ma and Baik (2016). A 28-mm thick, horizontal-cut slice of steamed bread was obtained from the center part of steamed bread with an electric knife. The slice was placed on a flat metal plate and compressed to 50% of its original thickness at a speed of 1.0 mm s–1 using a 3.6-cm diameter cylindrical acrylic probe; the compression was paused for 4 s after 50% compression, and then the probe was returned to its initial position. The force required to compress 50% of a steamed bread slice and the force after the 4 s pause with 50% compression were recorded as peak force 1 (P1) and compression force 2 (P2), respectively. Stress relaxation was calculated from the two compression forces (P1 and P2) with the following eq.: Stress relaxation=(P1–P2)/ P1×100, according to the method described by Ma and Baik (2016).

2.6. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis of the data was performed by R free software (The R Project for Statistical Computing, R version 3.4.4 from https://www.r-project.org) using Fisher’s least significant difference procedure (LSD), analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Sources of variation in the model were considered to be fixed effects. Regression equation was formulated with the optimum model excluding non-significant variations based on the highest R2 value. All measurements were performed at least in triplicate and all were averaged.

3. Results 3.1. Flour characteristics Flour characteristics and allelic variations of 11 Korean wheat cultivars were summarized in Table 1 (Appendix A for each Korean wheat cultivar), Table 2 and Fig. 2. Range of ash and damaged starch content, averages of particle size and whiteness index of flour were 0.37–0.47%, 2.8–9.0%, 54.4–85.8 μm and 85.6–89.6, and ranges of protein content, SDS sedimentation volume based on constant flour and protein weight (SDSSF and SDSSP) were 8.5–16.3%, 23.0–78.5 mL and 17.5–55.5 mL, respectively. Particle size of flour, damaged starch and protein content, and SDSSF of six Korean wheat cultivars with hard kernel texture, carrying Pina-D1b or Pinb-D1b alleles (80.2 μm, 7.0%, 12.1%, 54.7 mL, respectively), were higher than those of five Korean wheat cultivars with soft kernel texture, carrying Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a alleles (62.0 μm, 4.1%, 10.0%, 33.1 mL, respectively). Average of particle size of flour and damaged starch content of Korean wheat cultivars carrying Table 1 Flour characteristics of 11 Korean wheat cultivars Characteristics Physico-chemical properties of flour Ash (%) Average particle size (μm) Damaged starch (%) Whiteness index of flour Protein (%) SDS-sedimentation volume with flour (mL)1) SDS-sedimentation volume with protein (mL)2) Solvent retention capacity Distilled water 5% sodium carbonate 5% lactic acid 50% sucrose Dough rheology Water absorption of Mixograph (%) Mixing time of Mixograph (min) Maximum height of dough (mm) Pasting properties of starch Amylose (%) Peak viscosity (BU) Holding strength (BU) Final viscosity (BU) Breakdown (BU) Setback (BU) 1)

Korean wheat cultivars 0.41±0.03 (0.37–0.47) 71.9±11.8 (54.4–85.8) 5.7±2.1 (2.8–9.0) 87.8±1.2 (85.6–89.6) 11.1±2.1 (8.5–16.3) 44.9±17.2 (23.0–78.5) 38.2±9.7 (17.5–55.5)

59.8±5.1 (53.6–66.7) 76.7±3.8 (69.9–82.7) 112.0±17.2 (93.6–157.2) 108.2±9.4 (96.1–119.9) 60.2±2.7 (57.8–67.0) 2.9±0.9 (1.6–5.0) 12.3±3.9 (6.0–20.3) 27.4±1.0 (25.8–29.0) 101.7±27.9 (71.7–160.3) 64.3±19.2 (39.3–102.7) 224.8±47.3 (163.7–339.7) 37.4±16.2 (20.3–73.7) 160.5±34.1 (111.7–237.0)

Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test conducted on a constant flour weight (3 g). SDS sedimentation test conducted on a constant protein weight (300 mg). Data are average±standard deviation, ranges from Korean wheat cultivars described within parentheses.

