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Reliability of nuclear-power-station protective systems
Microelectron. Reliab., Vol. 23, No. 2. pp. 395-.a06, 1983.
0026-2714/83/020395 12503.00/0 PergamonPressLtd.
Printedin Great Britain.
WORLD ABSTRACTS ON MICROELECTRONICS AND RELIABILITY The abstracts below are given in reasonable detail where necessary so that an appreciation can be made of the coverage of the article. They are probably the most comprehensive detailed abstracts published in these two fields and in general are all of articles published within the last 12 months. They are classified into the following sections. Subjects
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Reliability General. Reliability of Components, Tubes, Transistors and ICs. Circuit and Systems Reliability, Maintenance and Redundancy. Microelectronics General. Microelectronics Design and Construction. Microelectronics--Components, Systems and Equipments. Semiconductor Integrated Circuits, Devices and Materials. Thick- and Thin-Film Components, Hybrid Circuits and Materials. Electron, Ion and Laser Beams.
1. R E L I A B I L I T Y - - G E N E R A L
Greed versus fear--the search for reliability. P. D. T. O'CONNOR. Electronics Power, 501 (July/August 1982). The elusive quality of reliability has become even more important for electrical and electronics products in the West. ATE system upgrades production efficiency and accuracy. DALE HARPSTER and DEAN AMANN. Microwave Syst. News, 142 (June 1982). Improved accuracy, enhanced manufacturing efficiency and lowered production costs are just a few of the rewards for automating testing procedures.
2. R E L I A B I L I T Y
OF COMPONENTS,
Package reliability as affected by materials and processes. DAVID NIXEN. Semiconductor Int., 175 (April 1982). The semiconductor industry is faced with the problem of how to increase the level of reliability of semiconductor parts being used in electronic systems which have had their lifetimes extended through new and better system designs. Reliability implications of destructive gold wire bond pull and ball bond shear testing. J. W. STAFFORD. Semiconductor Int., 83 (May 1982). To produce highly reliable gold ball-wedge wire bonds, destructive pull testing of the wire bonds themselves may not be adequate. A combination of destructive wire pull and ball bond shear testing is suggested as yielding the most reliable type of wire bond.
3. C I R C U I T
AND
SYSTEMS
RELIABILITY,
Circuit module implements practical self-testing. PATRICK P. FASANG. Electronics, 164 (19 May 1982). Simple circuitry could perform signature analysis automatically on the boards in a system. An engineer's view of the assurance and control of software quality. A. A. KAPOS1 and R. N. HOLDEN. Electronics Power, 508 (July/August 1982). There is widespread recognition that the general quality of software is poor. As hardware costs continue to fall, software quality is becoming a crucial factor in determining the efficiency of industries engaged in the production of computer-based systems. 395
Reliability of integrated circuits--the Eurocon perspective. LEWIS HOLMES. Electronics Power, 515 (July/August 1982). The reliability of integrated circuits (ICs) has remained high through many generations of device technology. Although unreliable components can be bought, and must be guarded against, some types of ICs may have mean times to failure of thousands of years. An overview of current thinking on integrated-circuit reliability was provided at the recent Eurocon conference in Copenhagen.
TUBES,
TRANSISTORS
AND
ICs
Applications of high-speed data acquisition for semiconductor device yield analysis. Part II. JOHN M. CHARLESand MIKKEL W. LANTZ. Solid St. Technol., 247 (April 1982). An in-line process monitoring system has been established in a highvolume manufacturing environment which has defined a data base that can be accessed for retrieval and display of data using histograms and scatter plots. Applications of high-speed data acquisition have been expanded to include wafer mapping which illustrates device and process parameters and their relationship to die yield. These relationships can be determined with a 95 % confidence level.