2)

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Table 2 Allelic compositions of high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GSs), low molecular weight glutenin subunits (LMW-GSs), and puroindolines in 11 Korean wheat cultivars Cultivar Baekjoong Goso Hojoong Joa Jojoong Jokyung Joongmo 2008 Keumkang Suan Uri Younbaek 1) 2) 3)

HMW-GSs1) Glu-B1 f b b b f b i b b b f

Glu-A1 b b b b c a c b b c b

LMW-GSs2) Glu-A3 Glu-B3 c d d d c d d a c d c h c d c h c i d d c d

Glu-D1 f f f f f d d d f f f

Puroindolines3) Pina-D1 Pinb-D1 a a a a a a a a a b a b a b a b a b a a b a

Nomenclature according to Payne and Lawrence (1983). Nomenclature according to Gupta and Shepherd (1990). Nomenclature according to Gautier et al. (1994).

A bp 500 bp 500

1

2

3

4

Glu-A1a

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Glu-A1c Glu-A1a

Glu-B1b

Glu-B1i Glu-B1f

bp 500 Glu-D1d

Glu-D1af

B bp 500

Glu-A3d Glu-A3c

bp 1 000 500 C bp 500 bp 500

Glu-B3a

Glu-B3h Glu-B3i

Glu-B3d

PinA-D1a

PinB-D1a

PinA-D1b

PinB-D1b

Fig. 2 Agarose gel electrophoresis of PCR amplified Glu-1 (A), Glu-3 (B) and Pin-D1 (C). M, molecular size marker; Line 1–11, Korean wheat cultivars. 1, Baekjoong; 2, Goso; 3, Hojoong; 4, Joa; 5, Jojoong; 6, Jokyung; 7, Joongmo 2008; 8, Keumkang; 9, Suan; 10, Uri; 11, Younbaek.

Glu-A3c allele (77.9 and 6.6%, respectively) were higher than those of wheat cultivars with Glu-A3d allele (56.0 and 3.7%, respectively), but there was no significant difference on other loci. Average of protein content of Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-D1d allele (13.3%) was higher than

that of Korean wheat cultivars with Glu-D1f allele (10.3%). Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B1i or Glu-D1d allele showed higher average of SDSSF and SDSSP than their counterpart alleles, Glu-B1b, Glu-B1f or Glu-D1f allele. Ranges of SRC values were 53.6–66.7 in distilled water

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SRC (WSRC), 69.9–82.7 in sucrose SRC (SucSRC), 93.6–157.2 in lactic acid SRC (LASRC), and 96.1–119.9 in sodium carbonate SRC (SCSRC) (Table 1). WSRC value of Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-A3c allele (61.8) was higher than that of Korean wheat cultivars with GluA3d allele (54.6). Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-A1c allele showed higher SCSRC value (80.3) than cultivars with Glu-A1a or Glu-A1b allele (77.0 and 75.3, respectively). Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B1i allele showed higher LASRC value (157.2) than Glu-B1b and Glu-B1f allele (108.3 and 105.4, respectively). Averages of SucSRC values in Glu-A1c and Glu-A3d alleles were higher than their counterpart alleles, but there were no significant differences for SRC values between Pin-1, Glu-D1 and Glu-B3 alleles.

3.2. Dough and pasting properties Range of water absorption, mixing time and tolerance of Mixograph was 57.8–67.0%, 1.6–5.0 min and 6.0–20.3 mm, respectively (Table 1). Their averages were 60.2%, 2.9 min and 12.3 mm, respectively. Water absorption of Mixograph in Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B1i allele (67.0%) was higher than that of Korean wheat cultivars with Glu-B1b or Glu-B1f allele (59.5 and 59.6%, respectively). Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-D1d allele showed longer mixing time of Mixograph (3.8 min) than cultivars with GluD1f allele (2.5 min). Korean wheat cultivars carrying GluB3h allele showed longer mixing time (4.0 min) and higher mixing tolerance (16.3 mm) than its counterpart allele, lower than 2.8 min and 12.8 mm, respectively. Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B3h allele produced a higher maximum dough height because they also possess the GluD1d allele (Table 2). There were no significant differences in parameters of Mixograph between Pin-1, Glu-A1 and Glu-A3 alleles. In pasting properties of starch, ranges of amylose content, peak viscosity, holding strength, final viscosity, breakdown, and setback were 25.8–29.0%, 71.7–160.3 BU, 39.3–102.7 BU, 163.7–339.7 BU, 20.3–73.7 BU, and 111.7–237.0 BU, respectively (Table 1).

3.3. Steamed bread quality Differences of steam bread quality attributes of two types of steamed bread are summarized in Table 3 (Appendix B for each Korean wheat cultivar). KSSB showed higher diameter (139.8 mm) and volume (688.6 mL) than those of NSCSB (103.2 mm and 475.0 mL, respectively). NSCSB showed higher height (63.6 mm) and whiteness index of crumb (74.9) than those of KSSB (60.0 mm and 69.5, respectively). There was no significant difference in whiteness index of surface between two types of steamed bread. KSSB showed higher stress relaxation (20.3%) and lower hardness

Table 3 Differences in steamed bread quality attributes of Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) and northern-style Chinese steamed bread (NSCSB) prepared from Korean wheat cultivars Characteristics Bread properties Diameter (mm) Height (mm) Volume (mL) Whiteness index of surface Whiteness index of crumb Textures properties Stress relaxation (%) Hardness (N)

KSSB

NSCSB

139.8±6.0 a (133.6–151.0) 60.0±4.8 b (50.5–65.2) 688.6±41.6 a (612.5–762.5) 75.9±2.7 a (71.4–79.7) 69.5±2.0 b (65.2–72.2)

103.2±5.2 b (93.0–110.0) 63.6±3.5 a (58.5–69.4) 475.0±32.1 b (375.0–475.0) 76.8±2.0 a (72.7–80.1) 74.9±2.1 a (70.8–78.4)

20.3±1.5 a (18.5–22.8) 7.1±1.1 b (5.3–8.8)

17.7±1.7 b (15.5–21.8) 15.0±4.4 a (8.9–22.2)

Data are average±standard deviation, ranges from Korean wheat cultivars described within parentheses. Values followed by same letters within same characteristic are not significantly different at P<0.05.

(7.1 N) of crumb than those of NSCSB (17.7% and 15.0 N, respectively). Surface and crumb structure of two types of steamed bread, KSSB and NSCSB are shown in Fig. 3. KSSB showed a larger reduction in volume than NSCSB when it is taken out of the steamer, although KSSB had larger bread loaf volume than NSCSB due to the higher water absorption and different ingredients. KSSB also showed higher stress relaxation and softer texture of crumb and more porous of crumb structure than NSCSB because Korean consumers prefer soft texture. Jojoong and Jokyung are the most suitable cultivars for NSCSB and KSSB, respectively, because of smoothness of surface, uniform structure of crumb and high volume. Hojoong, a partial waxy wheat cultivar showed softer texture than other cultivars regardless of NSCSB or KSSB, but a lot of inappropriate bubbles found on surface of KSSB and lower height and unsuitable crumb structure in NSCSB. Joongmo 2008, a Korean wheat cultivar with high protein content was unsuitable for steamed bread because of squashed surface, unsuitable crumb structure, low bread loaf volume and harder texture of steamed bread. Correlations between flour characteristics and two types steamed bread quality are summarized in Table 4. Diameter of KSSB was correlated with mixing time, final viscosity and setback while diameter of NSCSB was correlated with SDS sedimentation volumes. Height of KSSB was correlated with average of particle size of wheat flour, damaged starch content, mixing time and mixing tolerance of Mixograph, final viscosity and setback while height of NSCSB was correlated with only protein content. Volume of KSSB was

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A

Jokyung

Hojoong

Joongmo 2008

C

B

Jojoong

Hojoong

Joongmo 2008

D

Fig. 3 Comparison of surface and crumb structure of steamed bread made from Korean wheat cultivars, Jojoong, Jokyung, Hojoong and Joongmo 2008. Top surface (A) and crumb structure (C) of Korean style steamed bread, and top surface (B) and crumb structure (D) of northern-style Chinese steamed bread.