MAINTENANCE
AND
REDUNDANCY
Electrostatic discharge failure mechanisms and models. BURTON A. UNGER. Semiconductor Int., 197 (April 1982). Three electrostatic discharge failure models, the human body model, the charged device model, and the field induced model, are compared in terms of damage threshold, discharge parameters, failure mechanisms and device testing. Reliability of nuclear-power-station protective systems. M. HUMPHREYS. Electronics Power, 511 (July/August 1982). The reliability and hence safety of nuclear-power-station control equipment is a controversial issue. This article examines how
396
World Abstracts on Microelectronics and Reliability
reliability is evaluated, and some of the methods employed to increase it.
hazard rates. Two parameter-estimating procedures arc presented.
Burn-in: a new emphasis. PIETER S. BURGGRAAF. Semiconductor Int., 41 (May 1982). While many semiconductor manufacturers have been doing burn-in on ICs for the military, aerospace and other selected areas, they are now reexamining the capabilities of burn-in and finding it necessary for other circuits including all LSI and VLSI. Some users are content with static or dynamic burn-in, but others see tremendous benefits in monitored burn-in, and combinations of burn-in and functional test. These benefits include more productive test time, more reliable products and a better company reputation.
General formulas for calculating the steady-state frequency of system failure. DING-HUA SHI. IEEE Trans. Reliah. R-30 (5), 444 (198l). This paper develops two general formulas for directly converting the expression for steady-state availability or unavailability into frequency of system failure. Using the AggarwaI-Misra-Gupta fast algorithm, formulas for calculating the availability and failure-frequency of a ~-coherent system are derived.
Practical reliability methods for 11 kV and LV distribution systems. A. G. FISHER. Electronics Power, 504 (July/August 1982). Modern computing methods are helping distributionsystem-design engineers to better assess the reliability implications of network designs. This article explains some of the methods used, and the practical difficulties of applying reliability theory. Reliability simulation of hierarchic structures--comparison of the results of two different state models. H. B. BEMMANNand R. SPANNAUS. Nachrichtentechnik Elektronik 32 (H6), 254 (1982) (in German). The reliability data of hierarchic structure were calculated by simulation. As basis were used for one thing the stochastic model with a finite number of states and for another thing a model on the basis of state graphs. The efficiency of the two models is compared in tabular form. The question of the failure lapping in hierarchic structures is discussed. Discussion of "optimization by Integer programming of constrained reliability problems with several modes of failure". YUJI NAKAGAWAand YOSHIO HATTORI. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 424 (1981). Tillman's 1969 treatment for components with several modes of failure and series (or parallel) redundancy using the components is discussed. This note claims that his treatment is wrong. Author replies and further discussion are provided. Failure analysis in brief. JIM EACHUS. Semiconductor Int., 103 (January 1982). This report serves as a s u m m a r y of basic failure rate, activation energy and median life calculation techniques. While computational aids are used, emphasis is placed on understanding the equations and theory behind the calculations. RESIN, a desktop-computer program for finding cut-sets. D. MAGEE and A. REFSUM. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 407 (1981 ). This paper describes an efficient algorithm for finding the minimal cut-sets for the output nodes of any network. The advantages over previously published algorithms are that it can be used on a desktop computer, and it requires simpler input data preparation hence providing for rapid testing of the effect of network changes. System-reliability evaluation techniques for complex/large systems--a review. C. L. HWANG, FRANK A. T1LLMAN and M. H. LEE. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 416 (1981). This paper is a review of literature related to system reliability evaluation techniques for small to large complex systems. The literature is classified according to system models and evaluation techniques. The technique(s) we recommend for each system model are indicated. Life distributions. BALBIR S. DHILLON. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 457 (198l). This paper presents expressions for two distributions. The first distribution can represent increasing, decreasing, and bathtub hazard rates whereas the second distribution can only represent increasing and decreasing
R & M design--problem definition. ANTONIN WILD. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 309 (1982). Many deficiencies in R & M design are caused by a lack of proper definition of the problems to be solved. This paper indicates that the reason why problems are not properly defined can often be traced to a lack of communication between specialists involved in design. It shows how easily accessible computer tools for fault tree handling and M T B F prediction can help in defining the problems and are more effective for this task than for numerical assessments for which their use is better known.