Table 4 Correlation coefficients for two types of steamed bread quality prepared from 11 Korean wheat cultivars Korean style steamed bread2) DIA HT VOL WIS WIC SR Physico-chemical properties of flour Ash –0.08 –0.01 –0.04 –0.16 –0.46 0.48 0.57 0.71 0.59 –0.39 PSI –0.27 0.71* 0.33 0.49 0.40 –0.20 DS –0.40 0.68* WIF 0.15 –0.35 –0.38 –0.37 –0.35 0.13 0.57 –0.76** Protein 0.46 0.08 0.89*** 0.54 SDSSF 0.12 0.35 0.74** 0.77** 0.85** –0.75** 0.79** –0.33 SDSSP –0.36 0.58 0.28 0.65* Amylose –0.06 –0.07 –0.31 –0.11 –0.55 0.59 Solvent retention capacity WSRC –0.32 0.59 0.44 0.53 0.40 –0.09 SucSRC 0.41 –0.55 –0.16 –0.40 –0.29 0.11 0.59 0.58 –0.56 LASRC 0.25 0.23 0.62* SCSRC –0.44 0.34 –0.41 –0.06 –0.14 0.45 Dough rheology 0.64* –0.66* MABS 0.41 0.10 0.79** 0.53 * 0.04 0.56 0.58 –0.06 MTIME –0.52 0.65 0.72* –0.29 0.35 0.41 0.19 MTOL –0.72* Pasting properties of starch PV 0.59 –0.42 0.18 –0.31 0.09 –0.12 HS 0.44 –0.36 0.02 –0.51 –0.11 0.02 0.11 –0.47 –0.06 –0.10 FV 0.68* –0.62* BRD 0.49 –0.30 0.28 0.06 0.28 –0.23 0.14 –0.37 –0.03 –0.15 SB 0.70* –0.65* Parameter1)

HD

DIA

Northern-style Chinese steamed bread2) HT VOL WIS WIC SR –0.23 –0.44 –0.54 0.46 –0.26 –0.22 –0.27 0.03

HD

0.18 –0.15 –0.50 0.42 –0.21 0.23 0.37 –0.48 –0.68* 0.52 –0.78** 0.73* –0.68* 0.74** 0.51 –0.49

–0.05 –0.14 –0.14 0.38 0.29 0.34 0.20 –0.29 –0.61* 0.51 –0.58 0.56 –0.32 0.44 0.07 –0.24

–0.74** –0.24 –0.11 0.07 –0.03 0.11 0.52 0.27 0.44 0.42 0.31 0.11 –0.06 –0.43 0.01 0.40

0.03 –0.38 –0.41 0.49 –0.34 –0.43 –0.30 0.29

–0.25 0.36 –0.47 0.44

0.28 –0.31 0.41 –0.50

0.03 0.34 0.16 –0.17 –0.32 0.50 0.61* –0.28

–0.03 0.40 0.67* 0.26

–0.57 –0.57 –0.22

0.54 0.45 0.18

–0.42 –0.36 0.13

0.51 0.15 –0.03

0.42 –0.12 –0.15

0.46 –0.47 –0.40

–0.29 –0.12 –0.13

–0.47 0.11 0.13

–0.17 –0.04 –0.07 –0.25 –0.07

0.40 0.28 0.37 0.36 0.36

0.01 0.26 0.05 –0.29 –0.07

0.36 0.32 0.37 0.25 0.33

0.27 0.17 0.25 0.25 0.25

0.22 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.17

–0.30 –0.45 –0.25 0.01 –0.10

–0.36 –0.34 –0.40 –0.22 –0.36

0.13 –0.68* –0.45 0.34 0.29 0.16 0.60* –0.24 –0.28 0.30 –0.07 0.28

1)

PSI, average of particle size of flour; DS, damaged starch; WIF, whiteness index of flour; SDSSF, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test conducted on a constant flour weight; SDSSP, SDS sedimentation test conducted on a constant protein weight; WSRC, water solvent retention capacity (SRC); SucSRC, sucrose SRC; LASRC, lactic acid SRC; SCSRC, sodium carbonate SRC; MABS, water absorption of Mixograph; MTIME, mixing time of Mixograph; MTOL, mixing tolerance of Mixograph; PV, peak viscosity; HS, holding strength; FV, final viscosity; BRD, breakdown; SB, setback. 2) DIA, diameter; HT, height; VOL, volume; WIS, whiteness index of surface; WIC, whiteness index of crumb; SR, stress relaxation; HD, hardness. * ** , and ***, significant at P<0.05, P<0.01 and P<0.001, respectively.

positively correlated with protein content (r=0.89***), SDS sedimentation volume in flour (r=0.74**), lactic acid SRC (r=0.62*), and water absorption in Mixograph (r=0.79**). No significant correlation between volume of steamed bread and flour characteristics was found in NSCSB.