Reliability growth, screened vs nonscreened computers. Et)wp, W. DERENTHAL. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 74 (1982). This paper (A) addresses the reliability improvement factor identified when digital computers subjected to a specific set of environmental screens were compared to virtually identical computers shipped without the screens, (B) answers the question of whether this improvement factor is constant throughout the life of the equipment, and (C) discusses the effect on reliability of extensive hardware modification made on hardware that had initially experienced signiticant reliability growth. Aerospace mechanical reliability practise. OTTO H. VEDOR. IEEE Proc. Reliab, 56 (1982). The impact of mechanical reliability practise on the Saturn/Apollo launch program is discussed with emphasis on the interrelationship of analysts and designers with management. The utility of ground testing and use of conservative design philosoph~ contributed to achieved reliability. Achieving maintainability by random fault injection. MtGU~L A. RAMIREZ. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 291 (1982). This paper describes a random fault injection testing technique that, when implemented, will significantly improve the probability of meeting maintainability requirements in the field. All too often, maintainability requirements are not met in the field because of inadequate validation and verification that can be traced directly to the lack of a testability growth program and the structured approach to qualification testing. The proposed random fault injection technique provides a testability growth program that concentrates on fault detection/isolation effectiveness and Mean-Time-To-Repair (MTTR). Examples of random fault injection data h)r Builtln-Test (BIT) and diagnostic software are provided to show the development/improvement of BIT capability and the maturation of diagnostic software. Identification of factors which cause software failure. Gt~og¢iE RZEVSKI. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 157 (1982). The paper describes some results of extensive research into the causes of software reliability and methods for software reliability improvement. A large number of factors which affect the occurrence of h u m a n errors during software development and maintenance have been identified. Since a considerable number of these factors are related to characteristics of software projects, one of the conclusions of the paper is that, in order to achieve software reliability through fault avoidance, there is a need for a systematic and comprehensive project management methodology which would provide means of controlling these factors.
0026-2714/83/020395 12503.00/0 PergamonPressLtd.
Printedin Great Britain.
WORLD ABSTRACTS ON MICROELECTRONICS AND RELIABILITY The abstracts below are given in reasonable detail where necessary so that an appreciation can be made of the coverage of the article. They are probably the most comprehensive detailed abstracts published in these two fields and in general are all of articles published within the last 12 months. They are classified into the following sections. Subjects
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Reliability General. Reliability of Components, Tubes, Transistors and ICs. Circuit and Systems Reliability, Maintenance and Redundancy. Microelectronics General. Microelectronics Design and Construction. Microelectronics--Components, Systems and Equipments. Semiconductor Integrated Circuits, Devices and Materials. Thick- and Thin-Film Components, Hybrid Circuits and Materials. Electron, Ion and Laser Beams.
1. R E L I A B I L I T Y - - G E N E R A L
Greed versus fear--the search for reliability. P. D. T. O'CONNOR. Electronics Power, 501 (July/August 1982). The elusive quality of reliability has become even more important for electrical and electronics products in the West. ATE system upgrades production efficiency and accuracy. DALE HARPSTER and DEAN AMANN. Microwave Syst. News, 142 (June 1982). Improved accuracy, enhanced manufacturing efficiency and lowered production costs are just a few of the rewards for automating testing procedures.
2. R E L I A B I L I T Y
OF COMPONENTS,
Package reliability as affected by materials and processes. DAVID NIXEN. Semiconductor Int., 175 (April 1982). The semiconductor industry is faced with the problem of how to increase the level of reliability of semiconductor parts being used in electronic systems which have had their lifetimes extended through new and better system designs. Reliability implications of destructive gold wire bond pull and ball bond shear testing. J. W. STAFFORD. Semiconductor Int., 83 (May 1982). To produce highly reliable gold ball-wedge wire bonds, destructive pull testing of the wire bonds themselves may not be adequate. A combination of destructive wire pull and ball bond shear testing is suggested as yielding the most reliable type of wire bond.
3. C I R C U I T
AND
SYSTEMS
RELIABILITY,
Circuit module implements practical self-testing. PATRICK P. FASANG. Electronics, 164 (19 May 1982). Simple circuitry could perform signature analysis automatically on the boards in a system. An engineer's view of the assurance and control of software quality. A. A. KAPOS1 and R. N. HOLDEN. Electronics Power, 508 (July/August 1982). There is widespread recognition that the general quality of software is poor. As hardware costs continue to fall, software quality is becoming a crucial factor in determining the efficiency of industries engaged in the production of computer-based systems. 395
Reliability of integrated circuits--the Eurocon perspective. LEWIS HOLMES. Electronics Power, 515 (July/August 1982). The reliability of integrated circuits (ICs) has remained high through many generations of device technology. Although unreliable components can be bought, and must be guarded against, some types of ICs may have mean times to failure of thousands of years. An overview of current thinking on integrated-circuit reliability was provided at the recent Eurocon conference in Copenhagen.
TUBES,
TRANSISTORS
AND
ICs
Applications of high-speed data acquisition for semiconductor device yield analysis. Part II. JOHN M. CHARLESand MIKKEL W. LANTZ. Solid St. Technol., 247 (April 1982). An in-line process monitoring system has been established in a highvolume manufacturing environment which has defined a data base that can be accessed for retrieval and display of data using histograms and scatter plots. Applications of high-speed data acquisition have been expanded to include wafer mapping which illustrates device and process parameters and their relationship to die yield. These relationships can be determined with a 95 % confidence level.
MAINTENANCE
AND
REDUNDANCY
Electrostatic discharge failure mechanisms and models. BURTON A. UNGER. Semiconductor Int., 197 (April 1982). Three electrostatic discharge failure models, the human body model, the charged device model, and the field induced model, are compared in terms of damage threshold, discharge parameters, failure mechanisms and device testing. Reliability of nuclear-power-station protective systems. M. HUMPHREYS. Electronics Power, 511 (July/August 1982). The reliability and hence safety of nuclear-power-station control equipment is a controversial issue. This article examines how
396
World Abstracts on Microelectronics and Reliability
reliability is evaluated, and some of the methods employed to increase it.
hazard rates. Two parameter-estimating procedures arc presented.
Burn-in: a new emphasis. PIETER S. BURGGRAAF. Semiconductor Int., 41 (May 1982). While many semiconductor manufacturers have been doing burn-in on ICs for the military, aerospace and other selected areas, they are now reexamining the capabilities of burn-in and finding it necessary for other circuits including all LSI and VLSI. Some users are content with static or dynamic burn-in, but others see tremendous benefits in monitored burn-in, and combinations of burn-in and functional test. These benefits include more productive test time, more reliable products and a better company reputation.
General formulas for calculating the steady-state frequency of system failure. DING-HUA SHI. IEEE Trans. Reliah. R-30 (5), 444 (198l). This paper develops two general formulas for directly converting the expression for steady-state availability or unavailability into frequency of system failure. Using the AggarwaI-Misra-Gupta fast algorithm, formulas for calculating the availability and failure-frequency of a ~-coherent system are derived.