Whiteness indexes of surface and crumb were positively correlated with SDS sedimentation volumes in KSSB and were correlated with LASRC in NSCSB. Optimum water absorption of Mixograph was correlated with whiteness indexes of crumb in KSSB and ash content was correlated

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with whiteness indexes of surface in NSCSB. Stress relaxation and hardness of KSSB showed negative correlation with protein content (r=–0.76** and r=–0.68**, respectively) and SDS sedimentation volume based on flour weight (r=–0.75** and r=–0.78**, respectively). Stress relaxation was negatively correlated with optimum water absorption of Mixograph in KSSB (r=–0.66*) and WSRC in NSCSB (r=–0.68*). Hardness of KSSB was negatively correlated with SDS sedimentation volume based on protein weight (r=–0.68*), but there was no significant correlation between hardness and flour characteristics in NSCSB. Multiple regression analyses were conducted for quality attributes for KSSB and NSCSB (Table 5). Diameter, height, volume of steamed bread could be predicted by flour characteristics in KSSB, but only height of bread was available in NSCSB. However, crumb properties, stress relaxation, and hardness, and whiteness index of surface and crumb were difficult to predict with flour characteristics evaluated in this study. Mixing tolerance of Mixograph and SucSRC had strong influences on diameter and height of KSSB. Pasting properties, peak viscosity and final viscosity, also influenced diameter and height of KSSB. These parameters can predict diameter of KSSB (R2=0.70). The height of KSSB could be predicted by adding these characteristics and average of particle size of flour and WSRC (R2=0.91). However, height of NSCSB can be expected from protein content, mixing time, SDS sedimentation volume based on flour weight and SCSRC (R2=0.84). Volume of KSSB can be predicted from average of particle size of flour, protein content, LASRC, and SucSRC (R2=0.89). The effects of glutenin compositions and kernel hardness on quality of steamed bread are presented in Table 6. Variation of Glu-A1 allele had no significant influences on quality of both KSSB and NSCSB. Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B1i allele showed lower height (58.5 mm) of steamed bread than Glu-B1f allele (66.5 mm) in NSCSB. Cultivars carrying Glu-D1f allele had higher height (65.3 mm) than Glu-D1d allele (60.0 mm) in NSCSB and Glu-D1f allele produced harder texture of crumb (7.6 N) than Glu-D1d allele

(5.7 N) in KSSB. Glu-A3c allele produced higher volume (704.7 mL) and softer texture of crumb (6.7 N) than Glu-A3d allele (645.8 mL and 8.3 N, respectively) in KSSB while GluA3c allele showed higher diameter (105.3 mm) than Glu-A3d allele (97.4 mm) in NSCSB. Glu-B3i allele showed softer texture of crumb (8.9 N) than other alleles and Glu-B3a allele produced harder texture (22.2 N) than others but Glu-B3d and Glu-B3h alleles (14.7 and 15.4 N, respectively) were not different in NSCSB. Hard wheat cultivars carrying Pina-D1b or Pinb-D1b allele produced higher height (62.8 mm) and volume of steamed bread (712.5 mL), and lower stress relaxation (21.3%) and hardness of crumb (6.5 N) than soft wheat cultivars carrying Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a allele, (56.6 mm, 660.0 mL, 19.5% and 7.8 N, respectively) in KSSB, although there were no differences in these parameters according to variations of glutenin and puroindoline as kernel hardness in NSCSB.

4. Discussion 4.1. Effect of allelic composition on flour characteristics Flour characteristics of 11 Korean wheat cultivars were evaluated. The values of physico-chemical properties of the Korean wheat flour were similar to the results of previous study with Korean wheat cultivars (Kang et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2017). The different physicochemical properties of flour, particle size, damaged starch and protein content, and SDSSF according to kernel hardness as hard and soft type among Korean wheat cultivars are consistent with previous results of Korean wheat cultivars (Park et al. 2010). Variation of particle size of flour and damaged starch content of Korean wheat cultivars were determined by the effect of Glu-1, Glu-3, and Pin-D1 alleles, and glutenin and puroindolines significantly affected the variation of protein content and SDSSF (Shin et al. 2012). SDSSF is generally influenced by protein content and quality, and SDSSP is used to determine protein quality independent of protein content. Glu-B1b and Glu-D1b alleles of Chinese wheat