Practical reliability methods for 11 kV and LV distribution systems. A. G. FISHER. Electronics Power, 504 (July/August 1982). Modern computing methods are helping distributionsystem-design engineers to better assess the reliability implications of network designs. This article explains some of the methods used, and the practical difficulties of applying reliability theory. Reliability simulation of hierarchic structures--comparison of the results of two different state models. H. B. BEMMANNand R. SPANNAUS. Nachrichtentechnik Elektronik 32 (H6), 254 (1982) (in German). The reliability data of hierarchic structure were calculated by simulation. As basis were used for one thing the stochastic model with a finite number of states and for another thing a model on the basis of state graphs. The efficiency of the two models is compared in tabular form. The question of the failure lapping in hierarchic structures is discussed. Discussion of "optimization by Integer programming of constrained reliability problems with several modes of failure". YUJI NAKAGAWAand YOSHIO HATTORI. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 424 (1981). Tillman's 1969 treatment for components with several modes of failure and series (or parallel) redundancy using the components is discussed. This note claims that his treatment is wrong. Author replies and further discussion are provided. Failure analysis in brief. JIM EACHUS. Semiconductor Int., 103 (January 1982). This report serves as a s u m m a r y of basic failure rate, activation energy and median life calculation techniques. While computational aids are used, emphasis is placed on understanding the equations and theory behind the calculations. RESIN, a desktop-computer program for finding cut-sets. D. MAGEE and A. REFSUM. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 407 (1981 ). This paper describes an efficient algorithm for finding the minimal cut-sets for the output nodes of any network. The advantages over previously published algorithms are that it can be used on a desktop computer, and it requires simpler input data preparation hence providing for rapid testing of the effect of network changes. System-reliability evaluation techniques for complex/large systems--a review. C. L. HWANG, FRANK A. T1LLMAN and M. H. LEE. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 416 (1981). This paper is a review of literature related to system reliability evaluation techniques for small to large complex systems. The literature is classified according to system models and evaluation techniques. The technique(s) we recommend for each system model are indicated. Life distributions. BALBIR S. DHILLON. IEEE Trans. Reliab. R-30 (5), 457 (198l). This paper presents expressions for two distributions. The first distribution can represent increasing, decreasing, and bathtub hazard rates whereas the second distribution can only represent increasing and decreasing
R & M design--problem definition. ANTONIN WILD. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 309 (1982). Many deficiencies in R & M design are caused by a lack of proper definition of the problems to be solved. This paper indicates that the reason why problems are not properly defined can often be traced to a lack of communication between specialists involved in design. It shows how easily accessible computer tools for fault tree handling and M T B F prediction can help in defining the problems and are more effective for this task than for numerical assessments for which their use is better known.
Reliability growth, screened vs nonscreened computers. Et)wp, W. DERENTHAL. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 74 (1982). This paper (A) addresses the reliability improvement factor identified when digital computers subjected to a specific set of environmental screens were compared to virtually identical computers shipped without the screens, (B) answers the question of whether this improvement factor is constant throughout the life of the equipment, and (C) discusses the effect on reliability of extensive hardware modification made on hardware that had initially experienced signiticant reliability growth. Aerospace mechanical reliability practise. OTTO H. VEDOR. IEEE Proc. Reliab, 56 (1982). The impact of mechanical reliability practise on the Saturn/Apollo launch program is discussed with emphasis on the interrelationship of analysts and designers with management. The utility of ground testing and use of conservative design philosoph~ contributed to achieved reliability. Achieving maintainability by random fault injection. MtGU~L A. RAMIREZ. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 291 (1982). This paper describes a random fault injection testing technique that, when implemented, will significantly improve the probability of meeting maintainability requirements in the field. All too often, maintainability requirements are not met in the field because of inadequate validation and verification that can be traced directly to the lack of a testability growth program and the structured approach to qualification testing. The proposed random fault injection technique provides a testability growth program that concentrates on fault detection/isolation effectiveness and Mean-Time-To-Repair (MTTR). Examples of random fault injection data h)r Builtln-Test (BIT) and diagnostic software are provided to show the development/improvement of BIT capability and the maturation of diagnostic software. Identification of factors which cause software failure. Gt~og¢iE RZEVSKI. IEEE Proc. Reliab., 157 (1982). The paper describes some results of extensive research into the causes of software reliability and methods for software reliability improvement. A large number of factors which affect the occurrence of h u m a n errors during software development and maintenance have been identified. Since a considerable number of these factors are related to characteristics of software projects, one of the conclusions of the paper is that, in order to achieve software reliability through fault avoidance, there is a need for a systematic and comprehensive project management methodology which would provide means of controlling these factors.