Table 5 Regression equations for prediction of steamed bread quality attributes of Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) and northern-style Chinese steamed bread (NSCSB) Parameter KSSB Diameter (DIA) Height (HT) Volume (VOL) NSCSB Height (HT) 1)

Equation1)

R2

Probability>F

DIA=–1.21×MTOL+0.13×PV–0.20×SucSRC+163.32 HT=0.39×PSI+0.82×MTOL–0.05×FV+0.36×SucSRC–0.15×WSRC+1.66 VOL=2.08×PSI+24.41×Protein–1.67×LASRC+1.96×SucSRC+241.91

0.70 0.91 0.89

<0.01 <0.01 <0.01

HT=0.81×SCSRC–2.40×Protein–3.62×MTIME+0.30×SDSSF+25.54

0.84

<0.01

MTOL, mixing tolerance of Mixograph; PV, peak viscosity; SucSRC, sucrose solvent retention capacity (SRC); PSI, average of particle size of flour; FV, final viscosity; WSRC, water SRC; LASRC, lactic acid SRC; SCSRC, sodium carbonate SRC; MTIME, mixing time of Mixograph; SDSSF, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test conducted on a constant flour weight.

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Table 6 The difference of two types of steamed bread quality prepared from Korean wheat cultivars representing diverse allelic variations in glutenin subunits composition and grain hardness Locus Glu-A1 a b c Glu-B1 b f i Glu-D1 d f Glu-A3 c d Glu-B3 a d h i Pin-D11) Soft Hard

Cultivar no.

Diameter (mm)

Korean style steamed bread Northern-style Chinese steamed bread Stress Stress Height Volume Hardness Diameter Height Volume Hardness Relaxation Relaxation (mm) (mL) (N) (mm) (mm) (mL) (N) (%) (%)

1 7 3

133.6 a 140.5 a 140.3 a

65.1 a 58.7 a 61.4 a

687.5 a 685.7 a 695.8 a

19.7 a 20.4 a 20.3 a

5.3 a 7.4 a 7.1 a

107.3 a 102.1 a 104.3 a

60.0 a 63.8 a 65.2 a

450.0 a 441.1 a 470.8 a

18.1 a 18.2 a 16.5 a

19.3 a 15.1 a 13.4 a

7 3 1

140.4 a 136.8 a 145.2 a

58.3 a 63.2 a 62.1 a

680.4 a 683.3 a 762.5 a

20.2 a 21.0 a 18.7 a

7.2 a 7.5 a 5.4 a

103.1 a 101.6 a 108.1 a

63.5 ab 66.5 a 58.5 b

448.2 a 445.8 a 475.0 a

18.2 a 16.8 a 17.1 a

15.4 a 14.4 a 14.0 a

3 8

139.3 a 140.0 a

63.3 a 58.8 a

720.8 a 676.6 a

19.0 a 20.8 a

5.7 b 7.6 a

107.6 a 101.5 a

60.0 b 65.3 a

466.7 a 443.8 a

17.8 a 17.7 a

15.0 a 15.0 a

8 3

139.9 a 139.7 a

61.1 a 57.0 a

704.7 a 645.8 b

19.9 a 21.5 a

6.7 b 8.3 a

105.3 a 97.4 b

63.4 a 65.1 a

460.9 a 420.8 a

17.2 a 19.3 a

13.5 a 19.1 a

1 7 2 1

149.0 a 139.5 a 136.4 a 139.5 a

51.9 a 60.2 a 63.9 a 58.9 a

687.5 a 680.4 a 700.0 a 725.0 a

20.8 a 20.7 a 19.1 a 19.6 a

7.6 a 7.3 a 5.9 a 7.4 a

96.9 a 102.7 a 107.4 a 104.9 a

60.4 a 65.1 a 60.7 a 64.5 a

425.0 a 446.4 a 462.5 a 475.0 a

19.2 a 17.6 a 18.1 a 16.4 a

22.2 a 14.7 ab 15.4 ab 8.9 b

5 6

141.0 a 138.8 a

56.6 b 62.8 a

660.0 b 712.5 a

21.3 a 19.5 b

7.8 a 6.5 b

100.7 a 105.2 a

64.5 a 63.3 a

432.5 a 464.6 a

18.3 a 17.3 a

16.3 a 13.9 a

1)

Soft means wheat cultivars carrying Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a, hard means wheat cultivars carrying Pina-D1b or Pinb-D1b. Means followed by different letters are significantly different within each allelic variation group at P<0.05.

were associated with a higher SDSSF than other alleles at Glu-B1 and D1 (He et al. 2005; Liu et al. 2005). In this study, Glu-B1i or -D1d affected SDSSF and SDSSP more than Glu-B1b, -B1f, or -D1f allele. The SRC test is used to predict the functional contribution of each individual flour component, in which SRC test conducted in 5% lactic acid (LASRC) is for glutenin characteristics, SRC conducted with 5% sodium carbonate (SCSRC) is for damaged starch content, SRC conducted with 50% sucrose solutions (SucSRC) is for arabinoxylan content and SRC conducted with distilled water (WSRC) is related to water retention capacity (Kweon et al. 2011). The results of SRC test of 11 Korean wheat cultivars were similar to those of previous report (Kang et al. 2014). It was identified that Glu-A3 alleles affect WSRC, Glu-A1 alleles affect SCSRC, and Glu-B1 alleles affect LASRC in this study. Glu-1 allelic variations were only related to LASRC value and other SRC values were not in deletion lines of Chinese wheat cultivar background (Zhang et al. 2018). Chinese wheat germplasms carrying Glu-A3b and Glu-A3f alleles showed higher LASRC and SucSRC values than other Glu-A3 alleles (Li et al. 2015). SRC values increased with increasing protein content and wet gluten content, and also were positively correlated with kernel hardness in U.S.

hard wheat, except for SucSRC value (Hammed et al. 2015).

4.2. Effect of allelic composition on dough and pasting properties The evaluated values of dough and pasting properties of Korean wheat cultivars were consistent with previous results of Korean wheat cultivars which showed higher water absorption, shorter mixing time and lower mixing tolerance compared to imported and commercial wheat flours with similar protein content (Park et al. 2006; Cho et al. 2018). It was identified that Glu-B1 alleles affect the variation of water absorption, Glu-D1 alleles affect the variation of mixing time, and Glu-B1 alleles affect the variation of mixing time and mixing tolerance in this study. Glutenin compositions, except for Glu-A1 and Glu-D3 alleles, mainly explained the variation in optimum water absorption and mixing time of Mixograph in our previous report (Shin et al. 2012). Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-D1d and Glu-B3h alleles exhibited a longer mixing time and higher water absorption than their counterpart alleles (Shin et al. 2012). Our results are consistent with the previous results. Glu-A1a/b, Glu-B1b/i and Glu-D1d alleles have stronger influences on gluten strength than other alleles at Glu-1 loci

Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663

(Shewry et al. 1992). Glu-D1 allele accounts for mixing properties in Chinese bread wheat genotypes, and Glu-D1d induces a longer mixing time than Glu-D1a (Liu et al. 2005). Chinese and CIMMYT wheat genotypes carrying Glu-B3d also exhibited a longer mixing time than those carrying other alleles (He et al. 2005; Liu et al. 2005). It was identified that six of seven Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B3d allele also carried Glu-D1f allele, and they have a shorter mixing time than wheat cultivars carrying Glu-D1d allele in this study. Unique mixing properties of Korean wheat cultivars could be influenced by the narrow genetic background and high frequency of specific glutenin compositions, which especially are related to weak gluten strength, such as GluA1c, Glu-D1f, Glu-A3c and Glu-B1h alleles (Park et al. 2006; Shin et al. 2012; Cho et al. 2018). Protein characteristics and the proportion of gluten in Korean wheat cultivars are between those of Australian standard white and hard wheats (Cho et al. 2018). In pasting properties of starch, the measured values in this study were similar to the results of previous studies with Korean wheat cultivars, and there was no difference in Korean wheats (Kang et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2017). Hojoong showed lower amylose content and higher viscosity than other Korean wheat cultivars due to the Wx-B1b allele (Kim et al. 2017). Partial waxy wheat reduces amylose content and exhibits higher peak viscosity than wild-type at the waxy (Wx) protein, which is known as granule-bound starch synthase I (GBSS I; EC 2.4.1.21) controlling amylose content (Graybosch et al. 2003). Reduced amylose content and higher viscosity generally improve the texture quality of noodles and shelf-life of bread during storage (Graybosch et al. 2003).

4.3. Relation between flour characteristics and quality of steamed bread The differences of diameter, volume, height, whiteness index of crumb, and stress relaxation according to steamed bread making styles seem to be due to the differences in two types of steamed bread preferred by each country and the resulting differences in ingredients. Higher optimum water absorption and additive ingredients, such as shortening and baking powder are required for making KSSB compared to NSCSB because of the preference for soft and less sticky texture in Korea (Kim et al. 2001). Quality attributes of steamed bread was influenced by procedure for steamed bread making (Lin et al. 1990). In correlation between flour characteristics and quality of steamed bread, the correlation showed difference according to KSSB and NSCSB. Lin et al. (1990) and Huang et al. (1996) reported that ash content was correlated with whiteness index of surface in NSCSB. This correlation

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showed the same tendency to the correlation in this study. However, KSSB showed positive correlation between optimum water absorption of Mixograph and whiteness index of crumb. NSCSB showed negative correlation between stress relaxation and WSRC, which was also found in NSCSB made from whole wheat flour (Wu et al. 2012), while KSSB showed negative correlation between stress relaxation and water absorption in Mixograph. The difference of correlations between two different styles of steamed bread, KSSB and NSCSB was because of different procedure for making steamed bread. Furthermore, no relationship in this study may be due to the hardness of Korean wheat cultivars, of which five cultivars showed soft kernel texture, carrying Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a, and six cultivars had hard kernel texture, carrying Pina-D1b or PinbD1b (Table 2). Addo et al. (1991) reported that volume of steamed bread is positively correlated with protein content in soft type wheat, but no correlation is found in hard type wheat. Protein content and quality have influence on volume of NSCSB made from Chinese wheat cultivars and U.S. soft wheat (He et al. 2003; Ma and Baik 2016).

4.4. Quality attributes of steamed bread Glutenin and puroindolines compositions could be closely related to quality of NSCSB, although there was no report on the effect of these genetic compositions on KSSB. Glu-1 alleles could account for about 62% of quality of NSCSB prepared from Chinese and Canadian wheat cultivars (Lukow et al. 1990). Wheats carrying Glu-D1d allele might be associated with better NSCSB quality than wheats with Glu-D1a allele (Zhu et al. 2001). Wheat line with Glu-A1a, Glu-B1c, Glu-D1a, Glu-A3e, Glu-B3b and Glu-D3c had the highest total score of NSCSB in 25 near-isogenic lines with different Glu-1 and Glu-3 alleles (Jin et al. 2013). Hard wheat deletions at Glu-B1y and/or Glu-D1y loci produce good dough properties for NSCSB (Zhang et al. 2014). GluA1a or b, Glu-B1al and Glu-D1d alleles might be desirable for improving dough strength and quality of NSCSB from soft red winter wheats (Ma and Baik 2016). The relationship between genetic variations and steamed bread quality could be useful to improve quality of both NSCSB and KSSB, although limited wheat cultivars were evaluated in this study.

5. Conclusion This study was performed to identify relationship between physicochemical characteristics and quality attributes of steamed bread. Quality attributes of two different styles of steamed bread, Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) and northern-style Chinese steamed bread (NSCSB) were evaluated based on flour characteristics of Korean wheat

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cultivars with different genetic compositions. KSSB and NSCSB showed different quality attributes of steamed bread. KSSB produced higher bread volume and softer crumb texture than NSCSB because of Korean consumers’ preference. This difference may be due to the ingredient and processing of steamed bread based on the differences in consumer preferences between the two countries. Genetic variation of glutenin and kernel texture could be used to improve quality of steamed bread in wheat breeding program, even though flour characteristics including protein content and quality parameters and dough properties, are important factors in steamed bread quality. Also, it was identified that there are several factors influenced quality attributes of steamed bread based on the result of regression analysis. Furthermore, the different manufacturing process caused different regression equations for KSSB and NSCSB, so factors related to quality attributes in different making styles of two steamed bread were different. For the reason, it is important to evaluate quality attributes of steamed bread with more wheat genetic resources for wheat breeding program.

Acknowledgements This work was carried out with the support of Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science & Technology Development (PJ01246404), Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea. Appendices associated with this paper can be available on http://www.ChinaAgriSci.com/V2/En/appendix.htm

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